eChapters

Introduction

Scope and importance

Aquaculture is breeding, rearing and husbandry of aquatic animals such as f ishes, crustaceans and molluscs for food, ornament and sports. It is a husbandry involving special animals, the cold blooded vertebrates and invertebrates, whose physiology, growth, metabolic activities and overall performance depend heavily on ambient aquatic temperature and environment. Therefore, husbandry and the health management of aquatic animals is quite different from that of the other land based warm blooded animals.

Aquaculture is one of the fastest growing food production sectors in the world including India. Three decades ago, few species were cultured in India mainly in inland waters and then aquaculture was contributing less than 10 % of total f ish production in the country. In the last 25 years, there is a rapid growth in aquaculture with annual rate of 7-8% with significant contribution (above 60%)to total fish production today. The number of species cultured today in India including ornamentals is close to 40. Besides, a good number of plant and animal fish food organisms are cultured to support the hatcheries and nurseries in aquaculture. The area under aquaculture is increasing steadily in inland and coastal brackish water while marine water is also being added up for aquaculture slowly and steadily. Very interestingly, non-traditional environment such as manmade saline soils are also explored successfully for aquaculture. Intensification of culture activity with high stocking density artificial feed and fertilizers is another dimension of aquaculture noteworthy. Large scale movement of aquatic animals and their raw or processed products across national and international borders is important from aquaculture production and health point of view. In general, aquaculture package of practices alter the very water in terms of its chemistry and microbial load and has significant negative impact on the health of fish in culture system.

Statistical Series: When observations of any characteristic present in the individual of a group are recorded and arranged one after the other in a systematic order, they form a series, known as statistical series. For example: milk yield of 20 cows, height of the students in a class in a systematic order, etc. These are some important types of series:

• Discrete series: In this series, observations can take up only exact values and not any fractional values, is called discrete series. That means, this type of series has whole number of counting. For example: number of the students in a class, members of a family, number of births in a certain year, etc

• Continuous series: A series which can take up any numerical value (integral/ fractional) within a certain range is called continuous series. For example: milk yield of 20 cows, height, weight, temperature, etc.

• Array series: When we arranged the observations of a series either in ascending order of their magnitude or descending order of their magnitude, then it becomes an array series.

• Spatial series: When items of a series are given according to space or place or time, then such type of series is known as spatial series. For example: month wise milk yield of a herd of cows, month wise income or expenditure of an industry, population of a country according to states, etc.

Subject: Biostatistics and computer application (UNIT-I)

Write true (T) or false (F)

Q1. Write true (T) or false (F)

1. The mean and mode are always equal in case of normal distribution.

2. Pie diagram is circular diagram.

3. Skewness is the measure of asymmetry of distribution.

4. Mean sum of squares are the variances.

5. Coefficient of variation may be utilized for comparing two data of different unit.

6. Goodness fit is tested by t-test.

7. Variance is a measure of central tendency.

8. CRD can be use where experimental material is heterogenous.

9. Frequency polygon is made by joining the middle points of the top of each rectangle of histogram.

1. PhuleTriveni synthetic cattle evolved by the crossing of

a) Holstein x Jersey x Rathi

b) Holstein x Brown Swiss x Gir

c) Holstein x Jersey x Gir

d) Ayrshire x Jersey x Gir

2. Chhota nagpuri breed of sheep is found in

a) Nagpur

b) Uttar Pradesh

c) Jharkhand

d) Gujarat

Developmental Anomalies

Epitheliogenesis imperfecta of tongue

Abnormal smooth surface of tongue due to small filiform papillae. It occurs as a defect in autosomal recessive gene and occurs in Holstein-Friesian cattle. This is also known as smooth tongue.

Cleft palate

This is most common congenital abnormality that occurs due to failure of oral nasal cavity to divide leaving cleft. It may also extend towards lips producing ‘harelip’ condition.

Mega colon

There is distention of colon which abruptly terminates in rectum due to mutant gene in dogs.

This chapter deals with the findings of the study along with the discussion based on the analysis. This study tried to represent its findings as per the objectives of the study. At the end of this chapter, interrelation has been made, an explanation has been tried to put out down and an attempt has been done to reveal the cause behind it. The results and their pertaining discussion are presented according to the specific objectives of the study.

