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Varietal description and nomenclature of different guava varieties grown in India are greatly confusing. Some varieties were named according to shape of the fruit, skin colour and pulp colour, while, several other varieties were named after in the place of origin. Pandey (1968) made detailed studies in different cultivars of guava and classified them into the white pulp group and the red pulp group. Guava is largely a self-pollinated crop, but crosspollination also does occur. This results in a large variability in the seedling population from which promising genotypes have been selected in different agro-climatic regions of the country. Promising cultivars of different Indian states are given below:
About 160 genotypes, including somePsidum spp., are available in Indian collections and are maintained at several centres within the country in field gene banks. Nomenclature of the cultivars of guava grown in India is not yet well established. Some of the varieties have been named according to shape, colour, and smoothness of skin or by the place of their origin. Characters like plant growth, yield and physico-chemical composition of different guava varieties were reported by several workers. Varietal evaluation was carried out by many workers who reported performance of these varieties under

Milk, as secreted in the udder of a healthy animal is practically sterile, but during its transit to the processing plant, becomes heavily contaminated with a variety of micro-organisms. These may be responsible for spoilage of milk or for causing diseases in animals and human beings. It thus becomes imperative that adequate heat treatment is given to milk to destroy these micro-organisms, thus increasing the shelf-life of milk as well as making it safe. Varied heat treatments offer the potential of producing different kinds of processed milk to satisfy the needs of the consumer. To cater to the ever-increasing demand of consumers, several varieties of processed milk are available in the market, some of which are discussed below.

5.1. Pasteurised Milk

Pasteurisation was named after the renowned French scientist Louis Pasteur, who discovered that spoilage organisms could be inactivated in wine by applying heat at temperatures below its boiling point. The process was later applied to milk and remains the most important operation in the processing of milk.

It is the process by which every particle of milk is heated to such temperature-time combinations (usually to 63°C for not less than 30 minutes or to 72°C for not less than 15 seconds) and promptly cooled to 4°C or below so as to destroy any harmful bacteria that may be present without affecting flavour and food value. Pasteurisation does not involve the use of any additives. Apart from making milk safe to drink, pasteurisation increases the length of time it can be kept before it spoils. The nutrient losses due to pasteurisation are so small, that they are considered insignificant.

1. INTRODUCTION

For maintenance of genetic purity in the field with the seed crop and to test verify the standards in certification programme, the studies on varietal characterization and identification have attracted the attention of breeders, breeder’s right protection institutions, farmers, the seed industry, certification agencies, and seed testing laboratories with a view to assure the quality of seed marketed to the consumers.

12.1. Variety release

Superior cultivars are to be purified by breeder and tested for genuiness in 7 generations.

Then, they are forwarded to MLT after RYT, RRYT, PYT and CYT in respective research station.

Based on results of the MLT, strain is forwarded to Adaptive Research Trials (ART).

Crop breeders are continuously engaged in the improvement and development of crop varieties, in search of a genotype which will prove superior to the existence cultivars. A strain is duly released by appropriate duly empowered legal organization. Only when it is officially released, it is called variety, Before release, it is said to be strain or line. The release of new crop varieties consists of the following major steps:

1. Development of new strains

The new strains are developed by ICAR Crop Research Institutes and State Agricultural Universities for specific purposes. Various breeding methods are used for development of new strains. Some varieties are developed by selection without hybridization such as pure-line variety, mass selected variety and clonal variety. Development of some varieties involves hybridization and selection. This includes varieties that are developed by pedigree, bulk and backcross methods including multiline cultivars and population improvement methods.

2. Evaluation of performance

This trial is conducted at the research station, where new strains has breed. The object is to make sure that new strains are better in performance than the existence variety, so that it can be promoted to the trials where new strains has to be compete with other strains, developed by other scientists/researchers.

Advertising plays a crucial role in modern business by promoting products, services, and brands to target audiences. With the evolution of technology and communication, various media have emerged to deliver advertisements effectively. Each medium has its unique advantages and is selected based on factors such as target audience, budget, and marketing goals. This chapter explores the various media for advertising, their benefits, and their suitability for different marketing strategies.

Traditional Media for Advertising

1. Print Media

Types of Print Media for Advertising

Print media comprises various formats that businesses and organizations use for advertising. The most common types include

1. Newspapers: Newspapers are one of the oldest and most trusted forms of print media. They offer advertisers a broad readership and localized targeting.

Advertising plays a crucial role in modern business by promoting products, services, and brands to target audiences. With the evolution of technology and communication, various media have emerged to deliver advertisements effectively. Each medium has its unique advantages and is selected based on factors such as target audience, budget, and marketing goals. This chapter explores the various media for advertising, their benefits, and their suitability for different marketing strategies.
Traditional Media for Advertising
1. Print Media
Types of Print Media for Advertising
Print media comprises various formats that businesses and organizations use for advertising. The most common types include:
1. Newspapers: Newspapers are one of the oldest and most trusted forms of print media. They offer advertisers a broad readership and localized targeting.
Advantages
• Wide reach, especially in local markets
• Affordable advertising options
• High credibility and trustworthiness
• Flexibility in ad placement and frequency
Disadvantages
• Short lifespan (usually one day)
• Declining readership due to digital alternatives
• Poor print quality compared to other media

