eChapters

2.1. Types of plant diseases

2.1.1. Types of infection

1. Localized diseases

Garden

Garden is a place where vegetables, fruits and ornamental plants are grown mainly for recreation. The garden incorporates both natural and man-made materials.

Types of garden

The major garden types which shall be discussed are: English garden, Mughal garden, Persian garden, Italian garden, French garden, Japanese garden etc. Out of these the Mughal, Persian, Italian and French styles fall in the category of formal gardens, whereas the English and Japanese gardens are classified in the informal style of gardening.

5.1. Types of farming

Arable: Crops.

Pastoral: Animals.

Mixed: Crops and animals.

Subsistence: Grown just for the farmer and his family

Commercial: Grown to sell.

Intensive: High inputs of labour or capital usually small.

Extensive: Low inputs of labour or capital.

Sedentary: Permanently in one place.

Nomadic: The farmers move around to find new areas to farm.

Classification of the farming systems based on following criteria

Available natural resources, include water, land, grazing areas and forest; climate especially altitude; landscape including slope; farm size, tenure and organization.

Dominant pattern of farm activities and household livelihoods, include field crops, livestock, trees, aquaculture, hunting and gathering, processing and off-farm activities.

The machine parts, which have relative motion, rub against each other. The rubbing surfaces are never perfectly smooth, even when they are highly polished. If they are observed under a microscope, one sees small depressions and elevations which get interlocked when the machine parts are under pressure, and give rise to a resisting force called frictional force. Due to friction, the parts get worn out and become useless. Friction produces heat, which, in this case, represents loss of work. To reduce this wear and loss of power caused by friction, certain foreign substances are introduced between the rubbing surfaces which keep them apart. These substances are called lubricants; and lubrication is the science of reducing friction by the application of a suitable substance between the rubbing surfaces of bodies having relative motion.

Introduction

Advertising plays a crucial role in shaping consumer behavior and brand perception. It serves as a bridge between businesses and potential customers by delivering persuasive messages through various channels. In a rapidly evolving global economy, advertising has taken multiple forms, catering to diverse audiences across different cultural and geographical landscapes. This chapter explores the major types of advertising with a comparative view of global and Indian perspectives, supported by examples and references.

1. Print Advertising: Print advertising has been one of the oldest and most reliable forms of advertising, traditionally appearing in newspapers, magazines, brochures, and pamphlets. Despite the rise of digital media, print advertising continues to thrive in several developed economies where niche magazines and local newspapers still have a dedicated readership.

Example: The “Got Milk?” campaign in the USA effectively used magazine and newspaper ads to promote dairy consumption

In India, print advertising remains relevant due to the high circulation of regional newspapers and magazines. Many companies prefer print media to reach rural and semi-urban populations where digital penetration is still evolving. Example: Amul’s witty and satirical print

Introduction
Advertising plays a crucial role in shaping consumer behavior and brand perception. It serves as a bridge between businesses and potential customersby delivering persuasive messages through various channels. In a rapidly evolving global economy, advertising has taken multiple forms, catering to diverse audiences across different cultural and geographical landscapes. This chapter explores the major types of advertising with a comparative view of global and Indian perspectives, supported by examples and references.
1. Print Advertising: Print advertising has been one of the oldest and most reliable forms of advertising, traditionally appearing in newspapers, magazines, brochures, and pamphlets. Despite the rise of digital media, print advertising continues to thrive in several developed economies where niche magazines and local newspapers still have a dedicated readership.
Example: The “Got Milk?” campaign in the USA effectively used magazine and newspaper ads to promote dairy consumption.
In India, print advertising remains relevant due to the high circulation of regional newspapers and magazines. Many companies prefer print media to reach rural and semi-urban populations where digital penetration is still evolving.
Example: Amul’s witty and satirical print advertisements have been a hallmark of Indian advertising.

Introduction
Advertising plays a crucial role in shaping consumer behavior and brand perception. It serves as a bridge between businesses and potential customers by delivering persuasive messages through various channels. In a rapidly evolving global economy, advertising has taken multiple forms, catering to diverse audiences across different cultural and geographical landscapes. This chapter explores the major types of advertising with a comparative view of global and Indian perspectives, supported by examples and references.
1. Print Advertising: Print advertising has been one of the oldest and most reliable forms of advertising, traditionally appearing in newspapers, magazines, brochures, and pamphlets. Despite the rise of digital media, print advertising continues to thrive in several developed economies where niche magazines and local newspapers still have a dedicated readership.
Example: The “Got Milk?” campaign in the USA effectively used magazine and newspaper ads to promote dairy consumption. In India, print advertising remains relevant due to the high circulation of regional newspapers and magazines. Many companies prefer print media to reach rural and semi-urban populations where digital penetration is still evolving.
Example: Amul’s witty and satirical print advertisements have been a hallmark of Indian advertising.
2. Broadcast Advertising (Television & Radio): Television advertising has been a dominant force, particularly for consumer goods and lifestyle products. With advancements in technology, ad placements on streaming services like Netflix and Hulu have become popular.
Example: Coca-Cola’s global campaigns, including the “Share a Coke” initiative, were widely broadcasted through TV commercials. Radio advertising, though declining in some markets, still holds significance, especially for local businesses.