This chapter presents the analysis, interpretation and discussion of the collected data from the study area in an effort to attain the objective of the study. The data collected were analyzed with appropriate statistical test and presented in a systematic format.

The results of the study are presented under the following subheadings:

4.1 Distribution of respondents according to different socio-economic variables

Basic information of the respondents under the study has been given according to the socio-economic characteristic of the respondents. Variables like age, education, marital status, family size, family type, milk production per day, social status, farming experience, herd size, land holding and annual income are presented in the following table 4.1

 

 

This chapter deals with the findings of the study along with the discussion based on the analysis. This study tried to represent its findings as per the objectives of the study. At the end of this chapter, interrelation has been made, explanation has been tried to put out down and attempt has been done to reveal the cause behind it. The results and their pertaining discussion are presented according to the specific objectives of the study.

This table 6.1 presents the distribution of 15 independent variables (x1-x15 ) in terms of their Minimum, Maximum, Mean, Variance, Standard deviation, and Coefficient of variation.

Introduction

Agricultural production is necessary to fulfil nutritional requirements for human populations and global food security. The agricultural sector also forms the economic backbone of many low-income countries in which millions of farmers are employed (Anushka et al, 2022). However, managing agricultural production to achieve multiple objectives of providing food, supporting livelihoods and protecting biodiversity and forests is a challenge especially in tropical, low-income countries (Anushka et al, 2022). Usually, the growth in global agricultural production is largely driven by commercial and export oriented commodities. One such agricultural commodity that has high global demand is cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.). Cashew is presently cultivated in 33 countries including India in the world. Global land area for cashew cultivation between 1980 and 2018 has seen an eleven-fold increase from 526,250 ha to 5,972,724 ha (Anushka et al, 2022).

According to the facts, groundwater salinization and the scarcity of freshwater are indeed expanding. In the coming decades, saline water will replace freshwater as the principal resource for agriculture and aquaculture. Over 8.62 million hectares of land in India and over 397 million hectares of land worldwide have been rendered unusable for traditional agriculture as a result of secondary salinization. Use of salinized land and the water resources for aquaculture is a flexible solution to reduce environmental problem with multiple potential benefits on the economic, social, and environmental fronts. As aquaculture demand has increased, new production methods have been developed. Inland saline aquaculture, here defined as a land-based aquaculture system using saline groundwater and surface water, is practised by a number of countries, including Israel, USA, India, and Australia. The possibility that saline groundwater may differ chemically from coastal seawater is one of the key barriers to the growth of inland saline aquaculture. One must either change the chemistry or choose species that can tolerate the fluctuations to get around this. Several species are farmed or evaluated for their potential including finfish like tilapia, Indian Major Carps, catfishes, climbing perch, Asian sea bass, cobia, milkfish, mullet, and sturgeons. By combining the usage of resources, cultural systems play a significant part in attaining the disruptive technology of inland saline aquaculture. This review revealed the finfish species raised in inland saline resources as well as culture methods such as pond-based, tank-based, biofloc, and aquaponic systems for inland saline aquaculture. One of the cutting-edge food production methods required to boost aquaculture productivity and meet the expanding seafood demand is inland saline aquaculture. In spite of this, inland saline aquaculture has yet to become an industrial-scale and rural business to produce sustainably from unutilized lands.

Introduction
Environmental science plays a critical role in understanding and addressing the complex interactions between human activities and the natural world. This chapter explores the intersection of environmental science and agriculture, emphasizing the importance of ecological balance for sustainable development. As agriculture continues to be a major driver of environmental change, understanding its impacts on ecosystems, biodiversity, and climate is crucial for developing strategies that promote sustainability.
The chapter begins by examining the environmental impacts of agriculture, including land degradation, deforestation, and pollution. It then explores agroecology and biodiversity, highlighting the importance of maintaining diverse ecosystems to support sustainable agricultural practices. Sustainable resource management is discussed as a key approach to conserving natural resources and minimizing the environmental footprint of agriculture.
Climate-smart agriculture, a modern concept that integrates environmental sustainability with agricultural productivity, is introduced as a solution to mitigate the effects of climate change while ensuring food security. The chapter also covers environmental regulations and policies, which are essential for guiding sustainable agricultural practices and protecting the environment.
As the chapter progresses, it delves into the importance of environmental science in food security, the impact of environmental factors on global warming, and various modern concepts in environmental science, including sustainable food systems, circular economy, and ecosystem-based approaches. The chapter concludes with a discussion on combating food security and global warming challenges through sustainable practices and policies.
Environmental science plays a crucial role in agriculture by studying the interactions between agricultural practices and the natural environment. This chapter explores various aspects of environmental science in agriculture, including the environmental impacts of agriculture, agroecology and biodiversity, sustainable resource management, climate-smart agriculture, and environmental regulations and policies. Agriculture and the environment are inherently interconnected, as agricultural practices have both direct and indirect impacts on the natural environment. Environmental science in agriculture aims to understand these impacts and develop sustainable practices that minimize negative environmental