Advertising plays a crucial role in modern business by promoting products, services, and brands to target audiences. With the evolution of technology and communication, various media have emerged to deliver advertisements effectively. Each medium has its unique advantages and is selected based on factors such as target audience, budget, and marketing goals. This chapter explores the various media for advertising, their benefits, and their suitability for different marketing strategies.
Traditional Media for Advertising
1. Print Media
Types of Print Media for Advertising Print media comprises various formats that businesses and organizations use
for advertising. The most common types include:
1. Newspapers: Newspapers are one of the oldest and most trusted forms of print media. They offer advertisers a broad readership and localized targeting.
Advantages
• Wide reach, especially in local markets
• Affordable advertising options
• High credibility and trustworthiness
• Flexibility in ad placement and frequency Disadvantages
• Short lifespan (usually one day)
• Declining readership due to digital alternatives
• Poor print quality compared to other media

ABSTRACT

Microencapsulation is one of the latest technologies used in the food, pharmaceutical, nutraceutical and cosmetic industry where it is used for maintaining the stability of the food ingredients and slow release of the active food ingredients. For many decades the encapsulation technique was used in the pharmaceutical industries, but from last three decades it has been effectively used in the food industries showing enhanced results in flavour masking and retention of bio- active components present in the food. The production of the microcapsules can be achieved by the various process technologies. The process technologies have been reviewed in this paper such as spray drying, extrusion, spray chilling, emulsions, fluidized bed coating, freeze drying, molecular inclusion, crystallization, co-acervation etc. the encapsulation of food materials has shown a promising result in the newly growing food processing industries. Some of the recent developments in the microencapsulation viz. sweetener immobilization, controlled release and the carrier materials are also being presented in the reviewed paper.

INTRODUCTION

Massively Parallel DNA sequencing also known as next-generation sequencing, revolutionize the genomics and transcriptomics research as their effects are increasingly widespread. A new generation of non-Sanger-based sequencing technologies has delivered on its promise of sequencing DNA at unprecedented speed, thereby enabling impressive scientific achievements and novel biological applications. Before the next generation sequencing, the Sanger’s enzymatic di-deoxy chain termination was used for nucleotide sequencing from last 30 years with various original improvements. Sanger enzymatic di-deoxy chain termination technique first described in 1977 and the Maxam and Gilbert chemical degradation method described in the same year, which was used in sequence cases which could not easily be resolved with the Sanger technique. The two laboratories where the first automated DNA sequencers were produced, simultaneously, were those of Leroy Hood at Caltech, commercialized by Applied Biosystems, and Wilhelm Ansorge at the European Molecular Biology Laboratory EMBL and commercialized by Pharmacia-Amersham, later General Electric (GE) Healthcare. The Sanger method was used in the first automated fluorescent project for sequencing of a genome region, in which sequence determination of the complete gene locus for the HPRT gene was performed using the EMBL technique; in that project the important concept of paired-end sequencing was also introduced for the first time.

Population expansion, climate change, diminished rainfall, and escalating food demand are adversely affecting agriculture, resulting in alterations to crop practices. Consequently, to enhance yields and obtain precise data, it is imperative to implement modern precision farming techniques and deploy diverse sensor technologies.
• In light of the current circumstances and their adverse effects on conventional farming methods, agriculture must be conducted more wisely, employing advanced and cutting-edge technologies. This is the sole method to deliver a solution and address the incessant and expanding demands of the global population.
• Precision agriculture sensors are highly effective in agriculture as they relay data that enables farmers to monitor, enhance their goods, and stay informed about changes in the field and ecosystem.
• Advanced agricultural sensors efficiently identify animals, detect estrus, and monitor health, so enabling the isolation and treatment of ill cows through the identification, detection, and tracking of herds.
• Farmers can now utilize smart sensors in agriculture to monitor their crops remotely, assess their efficacy, manage pest infestations, and promptly implement measures to safeguard their crops from environmental threats.
• A sensor is a device that detects and reacts to specific inputs such as light, movement, pressure, temperature, or humidity, converting them into representations or signals that can be interpreted by people for further analysis and processing.
• They are frequently utilized in many applications, ranging from motion detection in security systems to temperature measurement in HVAC systems. They are also utilized in commonplace items such as smartphones, automobiles, and appliances.

1.3 Dextrose

Sweets which include dextrose have different eating qualities to those made with sucrose and glucose syrup alone. Recipes should be balanced so that the sucrose to dextrose ratio achieves the required product texture.

The incorporation of dextrose will increase the likelihood that crystallization will occur either on store or during manufacture. Replacement usage levels for dextrose normally lie between 5% and 15% of the Sucrose content

Q.1 A sampling procedure in which the units are selected with probability proportional to their some size measure, is known as sampling procedure with probability proportional to size (P.P.S.) Notations: Let there be a population of N units say Yi , (i = 1,2, ......... N), YN with their selection probabilities Pi (i=1, 2........... , N). Here Pi ? Pj V i ? J. = 1, 2, .............. N. Let yi , (i = 1, 2, ...................n) be the sample drawn from the population with probability of selection pi (i = 1, 2 -, n).

The curl of the vector A= xyi + yzj + zxk (i, j and k represents unit vectors along the three orthogonal axis) is

(A) xi + yj + zk         (B) – xi – yj – zk

(C) yi + zj + xk          (D) – yi - zj - xk

Vector data analysis is performed to convert raw input vector data to output that provides new and meaningful information which ultimately supports decision making and disclose hidden patterns. There are various techniques to analyse vector data like buffering, intersect, union, and so on. Some of the most commonly used techniques with their R-code examples are explained in this chapter.