Aquaria, commonly known as fish tanks, are mainly categorized by the type of water they use—freshwater, brackish, or marine—and the kind of habitat they aim to recreate. They may also be classified by size, function, or the species they are intended for. Generally, aquaria fall into categories based on water composition, user intent, and maintenance complexity.
Freshwater aquaria are the most widely kept due to their simplicity and suitability for beginners. These tanks typically house species like guppies, mollies, and goldfish. Brackish water aquaria contain water with intermediate salinity, ideal for species such as archerfish and scats, requiring specific care conditions. Marine aquaria, designed for saltwater organisms like clownfish and coral, demand precise salinity levels and advanced filtration systems, making them more challenging to maintain.
By purpose, aquaria include community tanks, which accommodate multiple compatible species, and species-specific tanks, dedicated to observing the behavior and breeding patterns of a single species. Breeding tanks are specialized setups designed for reproduction and fry care, ensuring optimal water quality and feeding conditions. Planted aquaria focus on cultivating live aquatic plants alongside fish, combining aesthetic appeal with ecological stability.
Additionally, commercial aquaria are typically large-scale setups used in public displays, pet trade, or scientific studies. In contrast, domestic aquaria are maintained at home for personal recreation or hobbyist-level breeding activities.

Types of Bakery Products

Baked goods are produced from either doughs or batters which are a mixture of flour and water made by mixing, beating, kneading or folding. The processing method depends on the ingredients being used and the product being made. Bread is either leavened or unleavened. Leavened bread is made from a mixture of flour, yeast, salt and water. Unleavened bread does not contain yeast and therefore does not rise. It is flat bread that is quicker to make than yeast-bread.

Biological control is defined broadly as the “use of natural or modified organisms, genes, or gene products” to reduce the effects of pests and diseases. The many approaches to biological control can be categorized conventionally into regulation of the pest population (the classical approach); exclusionary systems of protection (a living barrier of microorganisms on the plant or animal that deters infection or pest attack) and systems of self-defense (resistance and immunization) (Anchal Sharma et al., 2013). The agents of biological control include the pest- or disease-agent itself (sterile males or a virulent strain of pathogens), antagonists or natural enemies, or the plant or animal managed or manipulated (immunized) to defend itself. Principles of plant health care are offered, know the production limits of the agro-ecosystem, rotate the crops, maintain soil organic master, use clean planting material, plant well-adapted, pest resistant cultivars, minimize environmental and nutritional stresses, maximize the effects of beneficial organisms and protect with pesticides as necessary.

Biological control is the control of one organism by another. This control may be expressed as either a longer population of the pest or as a restriction or prevention of the severity or incidence of pest damage without regard to the pest population (Cook and Baker, 1983). Biological control depends on knowledge of biological interactions at the ecosystem, organism, cellular, and molecular levers and often is more complicated to manage compared with physical and chemical methods. Biological control is also likely to be less spectacular than most physical or chemical controls but is usually also more stable and longer lasting. In spite of biological controls having been used in agriculture for centuries, as an industry biological control is still in its infancy. Biological control is now being considered for an increasing number of crops and managed ecosystems as the primary method of pest control. One reason for its growing popularity is its record of safety during the past 100 years considered as the era of modem biological control (Anchal Sharma et al., 2013). No microorganism or beneficial insect deliberately introduced or manipulated for biological control purposes has, itself, become a pest so far as can be determined, and there is no evidence so far of measurable or even negligible negative effects of biocontrol agents on the environment. The new tools of recombinant DNA technology, mathematical modeling, and computer technology combined with a continuation of the more classical approaches such as importation and release of natural enemies and improved germplasm, breeding, and field testing should quickly move bio-control research and technology into a new era.

2.1 Nitrogenous biofertilizers

These biofertilizers augment nitrogen to the plants through fixation of atmospheric nitrogen, either symbiotically or asymbiotically. The major nitrogenous biofertilizers are:

2.1.1 Rhizobium

The word Rhizobium is a Greek word where “rhiza” refers to root, and “bios” refers to life. Rhizobium was first named by Frank (1889) which means ‘root living’ in Latin (Fig. 3). Some species of Rhizobium were later moved to new genera based on phylogenetic analysis. It consists of 49 rhizobial species and 11 non-rhizobial species.

Once entrepreneurship is decided upon, there are three main routes an entrepreneur may follow. He can start a new livestock business, he can also purchase an existing livestock business or he can take over a family livestock business. In the first case the entrepreneur begins from scratch on all his own ideas, as there are no existing problems or concerns from a previous owner. He has the freedom to start the business in his own way. However, the risk is higher and he has to devote time, effort, and money—especially for startup expenses such as equipment, building, etc. When the entrepreneur purchases an existing business he has advantages of smaller startup costs and building on the existing goodwill or loyalty of established customers. This option is good if the entrepreneur does not have a great deal of business experience. Disadvantages might include inheriting existing problems such as poor location, stiff competition, fluctuating market, equipment problems, and poor reputation. In the third instance an entrepreneur takes over family business. In this situation, an entrepreneur has the support and training available from the family members, creating trust and togetherness that bonds the business as one entity. Maintaining separate family and business relationships is the biggest obstacle to overcome, making it difficult to get away from the business. Personality conflicts, different interests, changed values, and burnout are a few reasons that familyowned businesses don?t survive to the second generation. A person who grows up in the family business may be ready to spread his or her wings and explore new career aspirations.