4.1 Introduction
There are special casting processes as listed below.
i. Shell casting
ii. Investment casting
iii. Ceramic mould casting
iv. Pressure diecasting
v. Centrifugal casting
vi. CO2 casting process
vii. Stir casting
viii. Squeeze casting
ix. Full mould casting
x. Magnetic casting
xi. Micro casting
4.2 Shell Casting
The complete aspect of shell casting has been already presented under shell pattern in Section 2.4.1.3. For the purpose of reinforcement, it is reproduced here. Sand that has been covered in resin is used as the mould in the casting process known as shell mould casting, or just shell moulding. After pouring molten metal into the mould’s cavity, the mould vaporizes to produce a hard shell. This process will have two or more patterns to give shape and size to the final product to be casted.
The steps of making shell mould are presented below.
1. In the case of two pieces of patterns, make each pattern using iron or steel.
2. A mould is made once the pattern has been made. In this stage, a lubricant is applied after both pattern components have been heated. After that, each pattern piece is placed at the top of a dump box which contains resin covered sand. Then the pattern will absorb the sand.
3. Invert the dump box to free the excess sand particles sticking the patten.

4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Overview of Genomics in Biotechnology
The genome of an organism serves as the ‘blueprint of life’ (Baeza, 2024) and functions as an information repository (Goldman & Landweber, 2016), containing the necessary information for the synthesis of molecules, cells, and tissues (Abera et al., 2017). A study of the entire collection of genes within an organism’s genome is known as genomics (NIH, 2022; WHO, 2025). Genomics encompasses aspects of genetics, focusing on the comprehensive characterization of an organism’s entire set of genes rather than on individual genes (Baeza, 2024). The investigation of living organisms has undergone a transformation through the application of genomics and related fields, providing unique insights that enhance various applications aimed at improving human life, economic conditions (Kalaitzandonakes et al., 2023), and environmental sustainability (Mudaliar et al., 2023).
According to a genomic analysis, 80% of the 6,000 rare disorders have genetic causes (Brittain et al., 2017). Cancer, a genetic disease, has revealed through DNA sequencing the mutational events and oncogenic drivers (D. Wang et al., 2023). Genomic tests contribute significantly to the prediction and prevention of diseases, including familial hypercholesterolaemia (FH) (Brittain et al., 2017). Agricultural industries are currently confronting multiple challenges, including global changes in climate (Bai et al., 2024), growing populations (Putri et al., 2019), resource depletion (Feng et al., 2023), reduction of cultivable land (Mirzabaev et al., 2023), and the prevalence of pathogens (Hossain & Roslan, 2023). Advances in genomic technologies, such as DNA sequencing and gene editing, have transformed the field. DNA sequencing includes; Nextgeneration sequencing (NGS) (Marudamuthu et al., 2023), Ribonucleic acid sequencing (RNA-seq) (Upton et al., 2023), whereas, gene editing methods includes; Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeat- CRISPR associated protein 9 (CRISPR/ Cas9) (Q. Liu et al., 2021), Transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENS) Zinc-finger nucleases (ZNF) (Malzahn et al., 2017) and Oligonucleotide directed mutagenesis (ODM) (Ravikiran et al., 2025) as well as doubled haploids (Chen et al., 2024), molecular markers (Kumar et al., 2024) and mapping populations (Temesgen, 2021), offers potential solutions against such agricultural challenges (Hossain & Roslan, 2023). Genome sequencing techniques are applied to various fields of industrial biotechnology such as; strain development or improvement (Salazar-Cerezo et al., 2023), enzyme discovery (Zaparucha et al., 2018) and analysis of microbial community (Hosokawa et al., 2022). The potential to enhance microbial strains through the incorporation, deletion, or alteration of

“Age and Area”: The hypothesis (by Willis) that the older a species is, the wider will be its geographical distribution.