First of all, you need to import all the packages which are required for performing this exercise. These packages include rgdal and sp for importing and re-projecting vector data as well as raster and rgeos for performing vector analysis operations.

Vector data consists of points, lines and polygons with x, y coordinates known as vertices representing the geographic location i.e. latitude and longitude. Vector data depicts the shape of the spatial feature. Points consist of single x, y locations. Examples of points are tower location, sampling location, etc. Lines represent 1 – dimensional features like roads, streams, etc., and are composed of many or at least two connected points or vertices. Polygons denote 2 – dimensional features like boundaries with three or more vertices that are connected and closed. The vector data are represented in the following figure (fig. 5.1).

Introduction

Incidence of ectoparasitism is on rise in the livestock population, impeding its production and performance. Those areas which were free of ectoparasites are now under great parasite load because of changing climatic conditions and global warming. Global warming has resulted in vectors shifting their habitats to temperate regions also. Ectoparasites are not only causing irritation to livestock by blood sucking and associated pruritus, they are serving as vectors for a variety of haemoprotozoan and rickettsiae leading to far-flung complications. Major ectoparasites infesting ruminants are ticks, lice, fleas and flies. Though ticks and flies are proclaimed as notorious for transmission of haemoprotozoans, now a days evidences are on rise reporting the role of fleas and lice as vectors for various haemoprotozoan and viral diseases. The need of the hour is to explore more and more ectoparasites to identify their vector potential and their effective control measures. While addressing the ectoparasitism in livestock, another major problem arises with their control. Most ectoparasitism is of seasonal nature at least in temperate areas, while it is a round the year phenomenon in tropics. Only very few compounds are available as ectoparasiticides and used by clinicians, and has resulted in onset of resistance among ectoparasites. New compounds need to be developed and marketed to counter this and at the same time it should be environment friendly also. Lest their rising use can lead to eradication of friendly fauna which can be more detrimental to the ecosystem. Now a days researches are focusing on the development of integrated tick/vector control measures which are making use of minimal chemical compounds and utilizing the synergistic application of farming techniques/practices and cultivating plants of acaricidal properties. In this era of pandemic, zoonotic nature of various haemoprotozoan/rickettsiae affecting livestock is also of concern to the mankind. So, they need to be addressed at the earliest considering their impact. The susceptibility to ectoparasitism varies from animal to animal.

1. Introduction

Vedic system of medicine, also called Hindu medicine, Aryan median, Indian system of medicine and in modern era as science of life (Ayurveda). It traces origin from mythical, through a semi-mythical, to historical beginning. Clues on uses of medicine are although obtainable since Indus civilization, it was propounded more in the Vedic period and also in post Vedic era. It is claimed to be the oldest medicinal system and heritage of India. The ancient Indians were first to cultivate astronomical science, mathematics, chemistry, grammar, lexicography, architecture and Dhanur-veda. Another compartment of human life is medicine, in which Indians never lagged behind. Vedic medicine is not born within four walls of a laboratory. It is nurtured in nature, human minds and hearts. The Vedic wisdom is engendered by trial and errors, experimentation, natural observations and timely criticism by the learned exponents. Obviously, there is no denial to the fact that the torch of learning was handed down to the other civilizations by the ancient Indians. Vedic medicine is not confined to the boundary of Indian nation but percolated in other cultures. Careful and critical examination of such a great heritage is a task of not of ordinary men. Still I took interest to review it, although almost impossible to justify it within the limits of few pages and time. The title of my paper amply suggests that Vedic medicine is a mine of information but I have tried to put on record it, in a nutshell. To tap down information in historical perspective, relevant literature has been borrowed and consulted to pinpoint the events, concepts wisdom of ancient Indians. These literary sources are enlisted under references.

The genus Amaranthus is rather unique in having species which are used for vegetable, grain and ornamental purposes. Vegetable amaranth, Amaranthus spp. under the family Amaranthaceae (Chromosome No.: 2n = 2x = 32, 34) is the most common tropical leafy vegetable in Southeast Asian countries especially India, Malaysia, Indonesia, southern China and hot and humid regions of Africa. It is an excellent source of β carotene, vitamin C, iron, calcium, potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, folic acid and dietary fibre. Its protein content (20-38% based on dry matter) includes methionine and other sulphur-containing amino acids. It is cultivated throughout India however, it is a common leafy vegetable in southern states viz., Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.
Origin, domestication and adaptation in India
The phylogenetic relationship and taxonomic delimitation in the genus Amaranthus under the family Amaranthaceae are still not resolved with extreme clarity. Phylogenetic analysis revealed clear separation of vegetable and grain amaranths. The derivation of grain and vegetable amaranths represent two lines of descent from the weed progenitor. Amaranthus hybridus L. This species has spread to different tropical countries like Mexico, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines. Amaranthus is a cosmopolitan genus of annual or short-lived perennial plants collectively known as amaranths. Vegetable amaranth is the most common leafy vegetable crop grown in India. Several kinds of vegetable amaranths under the genus Amaranthus and belonging to different species are grown in India.