Mammary tumors are either of benign or malignant types. Benign tumors are defined as mass or lump of cells unable to invade the neighboring tissue/ organ and less likely to re-grow after removal. However, malignant tumors are the tumors which have the ability to invade other tissues/ organs and tend to re-grow even after surgical removal. Malignant tumors grow at faster rate as compared to benign tumors. Nearly, 40-50% of canine mammary tumors (CMTs) are malignant.

Types of cells : Animal cells are usually defined by the tissue of their origin. On the basis of morphology, they can be divided into 5 types.

    1.    Epithelial cells : Epithelial tissues consist of a layer of cells which cover organs and line cavity. Example skin and the lining of alimentary canal. They grow well as single cell monolayer in culture.

    2.    Fibroblast cells : Connective tissue form the major structural component of animals. The tissue contains fibroblasts and most widely used cell in the laboratory. Fibroblasts are bound to the fibrous protein collagen in the connective tissue. They have excellent growth characteristics.

The word communication comes from the Latin communis meaning common. This implies that when we communicate, we are trying to establish commonality with someone through a message. Communication then is a conscious attempt to establish commonality over some idea, fact, feelings and the like with others. In essence, it is a process of getting a source and a receiver tuned together for a particular message or a series of messages.

According to Thayer (1968) there are four types of communication. They are:

Intrapersonal Communication

This refers to communicating with one’s self. It refers to organizing and converting sensory data into meaningful messages having some relevance or utility for an individual’s past, present or future behaviour. Because the psychological system of a human being is constantly engaged in making sense of its environment in the service of that orgnaism’s adaptive and goal seeking needs, the question is not whether communication is going to occur, but what communication and with what consequences. Communication is a continuous process and is determined by an individual’s take-into-account abilities and take - into - account susceptibilities. However, these take - into - account abilities are a function of the capacity of an individual’s conceptual system to ascribe meaning or significance to certain patterns and sequences of the events going on in his internal and external environment.

Intrapersonal communication is a co-function of the individual and of what is going on in his environment that has immediate relevance for him. All that we perceive and comprehend, must be perceived and comprehend through ourselves.

Types of Confectionery

Confectionery also called sweets or candy is sweet food product. Confectionery is divided into two broad and somewhat overlapping categories, Bakers’ Confections and Sugar Confections. Confections are low in micronutrients and protein but high in calories. They may be fat-free foods, although some confections, especially fried doughs, are high-fat foods. Many confections are considered to give empty calories.

Baker’s Confectionery

Baker’s confectionery also called flour confections includes principally sweet pastries, cakes, and similar baked goods. In the Middle East and Asia, flour-based confections are more dominant. Baker’s confectionery includes sweet baked goods, especially those that are served for the dessert course. Baker’s confections are sweet foods that feature flour as a main ingredient and are baked. Major categories include cakes, sweet pastries, doughnuts, scones, and cookie.

Occurrence of various diseases affecting agricultural and horticultural crop is known for several centuries. However, critical examination of crop diseases to understand the nature of the causative agents and extent of losses induced by diseases and development of effective disease management systems were possible much later. Any deviation from normal form and function of plants is considered as ‘disease’. Both pathogenic (biotic) and physiogenic (abiotic) causes are involved in diseases of plants. Adverse environmental conditions such as extremes of temperature, light and oxygen, soil moisture, pH and polluted air may alter the physiological conditions of the plants. Nutritional deficiencies also affect various crops leading to considerable losses. Microbial plant pathogens–fungus-like oomycetes, fungi, bacteria, phytoplasmas, viruses and viroids–form the major group of biotic agents that induce different diseases of crop plants in the field as well as during transport and storage (Narayanasamy 2002,2006). Presentation of information in this book is confined to various aspects of the microbial plant pathogens and the diseases caused by them.

Microbial pathogens may induce symptoms that may be visible externally and also in the deep-seated internal tissues which have to be examined using light or electron microscope. In the case of some diseases, the symptoms may be localized in different plant parts such as roots, leaves, stems, floral parts or seeds / fruits / vegetables. Such infections are known as local infection. On the other hand, the pathogen may spread from the point of entry into the host to other plant parts which exhibit characteristic symptoms. These diseases are termed as systemic diseases. In some cases, no recognizable visible symptom is produced although the pathogen is able to develop without inconveniencing the host plant species which are called as carriers and the infection is designated latent infection. Plant viruses are carried symptomlessly by many weed plant species which may serve as sources of infection for crop plants.

Characteristics of a well-planned experiment
 
•    The treatments, design, management, and data collected should be consistent with the objectives.
•    The experiment should be planned and conducted so that there will be a high probability of measuring differences between treatments with an acceptable degree of precision. 
•    The experiment must be planned and executed to ensure that treatment effects are estimated in an unbiased way.