A-Without; lacking.

A.I.: See active ingredient.

A.O.U. Code: A code of nomenclature published in 1885 (revised 1908) by the American Ornithologists’ Union for the standardization of bird nomenclature.

Ab-Away from; off.

Summary

The main greenhouse gases (GHGs) that have caused the global climate change or global warming are carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O). CO₂ is the principal anthropogenic GHG that affects the earth’s radiative balance. It is the reference gas against which other GHGs are measured and therefore has a Global Warming Potential (GWP) of 1. CH₄ and N₂O have a GWP of 21 and 310, respectively. CO₂ is responsible for most of the enhanced greenhouse effect of more than 50%, CH₄ for about 10-15% and N₂O for about 8%. The global atmospheric concentrations of CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O have increased since 1750. While CO₂ increased from a pre-industrial value of 280 ppm to 379 ppm in 2005, CH₄ increased from 715 ppb to 1774 ppb and N₂O increased from 270 ppb to 319 ppb during the same period. Rich countries and large developing countries account for most of global CO₂ emissions (China 23.5%, USA 18.27%, India 5.83%, Russia 5.72%, Japan 4.04% and European Union 13.98%). A new climate agreement called ‘Warsaw International mechanisms (November 2013) on loss and damage’ agreed to help the poor countries to cope with loss and damage from heatwaves, droughts, floods, typhoons, desertification and rising sea levels. The Warsaw agreement also includes a set of decisions to help developing countries to reduce GHG emissions from deforestation and degradation of forests which is backed by pledges of US$280 million financing by the United States, Norway and the United Kingdom. Projections for global average temperature rise is in the range of 1.1-6.4°C; a doubling of CO₂ (from pre-industrial 280 ppm) and average sea level rise is in the range of 0.18-0.59 m (Meehel et al. 2007) and 0.5–2.4 m (Brown et al. 2013). Hot extremes, heat waves and heavy precipitation events will continue to become more frequent. Projected data show that there is an increasing global trend in the rise of average temperature in all countries, regions or sub-zones; a decreasing trend in average precipitation in most sub-tropical areas and an increasing trend of precipitation in most of the tropical and high latitudes.

Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.), famous as “Black Gold” and also known the “King of Spices” is the most important agricultural commodities of commerce and trade in India. It is the most important, most popular and most widely used spice in the World. Of the total spices traded internationally, black pepper accounts for 34 per cent. South West India is the traditional home of this important spice, particularly the Malabar Coast. Black pepper is also grown in tropical zones such as the Asia Pacific Region, mainly India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, China, Vietnam and Cambodia. Outside the Asia Pacific region, the crop is distributed in Brazil, Mexico, Guatemala, etc., totaling about 26 countries. It is grown successfully between 20°N and 20°S latitude and from mean sea level to 1500 meters above sea level. World’s black pepper production varies in the range of 2.7 to 3.35 tonnes annually.

Introduction

Chromatography was first employed by Ramsey (1905) to separate mixture of gases and vapours. These first experiments used selective adsorption on, or desorption from, solid absorbents such as active charcoals. The  following year Tswett (1906) obtained discrete coloured bands of plant pigments on a chromatographic column. He coined the term “chromatography” (literally “colour writing”) which is obviously a misnomer when used retrospectively. Contribution of Martin and Synge (1941) in a study for which they were awarded the Nobel prize, and later James and Martin introduced gas-liquid chromatography in 1951 and 1952.

INTRODUCTION

Bangladesh is a very small country of 1,47,570 square kilometer area having a population of 150 millions. The country has only 8.29 million hectare (Bangladesh Krishi Diary, 2003) cultivable land against the huge population. The land area is gradually decreasing because of population growth, industrialization and other infrastructure development. This results in a declining trend of per capita land availability from 0.13 hectare to 0.06 hectare during the last few decades (1960 to 2000) (Food and Agriculture Organisation, Bangladesh Country Profile).

In order to ensure food security of this vast population and with the emergence of “Green Revolution” in 1960s, priority was given to produce more food in terms of grain through intensification of land usage. New crop variety (HYV), chemical fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation were introduced. As a result, immediate objective of more grain (rice) production had increased and Bangladesh had temporarily achieved self sufficiency in food (rice). Bangladesh made steady progress in crop agriculture in the post-independent period. Cropping intensity increased from 148 to 179 per cent and food grain production almost doubled during the period from 1969/70 to 1992/93 (Hoque, 2007).