• Botanical name: Lycopersicon esculatum
• Family: Solaceae
• Origin: Peru/Mexico
• CN: 24
• India is the second largest producer of tomato in the world after China followed by Turkey, USA and Italy.
• Highest producing state:Orrisa > Andhra pradesh > KN
• Highest productivity: KN > MH > Assam
• Tomato is universally treated as ‘Protective food’.
• The total sugar content is 2.5% in ripe fruit.
• Vitamin-C: 16–65mg/100g of fruit weight.
• The total amino acid is 100–350mg/100g of fruit weight.
• Processed product of tomato like puree and paste have great demand in export.
• Tomato is a herbaceous, annual to perennial plant.

Cropping system is defined as the cropping pattern followed on a farm and its interactions with farm resources, other farm enterprises and production technology. The yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops and fallow on a given area is termed as cropping pattern.

India has over 17% of world’s population living on 2.4% of the world’s geographical area. Per capita agricultural land has reduced by 67% from 0.48 ha in 1951 to 0.16 ha in 2008 due to explosive increase in population. In this situation, it is very difficult to get horizontal expansion in vegetable cultivation. Hence, total production per unit area can be increased by increasing the productivity per unit area through (a) growing improved high yielding varieties and hybrids, (b) adequate and scientific crop management practices and (c) increasing cropping intensities following different cropping patterns.

Concern for improvement of nutritional quality of vegetables has arisen in the context of providing nutritional security to our ever-increasing population. Nutritional security denotes the consumption and physiological use of adequate quantities of safe and nutritious food by every member of the family and encompasses the process of equitable distribution among members of household and communities (Nandi and Bhattacharjee, 2002). This would entail the need to ensure a varied food intake, comprising all the essential macro-and micronutrients (protein, carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins), plant pigments (lycopene, beta-carotene, anthocianin, lutein, capsanthin, zeaxanthin, etc.) and other functional phytochemicals (secondary metabolites, like flavonoids, isothiocyanates, glucosinolates, etc.) through a diversified diet. In this regard, production and consumption of vegetables that are the valuable source of micronutrients, beneficial phytonutrients and highly functional phytochemicals hold the key in assuring nutritional security.

Implication of vegetables in diet has been well conceived among the high-income group in the world since human health in recent years has assumed an unprecedently important status. Increased interests in nutrition, fitness and beauty have exaggerated concerns over diet and human health. A new diet-health paradigm is evolving which places more emphasis on the positive aspects of diet. Foods have now assumed the status of functional foods, which should be capable of providing additional physiological benefits, such as preventing or delaying the onset of chronic diseases as well as meeting basic nutritional requirements so with high-income elasticity, the demand for vegetables and perception of diversified diet have been growing steadily, hence, both access and consumption of vegetables have been increasing in the urban and peri-urban population groups. However, meeting the requirements for macro- and micronutrients for most of the population groups in households and communities of South Asia, Latin America and African countries seems far off because of meager presence of vegetables in the diet. In south Asia where meat intake is low, ascorbic acid emerges as one of the most important enhancers of iron absorption. This is attributed to the fact that foods containing vegetables may provide an optimal mix of minerals, vitamins, antioxidants, dietary fibers and other non-nutrients bioactive compounds.

Plant breeding/genetic improvement aims at altering plant genotypes in a way that they suit human needs for food, feed and industrial raw products and support sustainable plant production. In that sense, plant breeding may be regarded as the evolution of plant type by the will of mankind. Plant breeding/genetic improvement is important because an improved cultivar is the most-economic and least laborious input for farmers.

Plant breeding is one of the early accomplishments of humankind. Many of the cultivated plants are the result of slow and involuntary improvement from wild progenitors by human being over centuries. In fact, the process of domestication of wild plants is one of the most fascinating chapters in the history of humankind. Concept of plant breeding came in the being through domestication as it involved selection of the most desirable types. Among the ancient domesticates, some of the vegetable crops are front-runners, like peas, radish, muskmelon, watermelon, etc. Other present day popular vegetable crops were domesticated later in the Neolithic times. Some species including certain vegetables are still undergoing the domestication process. However, for all practical purposes, the breeders have given up domestication of wild relatives of the cultivated species. Today, breeders often incorporate important characters, like resistance to biotic stresses, adaptability to environments, etc. to the cultivated forms from their wild relatives.

Selection from the available variations is the oldest and the most effective breeding procedure. However, genetic recombination at present forms the basis of modern plant breeding approach. In this respect, Josef Kolreuter’s extensive crossing experiments between 1755 and 1806 were essentially the first attempts to scientifically-reconstruct naturally occurring species and types by combining their characters. Any way, no matter what method is adopted in the breeding approach, it inevitably involves selection, which is the most difficult part of overall breeding process.

The industrial revolution in Western Europe and concomitant flourish of capitalism and increasing commercial agricultural production stimulated breeding activities as a profitable venture of capitalistic economy. Throughout the 19th century, thousands of large and small seed companies were developed in Germany, England and the United States out of this impetus.