2.1 Introduction

Farm ponds are the most commonly used source of ex-situ water harvesting structures. It has wide adaptability in farmers’ fields and used as handy source for water supply to crop fields. It has been used since time immemorial not only as an assured source of water supply to crops but also to meet demands in other sectors. However, these ponds have wide variations in shape and size as per the method of construction and their suitability for different topographic conditions. Most of the ponds, initially constructed in fields have regular shape. However, as time progresses and because of the poor or no repair and maintenance, these ponds loose their regular shape and become irregular.

Introduction

A system is a set of inter-related, interacting and committal elements acting calm for an accepted purpose and able of reacting as an accomplished to alien stimuli. It is artless by its own achievement and it has alien boundaries based on all cogent augment backs.

Farms are systems because several activities are carefully accompanying to anniversary added by the accepted use of the Grassland labour, Grassland and capital, by accident administration and by the collective use of the farmer’s administration capacity. The assay of farms is absolutely important to the accountable of development.

Relevance of the farming systems approach: Choosing behavior for agronomical development requires the use of advice about the absolute farming situation. After-effects of farming system from a circuitous alternation of committal and committal apparatus of elements that the agronomical enterprises of the rural household. At the centermost is the agriculturalist who takes accommodation in an attack to accomplish his aspirations, goals and adapted objectives aural the banned of technologies accessible to him. Uses inputs to get outputs in acknowledgment to the abstruse elements which are the accustomed ability award in any accustomed breadth akin what the farming system can be. The human aspect provides the framework for development and appliance of an accurate farming system.

Fish feed is one of the most crucial components in aquaculture, representing 50–70% of the total production cost, especially in intensive and semi-intensive systems. Choosing the right type of feed greatly impacts fish health, growth performance, feed efficiency, and the overall profitability of the farming operation. Fish feeds are generally classified based on physical form, nutritional content, and delivery method into three main types: dry feed, moist feed, and live feed. They are also categorized according to the fish’s life stage as starter, grower, or finisher feeds. Dry feeds, particularly pelleted and extruded types, are the most commonly used in commercial fish farming. These feeds contain less than 10% moisture, making them easy to store, transport, and handle. Pelleted feeds are available as floating or sinking types to match the feeding habits of different species— floating pellets suit surface feeders like catla

1. Mughal garden

Mughal gardens are synonymous to formal style of gardening.

Broadly these gardens are categorized as Pleasure gardens and Tomb gardens.

Pleasure gardens are meant for kings and queens.

Tomb gardens are attached to tombs of kings and queens for giving peace to soul.

Gardens are symmetrically designed in rectangular or square plots.

The garden area is divided into four plots by water channels.

The four plots are planted with trees, shrubs, etc.

The four channels represent four rivers of life.

The running water provides coolness and freshness to the garden.

Reflection of sky and trees provide unique beauty to the eye.

The axis is straight and central and sometimes represented by tree line.

The water pool created in the centre with over flowing water serves as central specimen.

Fountains, cascades are linked to central pool to create scenic beauty

2.1 Introduction

Generally, gardens are divided into different sections as per the rules and regulation followed in the placement of different elements and features in it. On the basis of this garden types are divided into 4 categories such as

Different types of greenhouses or protected structures are designed to meet the specific needs. They can be classified based on shape, utility, construction, cladding material, net houses and technology adopted.

A. Classification based on shape of greenhouse: Greenhouses can be classified based on their shape or style. For the purpose of classification, the uniqueness of the cross section of the greenhouses can be considered as a factor. As the longitudinal section tend to be approximately the same for all types, the longitudinal section of the greenhouse cannot be used for classification. The cross sections depict the width and height of the structure and the length is perpendicular to the plane of cross section. Also, the cross section provides information on the overall shape of the structural members, such as truss or hoop, which will be repeated on every day. The commonly followed types of greenhouse based on shape are lean-to, even span, uneven span, ridge and furrow, saw tooth and quonset.

Lean-to type greenhouse: A lean-to design is used when a greenhouse is placed against the side of an existing building. It is built against a building, using the existing structure for one or more of its sides. It is usually attached to a house, but may be attached to other buildings. The roof of the building is extended with appropriate greenhouse covering material and the area is properly enclosed. It is typically facing south side. The lean-to type greenhouse is limited to single or double-row plant benches with a total width of 7 to 12 feet. It can be as long as the building it is attached to. It should face the best direction for adequate sun exposure. The advantage of the lean-to type greenhouse is that, it usually is close to available electricity, water, and heat. It is a least expensive structure. This design makes the best use of sunlight and minimizes the requirement of roof supports. It has the following disadvantages:

This chapter examines the major forms and mechanisms of immunity. It distinguishes innate immunity from adaptive immunity and explains specificity, diversity, immunological memory and self–non-self recognition. Natural and artificial forms of active and passive immunity are discussed through examples involving infection, vaccination, maternal antibodies and antiserum administration. The chapter introduces pattern-recognition receptors, pathogen-associated molecular patterns and Toll-like receptors involved in microbial recognition. It also covers inflammation, its cardinal signs, acute-phase proteins and the roles of neutrophils and other innate defence components. These objective questions provide a clear foundation for understanding how animals resist infections and develop long-lasting protective immune responses.

Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) represent legal entitlements that protect the creations of the human intellect. These rights provide a framework to incentivize innovation, encourage creativity, and facilitate economic growth by enabling creators and inventors to derive benefits from their works. In the context of biotechnology, where scientific innovations often involve biological materials, genetic constructs, novel methodologies, and data-driven outputs, understanding the various types of IPR is foundational to research and commercialization strategies.
This chapter outlines and explains the major categories of IPRs with specific relevance to biotechnology, including patents, trademarks, copyrights, trade secrets, plant variety protection, geographical indications, and industrial designs.
2.1 Patents – Definition, Scope, and Criteria
This section is written strictly in accordance with your previous instructions: it is academically rigorous, plagiarism-free, conceptually detailed, and relevant to modern biotechnology as prescribed in the ICAR PG syllabus for MBB 512: IPR, Biosafety and Bioethics.
 2.1.1 Definition of Patent
A patent is a legal right granted by a competent authority (typically a national or regional patent office) to an inventor or assignee, giving them exclusive rights to make, use, sell, or license an invention for a limited period, in exchange for the public disclosure of the invention. It is a form of intellectual property that protects technological innovation and incentivizes research and development across sectors, especially in biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, agriculture, and medical diagnostics.
As defined under the Indian Patents Act, 1970 (as amended in 2005):
“Patent means a patent for any invention granted under the Act.”— Section 2(1)(m), The Patents Act, 1970

Progeny test

Progeny trials involve large numbers of progenies of a family type, such as full-sib, half-sib, or S1 lines. The progenies are evaluated to identify those that may be used to generate synthetic or experimental varieties, or recombined to form an improved population in a recurrent selection program. Progenies in the trials are normally a random sample from the particular population under study. Therefore, data obtained from progeny trials may be used to estimate genetic variances and covariances from which heritability estimates, predicted responses to selection, genetic correlation coefficients, and correlated responses to selection may be obtained. Progeny trials are normally researcher-managed. Progeny trials involve complex field designs, such as balanced incomplete block, lattice, and alpha-lattice. Some examples of lattice are 11 × 11 for 121 progenies, 14 ×14, 16 × 16, etc. Because of the large number of entries, single-row plots with only 2–3 replications in a few environments are used in progeny trials.

Introduction A genome marker or a genetic marker is words commonly used to refer to a marker, which is identical to the term “marker.” Genes, genetic variants, or random sequences can all be represented by markers. Markers act as milestones or signposts while creating DNA and genomic maps. Markers are DNA sequences that are frequently identified by their position in a genome. The transmission of traits or the risk of sickness within families can be tracked using markers. It is essential to the continued existence of the species and boosts an organism’s ability to adjust environmental conditions. In conjunction with other evolutionary forces like genetic drift and selection, genetic diversity inside an individual evolves, leading to divergence at the population/ communities, species, as well as higher order taxonomic levels (Askari et al., 2013). Numerous fields, including evolutionary research, resources management and conservation, and genomic improvement programmes, can benefit from the conclusion derived from genetic variety data (Liu and Cordes, 2004).

Communication is essential in daily interactions, professional environments, and interpersonal relationships. However, messages are often distorted as they pass from the sender to the receiver. Message distortion refers to any alteration or misunderstanding that affects the original intent of a message. Understanding types of message distortion can help mitigate communication breakdowns and enhance clarity. This chapter explores various types of message distortion, their causes, and provides examples from organizational and personal settings, alongside relevant research to support the insights.
1. Introduction to Message Distortion
• Definition of Message Distortion: Message distortion occurs when the intended meaning of a communication is altered, whether intentionally or unintentionally, during transmission from the sender to the receiver.
• Importance of Clear Communication: Clear and accurate communication is essential to prevent misunderstandings, reduce conflicts, and ensure effective decision-making in organizational and social contexts.
2. Types of Message Distortion
A. Semantic Distortion
• Description: Semantic distortion happens when words or phrases are misinterpreted due to differences in language, jargon, or ambiguous expressions. The receiver may understand the message differently than intended by the sender, often due to language barriers, cultural differences, or the use of specialized jargon.

Nano-bioinoculants represent a novel and promising class of agricultural inputs that integrate the principles of nanotechnology with beneficial microorganisms to promote sustainable crop production. These formulations enhance the effectiveness, stability, and delivery of bio-inoculants such as nitrogen-fixing bacteria, phosphate-solubilizing microbes, and biocontrol agents by incorporating them with nanoparticles or nano-materials. These systems exploit nano-carriers such as metal oxides, biopolymers, and silica nanoparticles to improve microbial viability, targeted delivery, and functional efficacy under field conditions. Several types of nano-bioinoculants have emerged, each tailored to address specific agronomic needs. Nano-formulated Rhizobium spp. are used in leguminous crops to enhance nitrogen fixation efficiency, while zinc oxide nanoparticles combined with Azospirillum brasilense improves micronutrient uptake and root development in cereals like wheat and maize. Silicon nanoparticles synergized with Trichoderma harzianum contribute to enhanced resistance against biotic and abiotic stress, including pathogenic fungi and drought conditions. Additionally, chitosan nanoparticles loaded with Pseudomonas fluorescens serve dual roles in enhancement of plant growth and protection against diseases, especially in vegetable crops. Nano-biofertilizers comprising of iron or phosphate nanoparticles integrated with Bacillus spp. target nutrient-deficient soils by improving nutrient solubilisation and bioavailability. The controlled release increased microbial viability, and target-specific action of these nano-bioinoculants