However, a lot of HYVs, hybrids, which were introduced, required increased amount of chemicals, and over time they took a toll on the fertility of soil, gradually decreasing acreage production despite usage of high doses of chemical fertilizer and pesticides. Moreover, the natural disasters such as floods, droughts, etc., continued to result in fluctuation in production. Wide fluctuations in production led to large instability in food grain prices having serious implications for household food security and the welfare of the people. The attainment of food security and rural economic development, therefore, could no longer rely on the production of rice alone.

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. The Agriculture Sector of Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe has a total area of 390 580 square kilometers of which one per cent is made up of rivers and lakes, 38 per cent is arable land and the rest is suited for livestock and wildlife production. The country is bordered by South Africa, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia and Mozambique. It is located between latitudes 15,30 and 22,30 degrees south of the Equator and between longitudes 25 and 33,10 degrees east of the Greenwich Meridian (CSO, 2006).

The Agriculture sector forms the backbone of Zimbabwe’s economy and accounts for about 17 per cent of the GDP. Zimbabwe‘s agricultural sector comprises mostly smallholder farmers who include communal, resettlement and small-scale farmers. However, this sector is besieged by a plethora of issues, namely high stocking rates, sub-optimal climate, and deforestation and land degradation. The Land Reform and Resettlement Programme which commenced in 1980 resulted in hundreds of thousands of Zimbabweans being resettled on former white commercial farms, in either Model A1(communally owned) or A2 schemes (large scale commercial farms). Thus the challenge to policy makers was now to ensure that future agricultural production is not compromised by current practices. The new farming sector largely comprises resource poor farmers, academics, corporate leaders, high-level policy makers and traditional farmers. Most of the new farmers lack requisite Agricultural skills and knowledge needed in modern Agricultural practice. Land reform measures led to the exodus of some white farmers in the beginning of the 21st century which crippled the economy depriving it of technological know-how and causing shortages of basic commodities.

The modernization of agriculture therefore, among other intervention strategies, through the use of ICTs can contribute directly to food security at national and household levels, beneficiation of agricultural produce, effective land management and an increase of national wealth.

3.1. INTRODUCTION TO PLANT BREEDING

What is Plant Breeding?: Plant breeding is an art and science which deals with changing genotypes of the plants, to adapt them to the service of human being. (or) The application of genetic and cytogenetics principles in crop improvement are called plant breeding.

Specific objectives of plant breeding: The main objectives of the plant breeding is to improve the characteristics of crop plants which are agronomically and economically desirable

1. Area, Production and Productivity of Horticultural Crops (2013-2014)

9.1 INTRODUCTION

When a new individual arises from a somatic cell without formation of a seed, it is called vegetative propagation. Vegetative propagation occurs naturally (i.e., natural vegetative propagation) in many crops, and profitably exploited in horticulture using either conventional or biotechnological artificial techniques. We shall discuss conventional artificial vegetative propagation in this chapter including cuttings, grafting, budding, layering, suckering, etc. They have been widely used for commercial propagation of fruit trees and ornamental shrubs.

10.1 Introduction

Industrial effluents, which are deteriorate their quality, and push them to the brink of extinction in the process of unplanned discharge, giving rise to the need for suitable conservation strategies for the receiving water body. Unfortunately, over the years, less attention has been given to industrial effluents world over. The degradation of the industrial effluents has altered their functions, affecting the ecological balance. The objectives of carrying out the physico-chemical and biological analyses of water bodies are as follows:

1. Generally, industrial effluent functions directly relate to their physical, chemical and biological integrity. Water quality evaluation for industrial effluent leads to information about their misuse by indicating the pollution status. 1st define water quality objectives as the overall direction and purpose of the industrial effluent and furthermore define goals as milestones to be met during the course of a book. Since the quality of aquatic life depends on the water quality, a thorough assessment of the water quality is an integral part of industrial effluent toxicity evaluation. The assessment of the chemical criteria of the industrial effluent helps in

Introduction

Solid waste management is a worldwide problem and it is becoming more and more complicated day by day due to rise in population, industrialization and changes in our life style. Large quantities of organic wastes are produced from agricultural production and farming systems which include animal manures, sewage biosolids, food wastes, and industrial organic wastes. Globally, these wastes have the potential of increasing soil and water pollution as because they are currently disposed of by land-spreading, incineration, or into landfills. As much as 50%-60% of the total wastes that are disposed into landfills are organic wastes. If these were turned into materials useful in farming system, there would be great savings in primary plant nutrients and metabolic energy.