Procedure: weigh vegetables 20 g (for each variation) Water: add sufficiently
1. Cook the vegetable in water in a pan according to the “cooking time” variations given in the table 1 and note down the color, texture and flavor changes takes place during cooking for each variation and record the observations

Cowpea, Vigna unguiculata under the family Fabaceae (Leguminosae) and having chromosome no. 2n = 2x =22 is in cultivation from ancient times in the tropics of old world. Cowpea is grown for green edible pods, immature seeds, dry grains and edible leaves as leafy greens. The immature pods and seeds as well as dry seeds besides being widely used as fresh vegetable and pulse are also frozen and canned. Immature pods are good source of protein, fibre, minerals, calcium and vitamins particularly vitamin A, B and C. It covers large areas in South Asia including India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Myanmar and Sri Lanka besides Southeast Asian countries, like Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and Philippines. It is also grown extensively in Brazil and other countries of Latin America. In Africa, it is commonly eaten as a pulse along with sorghum and millets while in India it is used both as pulse and vegetable almost throughout the country. Cowpea is also grown for hay or forage and green manure crop.
Origin, domestication and adaptation in India
Cowpea is one of the most ancient human food sources and has probably been used as a crop plant since Neolithic times. All evidence points to its originating in Africa because of the presence of conspecific wild forms, although where the crop was first domesticated is uncertain. Among the African countries, Ethiopia, Central and South Africa and West Africa are considered to be the probable centre of origin. Although, there is no archaeological evidence for early cowpea cultivation in the centre of diversity, there was early consensus regarding West Africa being the centre of origin and place of early domestication. However, later research using molecular markers has suggested that domestication may have instead occurred in East Africa and currently both the theories carry equal weight.

Introduction

India has a long history in the cultivation of vegetable crops and it sustains the livelihood of a large section of population directly or indirectly. Vegetable crops offer high returns,  have a potential to alleviate the poverty of people, provide nutritional security and essential raw materials for agro industries. These crops also offer greater rural employment opportunity and have high potential for foreign exchange earning. India bestowed with varied soil and high climatic conditions has excellent potential for growing both tropical and temperate vegetables. India is the second largest producer of vegetables in the world after China. The total area under vegetables is estimated 5.9 million ha which contributes more than 2.5% of total cropped area. The production is estimated  90.83 milion tonnes. China having a production of about 278.59 million tonnes  is the largest producer of vegetable crops in the world. The annual growth rate in vegetables is of the order of 2.6%. Potato, brinjal, tomato, chilli, cabbage, onion, cauliflower,okra and peas are grown on commercial scale. West Bengal, Uttar Predesh, Bihar, Orissa and Karnataka are the leading vegetable producing states. Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh and Andra Pradesh are the leading states in onion production where as West Bengal, Uttar Predesh and Bihar are the leading potato producing states. Bengal, Orissa, Bihar and Assam are the leading brinjal producing states.

Vegetables occupy an important place in diversification of agriculture and have played a pivotal role in the food and nutritional security of every growing population of our country. Vegetables are becoming important as cash crops for urban and export markets. Looking at the national scenario, vegetables have tremendous strength in terms of natural and genetic resources. A large number of wild taxa and indigenous germplasm are available in the country and many of them have not being fully capitalized. Though efforts have been made to tap the variability present among the vegetable crops in the country and many varieties have been released, it needs further attention so that the problems of biotic and abiotic stresses can also be minimized. The vast diversity of land, soil and agro climatic conditions prevalent in India also offers a unique competitiveness to grow wide range of vegetables. During the last four decades, India has made commendable progress in vegetable production (from 23.45 million tonnes in 1961-65 to 166.47 million tonnes in 2015-16), securing the position of second largest production of vegetables in world next only to China. The total world vegetable production is 1159.88 million tonnes from an area of 59.16 million hectares. In this, India contributes about 15.88 % with the production equal to 166.47 million tonnes from an area of 9.29 million hectares (NHB, 2015-16).

Breeding methods for vegetable crops are basically similar to those adopted in others like cereals, oilseeds or pulses. Certain aspects, peculiar to vegetables, however, require specific attention: (i) In many cases, the edible part of the plant is not the seed (as cauliflower, cabbage, carrot and onion) and hence while breeding for improved plant part that is used as vegetable, its seed production capacity needs due consideration, (ii) Vegetables like tomato, garden pea and onion are consumed in different forms (fresh or processed) and the end use of the product (like processing quality) has to be taken into account in breeding programmes, (iii) Consumer preferences (as for example in eggplant) size, colour and shape of the vegetable has to be given due emphasis, (iv) Being perishable in nature, keeping quality and suitability for long distance transportation are important attributes in vegetable crops unlike grain crops where bulk handling and haulage can be mechanised, (v) Another peculiarity with vegetable crops is that they vary widely in modes of reproduction necessitating appropriate choice of breeding methods. In addition to vegetatively propagated crops like potato, sweet potato, cassava (tapioca), garlic, pointed gourd or “Parwal (Trichosanthes dioica L.) and ivy gourd or ‘Kundru’ (Coccinia cordifolia L.), there are many seed propagated vegetable crops which are auto- or allogamous or intermediate (Table 1).

Within these broad groups, variations in the extent of cross- or self-pollination, namely, 15-20 per cent natural cross-pollination in chillies and 20-25 per cent natural self-pollination in muskmelon have been recorded.

Vegetable refers to the edible parts of plant such as leaf, root, stem, fruit, rhizome, corm or seeds consumed directly or after cooking. Vegetables are an important constituent of balanced diet taken for good health. Vegetables are good source of dietary fibre, protein, essential vitamins, minerals and antioxidants. Hence, vegetables play a vital role for human health. In urban areas, vegetables can be grown in the backyard, rooftop and terrace. Harvesting vegetables from own garden has a separate satisfaction. The vegetables produced in home gardens are of superior quality as those do not contain any harmful toxic substance. Growing vegetables in the home premises will reduce the daily expenditure of a family. In urban areas, vegetable can be taken in small patches in the backyard to fulfil the family requirement. In absence of surplus land area, it can be grown in pots, containers or polythene bags placed on the rooftop or terrace. Some vegetables can also be grown on the rooftop in a specially prepared bed with shallow depth of soil. In this chapter, discussion is made for cultivation of vegetables in small patches.