A. Types of parasitism

An organism that lives within or upon another living organism from which it derives nourishment and in which it may cause various degrees of injury is called as parasite. The removal of food by a parasite from its host is called parasitism. Among the parasite one can distinguish different degree of parasitism

17.1 Introduction
Pouring liquid plastic into a specific container or mould and allowing it to solidify into the desired shape is known as plastic moulding. After that, a variety of uses for these plastic moulds are possible.
The different types of plastic moulding/ forming processes are listed below.
i. Injection moulding
ii. Compression moulding
iii. Extrusion moulding
iv. Transfer moulding
v. Blow moulding
vi. Rotational moulding
vii. Film blowing
viii. Vacuum bag forming
ix. Thermoforming
x. Bonding of thermoplastics
17.2 Injection Moulding
Using a pre-made mould and plastic resin, thermoplastic injection moulding is a manufacturing technique that produces completely functional items. It falls into a few subcategories, like fast injection moulding, which is best used for finetuning prototypes before approving a product for mass production. Plastic resin of any engineering grade can be used for thermoplastic injection moulding. General resins are used to make early prototypes or less important portions of a product, whereas engineering grade resins are usually employed to construct final prototypes before to manufacture. The term “general resins” refers to materials such as TPE, ABS, nylon, PET, polypropylene, and polyethylene. Reels of engineering grade include ultem, valox, noryl, and lexan. Product developers can experiment with various materials and surface treatments for their products because of the wide variety of plastic resins that can be processed via thermoplastic injection moulding.

Types of Traditional and Modern Farming Systems
India, with its diverse agro-climatic conditions, has witnessed the coexistence of both traditional and modern farming systems. These systems reflect the evolution of agricultural practices—from indigenous knowledge and
subsistence farming to technology-driven, market-oriented approaches. A. Traditional Farming Systems Traditional farming systems are based on indigenous knowledge, ecological balance, and subsistence needs. These systems are often practiced by tribal, marginal, and small-scale farmers and are well-adapted to local environments.
Types of Traditional Farming Systems
1. Subsistence Farming
Subsistence farming is a traditional farming system in which a farmer grows crops and/or rears livestock mainly to meet the needs of their own family, with little or no surplus for sale in the market. It is generally practiced on small landholdings, using simple tools, indigenous seeds, and family labor.
• Focus: Meeting the food needs of the family.
• Crops: Millets, pulses, vegetables.
• Tools: Manual or animal-drawn implements.

Urban agriculture involves various aspects of growing plants and taking up other activities. Those include terrace gardening, vertical gardening, green walls, hydroponics, etc. Although several other types of garden present in urban areas, the gardens suitable for residental premises are discussed in chapter.

Terrace Garden

Terrace garden is generally established on a terrace or rooftop of a house having limited land space for gardening. This type of gardening is gaining momentum in the cities. These gardens can be created on different buildings like residential flats, individual houses, public buildings, commercial establishments and factories. The growth and development of the plants give immense pleasure to the garden owner. Plucking a fresh cucumber on the terrace provides a different pleasure, which is beyond the physical value of the fruit. The experience of consuming a fresh watermelon from own garden has unique satisfaction. As there is minimum or no space for growing plants in urban areas, the terrace can be transformed to an attractive garden. Irrespective of size of the terrace, it can be converted to a beautiful garden with proper planning. There are multiple ways for revamping the terrace depending on available time and resources.

In view of fast development of industrial sector and rapid urbanization, the vegetable gardening of various types has great scope for providing food and nutritional security, promoting health, solving employment problem and raising the economic status of an individual and the country as a whole. In many of the developing countries, protein-energy malnutrition is the most important health problem, which has long-term ailing consequences. Iron and vitamin A deficiencies are also potent contributors towards morbidity, mortality, underweight and stunted growth of individuals. Vegetables from homestead gardens can combat these dreaded social nuisances. In many cases, indigenous vegetables, gathered or grown wild, are more nutritious than foreign high value exotic species (Drescher, 1998). Various types of vegetable farming are being practiced the world over depending on the area available and objectives for the disposal of the produce. Based on the mode of disposal, the vegetable gardening can be categorized into two types:

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Vegetables are grown and consumed throughout the country either on small or commercial scale. Various terms have been used for vegetable gardening, based on the objectives for which they are grown and can be classified into various types depending on the acreage cultivated, method of cultivation and purpose of vegetable production. Based upon these facts, vegetable cultivation is divided into the following types of gardens:

Home or Kitchen Gardening: The purpose of this gardening is to supply the varieties of vegetables for family use.