The purpose and the mode of marketing of vegetables determine the type of vegetable gardening. The various types of vegetable gardening are as follows.

Home or Kitchen gardening

Market gardening

Truck gardening

Processing gardening

Vegetable forcing

Seed production gardening

Floating vegetable gardening

Vegetables are grown on a limited scale in homesteads for family use and cultivated in an extensive scale for marketing.  Depending on the purpose for which they are developed, vegetable gardens are classified into different types, viz., kitchen garden or nutrition garden, market garden, truck garden, garden for processing, garden for seed production and vegetable forcing or protected cultivation.

Vegetables are grown on a limited scale in homesteads for family use and cultivated in an extensive scale for marketing. Depending on the purpose for which they are developed, vegetables gardens are classified into different types, viz., kitchen garden or nutrition garden, market garden, truck garden, garden for processing, garden for seed production and vegetable forcing or protected cultivation.

1. Kitchen garden or nutrition garden

Kitchen garden or home garden or nutrition garden is primarily intended for continuous supply of fresh vegetables for family use. A number of vegetables are grown in available land for getting a variety of vegetables. Most of works are done by family members. Area of garden, lay out, crops selected etc. depend on availability and nature of land. In rural area, land will not be a limiting factor and scientifically laid out garden can be established. In urban areas, land is a limiting factor and very often crops are raised in limited available area or in terraces of buildings. Cultivation of crops in pots or in cement bags is also feasible in cities.

The unique advantages of a kitchen garden or home garden are:

(i) Supply fresh fruits and vegetables high in nutritive value

Introduction

Biotechnology, in the recent years, has created unprecedented opportunities not only for the manipulation of biological systems for the benefit of mankind, but also to understand studies for better understanding of the fundamental life processes. Consequently, it has become the fastest and most rapidly growing technology in the world. As per US National Science Foundation, “Biotechnology is defined as any technique that uses living organisms or parts of organisms to make or modify products, to improve plants, amend animals or to develop microorganisms for specific uses”. Biotechnology offers new strategies that can be used to develop transgenic crop plants with improved growth, yield and quality and tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. By transgenic crop, we mean any plant containing a gene(s) which have been artificially inserted instead of the plant acquiring them through pollination. A plant in which a foreign gene has been transferred through genetic engineering is called transgenic plant and the gene so transferred is called transgenic. The inserted gene sequence known as transgene may come from another unrelated plant or from completely different species. Plants containing transgene are often called genetically modified or GM crops. Transgenic technologies have opened up many exciting possibilities to improve products with added value having application in food, agriculture, animal husbandry, environment, medicine and industry. It also offers uncommon opportunities for improvement in genetic potential of plants and animals by introduction or removal of gene(s) that regulate a specific trait.

Introduction

Another limitation in a remote area such as the high-altitude region is the steady supply of wholesome and fresh food. Indian troops are stationed up to 2200 feet above sea level; generally speaking, high altitude is defined as elevations between 8000 and 15,000 feet above sea level. When someone who is not acclimated to high altitudes is exposed, they can experience a set of symptoms known as acute mountain sickness (AMS). One of the most severe symptoms of AMS is hypoxia. There may be neurological and cerebral symptoms, such as diminished ability to focus for extended periods, memory problems, problems with hearing and vision, vertigo and tinnitus, and irritability. The low appetite may persist; additional issues linked to high altitude include anorexia with weight loss, sleeplessness, and physical and emotional exhaustion.

Seedlings of several vegetables are first raised in well prepared nursery beds, followed by transplanting in the field. Raising of seedling in the nursery beds is economical as well as easier to take care of young, tender seedlings against pest and diseases. Further, raising of seedlings in nursery allow more time for land preparation.

Site and soil for nursery

In selecting a site for nursery beds, following points should be considered viz sunny situation, good drainage and irrigation facilities. Sandy loam soil with plenty of organic matter are ideal for starting nursery beds. In case of heavy soils it is desirable to add coarse sand to modify the soil condition. Before sowing seed it is essential to sterlize the beds by steam or formaldehyde or any other chemical to do away with problem of damping-off disease. Burning of leaves or straw in the beds is quite helpful in controlling certain soil borne diseases and pests.

R aising of healthy vegetable seedlings is most important aspect in vegetable production, because, up to a large extent it determines the productivity and profitability. Nursery raising under open field conditions suffers by a number of biotic and abiotic factors like, continuous rains, too low and too high temperatures, disease and insect-pest etc. For the early establishment in the field and to reduce the cost of production, vegetable seedlings are being raised in plug trays under controlled conditions round the year. Under this system, each transplant grows in an individual cell to reduce the competition among transplants and maintain the uniformity. Plug transplants establish better in field because roots are not damaged in pulling, transplants often result in better stands, and their growth can be controlled more easily through fertility and water management. With the passage of time, a lot of advances have been made in this direction and a number machines have been developed like media sterilizer, media mixer, plug trays filling, seed sowing machine, growth chamber etc. by which the raising of seedlings under controlled environment becomes easier and labour intensive.