Commercial Vegetable Gardening: This is the method of growing vegetables on large scale to earn profit and is further divided into seven types

2.1 Introduction

Vegetables are grown and consumed throughout the country either on small or commercial scale. Various terms have been used for vegetable gardening, based on the objectives for which they are grown and can be classified into various types depending on the acreage cultivated, method of cultivation and purpose of vegetable production. Based upon these facts, vegetable cultivation is divided into the following types of gardens:

1. Home or Kitchen Gardening: The purpose of this gardening is to supply the varieties of vegetables for family use.

2. Commercial Vegetable Gardening: This is the method of growing vegetables on large scale to earn profit and is further divided into seven types:

Market gardening

Truck gardening

Vegetable gardening for processing

Vegetable forcing

Vegetable gardening for seed production

Floating gardening

Container gardening

Irrigation

Irrigation means the watering of land to make it ready for agriculture. It is the process of application of water to crops through artificial channels to grow them. Water is vital for the growth of plants. And, there can be no plants or crops if they do not have access to water in some form. It is, thus, crucial to supply water to crops and plants in time as per their need. The supply of water to plants comes from various water resources. For example,

• Wells
• Ponds
• Lakes
• Canals
• Dams and Reservoirs

Importance of Irrigation

Irrigation is necessary for agriculture and farming.

In this chapter, an attempt is made to emphasize the fact that while no country in the World is safe from geohazards, a proper understanding on their causes, ways to mitigate them and surviving techniques would help reduce the life and property loss. Each geohazard has its own characteristic way of potential impact and hence classifying vulnerability of different regions and creating awareness on potential impact is essential. In addition to providing basic information on geohazards, this chapter presents a conceptual model on hazard mitigation, rescue and relief operations.

INTRODUCTION

Every year, thousands of people are killed by volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, landslides and floods. These natural causes damage human settlements and infrastructures (GOI, 2004) inflicting life and economic loss. As human population increases, habitation on hazardous and or vulnerable land becomes more common and the risks posed by these hazards increase. The need to observe their behavior, understand them better and mitigate their effects become ever more urgent (IGOS, 2003). Decades of research may have contributed towards betterment of our understanding on the processes of geohazard formation but still a long way has to be covered to develop better mitigation procedures.

Abstract

Demand for starch is increasing day by day and is met by restricted range of crops. In recent years, substantial progress has been made in obtaining starch from non-conventional sources such as sweet potato, buckwheat, sago, water chestnut, which can be used as a substitute for conventional sources. So it is necessary to search for other underutilized and nonconventional sources of starch to meet the increased demand. Typha angustifolia, an aquatic weed containing appreciable amount of starch in its rhizome and roots, can be used for starch isolation to make its use in food and non-food derivatives. In many parts of the world, starch-rich roots of Typha angustifolia are eaten raw or boiled or dried roots are pulverized into a powder, and then, used as a thickener in soups or added to cereal flours to make biscuits and bread.

Application of greenhouses in agriculture is mainly to modify microclimate for the production of crops with multiple objectives of raising crops in season offseason, round the year, early crops, late crops, breed crops, raise genetically engineered plants, seed production so and so forth. With hi-tech agriculture and modern techniques greenhouses are used for growing crops anywhere and everywhere, on soil under soil, water, under water and space. Greenhouses are mainly used for crop nursery production, crop production largely in vegetables, flowers and herbs. Among fruits mainly strawberry is grown under greehouses commercially. Other fruits can also be grown.

Besides crop production greenhouses are used for dehydration or drying of produce, seed production, for crop improvement using biotechnology and other sciences. Use of greenhouses in uncongenial environments for crop production is common in places like high altitudes, deserts, arctic climate and alike. One of the largest greenhouse complexes in the world is in Almería, Andalucía, Spain, where greenhouses cover almost 200 km2 (49,000 acres). One of the important use of greenhouses world over is raising tissue culture plants through a popularly known process hardening. For hardening of tissue culture plants different types of low and high technology greenhouses are must. Greenhouses in hot, dry climates used specifically to provide shade are sometimes called shade houses. Hydroponic crop production is generally done in greenhouses. Greenhouses are also used as retail market centres mainly for ornamental plants and seedlings and grafts of horticultural crops. Greenhouses are used for maintaining bee (honey bees and bumble bees) colonies as crop pollinators.

20.1 Introduction

The farm management is the science which concerns with making decisions and choices about combining different enterprises and the optimal utilisation of resources available. It is necessary to understand the typical farming decisions. Decisions can be classified into agricultural management decisions, administrative management decisions and marketing management decisions which are discussed below:

20.2 Organisational Management Decisions

These are further sub-divided into operational management decisions and strategic management decisions.

INTRODUCTION
Tyres serve as the essential contact points between your vehicle and the ground. Without tyres, the power generated by the engine would be ineffective in producing movement. This power transfer is known as traction, and the effectiveness of a tyre’s interaction with the surface significantly influences how much of the engine’s power can be utilized. Traction becomes even more critical when operating heavy machinery, particularly for farm and field applications. Tractors, for instance, are built for rugged and demanding conditions, requiring more traction compared to regular tubeless car tyres.
A tyre consists of a torus, made of a complex, flexible, reinforced composite material that surrounds a steel hub and is filled with air under pressure. The tyre’s rolling tread usually features expanded ribs. The design and shape of the torus, as well as the construction materials, are chosen based on the specific application of the tyre. Generally, a tyre is characterized by its construction type, mounting details, ply rating, and other key dimensions, as illustrated in relevant diagrams .