The growth is insulated to allow for heating or cooling according to specific germination needs of the seed. This technique reduces fluctuations in temperature and moisture that can occur in an open house. The growth chambers are usually an insulated room in which temperature and relative humidity can be maintained at a precise level. Air circulation is important to ensure uniform temperature and humidity throughout the chamber. Grafting in vegetables is a recent practice to control soil-borne diseases and nematodes, for both field and greenhouse grown crops. In addition, grafted vegetables can produce higher yields and have improved tolerance to environmental stresses, soil salinity and low soil temperatures which is only possible under protected conditions. Thus under present scenario, raising of seedlings under controlled environment offers opportunity to go for commercial nursery with different machines.

Protein Pea, French bean, cowpea, cluster bean, amaranth and broad bean. Carbohydrates Potato, sweet potato, dry beans, yam and tapioca. Vitamin-A Carrot, palak, amaranth, pumpkin, methi and paprika Vitamin-B Garden pea and Indian bean Vitamin-C Tomato, sweet pepper, green chilli, cauliflower, knol-khol, bitter gourd, amaranth, methi, palak and cabbage. Calcium Methi, kale, beet leaf, amaranth, broccoli, onion, beet root, Indian bean, and cabbage. Potassium Sweet potato, potato, bitter gourd, raddish, dolichos, onion and green leafy vegetables. Phosphorus Garlic, garden pea, bitter gourd, broccoli, onion, leek, kale, amaranth. Iron bitter gourd, amaranth, methi, poi, beet leaf, leek and spinach

Vegetable pea also known as garden pea (Pisum sativum, 2n = 2x = 14, family Fabaceae, formley Leguminosae, sub-family Papilionaceae), is rich in vitamins and sugars. Its green immature grains are consumed as fresh vegetables. Picked peas, are canned, frozen and dehydrated or freeze dried for super stores markets. Those associated with the immature pod are the snow, sugar or sugar snap types where pods are consumed. The total pea production world-wise has steadily increased owing to increasing green pea volume and top five countries are China (1.4 million ha), India (0.50 million ha), United States (0.08 million ha), United Kingdom (0.04 million ha) and Algeria (0.04 million ha). For field pea, the major producing countries are Russia, China, Canada, Europe, Australia and United States.

India produced 5.42 million tons of garden pea from 0.54 million ha area during 2017-18 giving a productivity of 10 tons/ha. The major garden pea producing states in India in descending order are UP, MP, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, West Bengal and Assam. UP alone accounts for 40% of the total garden pea area. Within UP, major districts contributing to the vegetable pea are Jalaun, Lalitput, Jhansi, Mahoba, Kasganj, Etah, Sultanpur, Azamgarh, Hamirpur, and Amethi (MAFW, 2018).

7.1. Status Vegetables are generally sensitive to environmental extremes, and thus high temperatures and limited soil moisture are the major causes of low yields as they greatly affect several physiological and biochemical processes like reduced photo-synthetic activity, altered metabolism and enzymatic activity, thermal injury to the tissues, reduced pollination and fruit set etc., which will be further magnified by climate change. The consequences of the climate change badly hit the vegetable production. Under changing climatic situations crop failures, shortage of yields, reduction in quality and increasing pest and disease problems are common and they render the vegetable cultivation unprofitable. This ultimately questions the availability of nutrient source in human diet.

Historical Account on Vegetable Cultivation in India

The vegetables have chequered history in India which dates back to prehistoric period before the arrival of Aryans in India (c. 1500-1000 BC). During the pre-historic times before the arrival of Aryans in India, the Proto-Australoids (Nisada) used brinjal, bottle gourd and watermelon as vegetables. Pea existed in India much before the Aryans came to the country and it was already present in Western Asia prior to its cultivation. The pea, most likely the field pea (Pisum sativum subsp. sativum var. arvense L.) was eaten during the Harappan civilization as evidenced from the archaeological excavations of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa (2500-1750 B.C.) in which carbonized pea seeds were discovered. Pea seeds were also found from Neolithic site (last stage of the Stone age) of Chirand in Bihar (situated 10 Km south-east of Chapra), Chacolithic site (period or Copper Age) of Maheshwar Nevdatoli (c. 1200 BC.) in Madhya Pradesh and part of Osmanabad district in Maharashtra. The presence of seeds of melon along with wheat was also recorded from the Harappan excavation. Plant remains of Chenopodium album, Portulaca oleracea and a few species of Solanaceae, Polygonaceae and Labiatae family during Mesolithic times (Middle Stone Age) were found at Mesolithic site of Damdama, Uttar Pradesh (c. 7000-6000 BC). Wood charcoals of plant remains of Lablab purpureus were found from the early phase of Indus-Saraswati (Sarasvati) or Indus Ghaggar-Hakra civilization (c. 3100-2800 BC). Kundru (Coccinia indica), cowpea and field pea were recorded from Hulas in Saharanpur district, Uttar Pradesh, late Indus valley civilization archeological site. Carbonized seeds of hyacinth bean (dolichos bean), peas, Phaseolus, Vigna and melon from Rojdi in Gujarat and Chenopodium and amaranth from Surkotada, Gujarat (c. 2300-1800 BC), both being the archaeological sites belonging to the Indus valley civilization also suggested the existence of vegetables in India in the pre-historic times. Among the vegetables eaten during the pre-historic period, like brinjal, bottle gourd, watermelon, peas and melon as mentioned earlier, only brinjal has its origin in India while the other were brought from other countries much before the arrival of the Aryans. It is difficult to understand how a few important Indian native vegetables, like cucumber, Luffa (smooth and ridge gourd), pointed gourd and Dolichos bean (Lablab purpureus) were not known at that time. Similarly okra which has a secondary centre of origin in India has not been mentioned in any ancient literature. However, Abelmoschus moschatus called “Lata kasturika” in Sanskrit as a source of perfume has been recorded in Carak Samhita. The use of bottle gourd, which is not a native vegetable, is known from pre-historic times. Its dried fruit-shell is used as a hand jug (utensils) by saints and monks and in musical string instruments, like ektara, tamboora, tanpura, sitar and veena. Even mythological paintings have always delineated Naradmuni with tamboora in his hand and the goddess Saraswati with Veena which suggest the antiquity of bottle gourd in India. However, its date of introduction and the place from where it came remain unrecorded. It is also not mentioned in any iconography of the Medieval period (9^th and 10^th Century AD).

Rajasthan has geographical area of 3.42 lakh sq. km has attained the status of being the largest state of India. The state represents 10.4% land surface area with 5.5% population of India, 66% is dependent on agricultural for their livelihood. The state is divided into 33, districts, which are further subdivided into 338 Tehsils and 295 Panchayat Samitis. The total cultivable area is around 220.00 lakh ha. The average rainfall of the State is 575 mm, out of which about 532 mm precipitation occurs in the rainy season i.e. June to September. The average rainfall of eastern Rajasthan is about 704 mm and that of western Rajasthan is about 310 mm which reflects a vast variation. Rivers in Rajasthan are non-perennial except for Chambal and Mahi rivers. The State is presently divided into 33 administrative districts and has 10 agro-climatic zones. Agriculture in Rajasthan is primarily rain fed covering country’s 13.27 per cent of available land. Groundwater is getting depleted as well as polluted. In general, every third year is a drought year. Despite these, the State has made significant achievements since independence and has attained self-sufficiency in food- grains. Rajasthan is located in the north-western part of the subcontinent. It is bounded on the west and north-west by Pakistan, on the north and north-east by the states of Haryana, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh, on the east; in the south- east by the states of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, and on the south- west by the state of Gujarat. The Tropic of Cancer passes through its southern tip in the Banswara district. In the west, Rajasthan is relatively dry and infertile: this area includes some of the Thar Desert, also known as the Great Indian Desert. In the south-western part of the state, land is wetter, hilly, and more fertile.

Vegetables: Three conditions shoul1d be met to be called a horticultural produce as a ‘vegetable’ viz.

• Vegetables are herbaceous plants
• They mostly serve culinary purpose
• They are also used in small quantity in a raw form.

Scenario

Area

• India is the second largest producer of vegetables in the world, next to China. India’s share of the world vegetable market is around 14%.
• India produces 188.28 m tonns

Vegetable research in India is of very recent origin. Research on vegetable crops was started by ICAR with the sanctioning of a nucleus ‘Plant Introduction Scheme’ at IARI, New Delhi in 1947-48. Simultaneously, the ICAR also started such ad-hoc schemes in different states like Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir and Tamil Nadu.

Prior to World War II, entire seeds of temperate vegetables were imported from European countries. When, during World War II, supply of vegetable seeds from Europe suffered a serious setback, the government of India felt the need for production of these seeds within the country. As a result of this, the government of India established a Vegetable Breeding Station at Katrain in Kullu Valley, Himachal Pradesh in 1949. This station was transferred to Indian Agriculture Research Institute in 1955 to undertake research on improvement of temperate vegetable crops, standardization of their seed production technology and to produce seeds of identified improved varieties of temperate vegetables. This research station is carrying out intensive research on all aspects of temperate vegetables including improvement, production technology and their seed production.

Further, a division of Horticulture was created at the Indian Agriculture Research Institute, New Delhi in 1956-57. However, vegetable research was organized on sound footing with the establishment of the Indian Institute of Horticulture Research (IIHR) at Bangalore with a full fledged Division of Vegetable Crops in 1968. The vegetable research in India received a further boost when a separate division of Vegetables Crops and Floriculture was started at IARI, New Delhi in 1970. The floriculture work was separated from the division of Vegetable Crop and Floriculture, IARI, New Delhi in 1982 and the division was then named as Division of Vegetable Crops, which was assigned the research work exclusively on different vegetable crops. In the Sixth Five-year Plan, IIHR, Bangalore started two Central Horticulture Experiment Stations, one each at Ranchi, (Bihar) and Godhra (Gujarat) to intensify research on horticultural crops in important tribal areas of the country where research on vegetable crops was also started to meet the specific requirements of these regions. Establishment of Agricultural Universities and All India Coordinated Vegetables Improvement Project gave further fillip to vegetable research in India.

2.4. Plan-wise Initiation of AICRP (Vegetable Crop) Centres in India Regular Centre Initiated in plan/year ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi IV Plan (1971) ICAR-IARI Regional Vegetable Reseearch Station, Katrain, Kullu IV Plant (1971) ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi IV Plan (1971) ICAR-IARI Regional Vegetable Research Station, Katrain, Kullu, Himachal Pradesh IV Plant (1971) ICAR-Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore, Karnataka IV Plan (1971) Punjab Agriculture University, Ludhiana, Punjab IV Plan (1971) Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa Bihar IV Plan (1971) Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, Maharashtra IV Plan (1971