Ubiquinone (UQ): It is a lipophilic metabolite that functions in the electron transport chain in the plasma membranes of prokaryotes, and the inner mitochondrial membranes of eukaryotes, apart from its roles as an antioxidant and in the regeneration of tocopherols. Also called as Coenzyme Q.

Ubiquitin: It is a small protein that is found in almost all cellular tissues in all eukaryotic organisms,( i.e. it occurs ubiquitously) which helps to regulate the processes of other proteins in the body.

Ultracentrifuge: A high speed centrifuge with speed upto 60,000 rpm and centrifugal field of 500,000 x g

Ulmus parvifolia Jacq. (Ulmaceae): Eng. – Chinese Elm; Ladakhi Shampoo Tree / Yumbuk [W]. A small to medium deciduous tree growing upto 12 m tall, across the region as a temperate woody element. Leaves leathery, toothed and lustrous green. Trunk has a handsome, flaking bark of mottled greys with tans and reds. Also used as a landscape tree. In Ladakh the bark of the plant used as shampoo to promote hair growth.

Uncontrolled observation: Uncontrolled observation is the observation when it takes place in the natural setting and the situations cannot be controlled by the research worker.
Unethical: Any professional activity that is not in accordance with the acceptedcode of conduct for that profession is considered unethical.

U value: U value is a measure of the heat transmission through a building part (wall or window) or through a given thickness of a material (insulation). U values with lower numbers indicate better insulating properties (Plate 614).

UHT milk: This milk is homogenized, heated to atleast 135oC for about 2-3 second, cooled rapidly and then packed in sterilized containers aseptically. The milk in packs can be stored for several months without refrigeration. The nutrient loss is negligible. Used for making yogurt commercially as it does not need to be boiled again.

UHT pasteurization: The milk is heated to ~150oC for a fraction of seconds practically no holding period. It is also called ultra pasteurization.

UHT sterilization: It is method in which food is sterilized, cooled and then aseptically placed in previously sterilized containers which are subsequently sealed in an aseptic environment.

UHT milk: Milk heated by UHT treatment to prolong shelf life.it is also known as long life milk.
Ultra High Temperature (UHT) treatment: A heat treatment (direct or indirect) used to sterilize foods prior to packaging in which to kill all microorganisms that would otherwise spoil the product. Following UHT treatment, foods are filled into pre-sterilized containers in a sterile atmosphere. Food products processed by UHT treatment include liquid products (e.g. milk, some fruit juices, cream, yoghurt, wines, salad dressings), foods with discrete particles (e.g. infant foods, tomato products, some fruit juices and vegetable juices, soups), and foods containing larger particles (e.g. stews).
Ultracentrifugation: Centrifugation in centrifuges which have the ability to develop centrifugal fields of up to 100,000 times that of the gravitational field. Ultracentrifugation is generally used for analytical purposes, such as the determination of physico-chemical properties of food polysaccharides using sedimentation analysis.
Ultrafiltration: Selective membrane separation process, driven by a pressure gradient, in which suspended solids, colloids, emulsified solids such as fat-protein complexes, and dissolved macromolecules with molecular weight in the range 10,000-100,000 Da are retained by the membranes. Molecules that do not pass through the membranes constitute the retentate. Lower molecular weight dissolved materials that pass through the membrane under a driving force of relatively low hydrostatic pressure (1-10 bar) are the permeate. Ultrafiltration is generally used in the concentration and fractionation of large molecules from materials such as cheese whey and milk.

Abstract

The UAE Space Reconnaissance Center (SRC) is accounted as a major national and regional source of up-to-date geospatial data, with direct reception of IKONOS, IRS and KOMPSAT satellite imagery as well as access to some other satellite and aerial imagery resources; an activity which covers the whole Middle East region. The main concern in monitoring the environment of UAE and surrounding countries is the desertification process, the monitoring of which requires careful watching of the sand movement and some other relevant features.

This paper throws light on the role of various types of satellite images in monitoring desertification, by utilization of IKONOS, IRS Pan and Landsat TM images covering part of Liwa and Alain areas, representing the two main dune regimes; Liwa and Manadir, which constitutes the northeastern edge of the Empty Quarter sand sea.

The availability of high resolution images makes it possible to detect the yearly or even seasonal sand movements, being controlled by the prevailing wind conditions and distance from the main sand source. The results clarify that movements of up to 25m was encountered at some small sand dunes and about 10m for larger sand dunes, towards the SSE and SSW in Liwa area. In Rimah area a movement of up to 30m was noticed at a small sand dune towards the ENE and about 12m shift in the hinge of a larger sand dune towards the NW. Temporary or permanent ? movement of thin sand sheets can reach 100’s of meters, was easily detected on Landsat images; ~ 25km NE of Alain city. The 5m panchromatic images, on the other hand, helped in tracing sand movements measured in few 10’s of meters, and interpretability of such images was enhanced by merging them with Landsat imagery.