Vermicomposting has been arising as an innovative eco-technology for the method by which compost or mixed manure of organic origin or conversion of various types of waste is prepared by the use of earthworms. It is a controlled degradation (non-thermophilic, boioxidative process) of the organic wastes for the consumption of earthworms, helps in the recycling of food wastes, reduces the waste bulk density and the final product may contain hormone-like substance which accelerates the plant growth. Vermicompost is humus like, finely granulated and stabilized material which can be used as a soil conditioner to reintegrate the organic matter to the agricultural soils. Industrial wastes remain largely unutilized and often cause environmental problems like ground and surface water pollution, foul odours, occupying vast land areas etc. Non-toxic and organic industrial wastes could be potential raw material for vermitechnology. In the last two decades, vermin-technology has been applied for the management of industrial wastes and sludges and to convert them into vermicompost for land restoration practices. The success of the process depends upon several process parameters like quality of raw material, pH, temperature, moisture, aeration etc., type of vermicomposting system and earthworm species used. Vermicomposting and vermiculture are two interlinked and interdependent processes where vermiculture can be done in the presence of decomposable waste organic matter

3.1 Introduction

The green revolution has no doubt provided great increase in the production of food crops, but has led to a sizeable increase in energy use. With the cost of energy raising constantly and shortage faced in developing countries, the energy conservation given a special importance. It has been estimated that potential for conservation of commercial energy is around 20% in transport, 25% in industrial and 30 percent in agriculture. In a country like India where about 70% of people depend on agriculture for their livelihood. Agriculture being the primary sector has got its importance. Mechanisation of agriculture is inevitable for farm productivity. Mechanization of agriculture has two forms job requiring traction work, mobile mechanization need the use of machines for such jobs as pulling and drawing efforts e.g. plowing and tillage operations like harrowing, leveling, rolling, seeding, harvesting and hauling .

4.1 Principles of Economics

• ‘Economics’ word derived from two Greek words, oikos (a house) and

nemein (to manage) means ‘managing an household’

• Microeconomics: Study of the behavior of individual, small, isolated

and disaggregated units.

• Macroeconomics: Study of groups and broad aggregates of the economy.

• Adam Smith wrote the book- “An Enquire into the Nature and Causes of

Wealth of

• Nations” or in short “Wealth of Nations” in 1776.

• Adam Smith is known as father of modern economics.

4.2 Wealth Definition - Adam smith

• Adam smith (1723 - 1790), in his book “An Inquiry into Nature and

Causes of Wealth of Nations” (1776)

4.3 Welfare Definition - Alfred Marshall

• Alfred Marshall (1842 - 1924) wrote a book “Principles of Economics”

(1890)

• Alfred Marshall defined “Political Economy” or Economics is a study

of mankind in the ordinary business of life; it examines that part of

individual and social action which is most closely connected with the

attainment and with the use of the material requisites of well being”.

4.4 Scarcity Definition - Lionel Robbins

• Lionel Robbins published a book “An Essay on the Nature and

Significance of Economic Science” in 1932.

• Robbins defined, “economics is a science which studies human behaviour

as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative

uses”.

Definition and Scope
Offshore aquaculture, also known as open-ocean aquaculture, is an emerging approach to farming aquatic organisms in exposed, deeper waters further from the coastline than traditional nearshore aquaculture. While a precise definition remains elusive due to variations in regulatory frameworks and geographical contexts, offshore aquaculture is generally characterized by its location in deeper, more energetic waters with stronger currents and increased distance from shore (Holmer, 2010). This distinction from nearshore operations, typically situated in sheltered bays or estuaries, has significant implications for environmental impact, species suitability, and technological requirements.
Key characteristics of offshore aquaculture
• Increased depth and distance from shore: Offshore aquaculture operations are typically situated in waters deeper than 30 meters and at a significant distance from the coast, often beyond the territorial waters of a country (Buck et al., 2018). This exposes the cultured organisms to stronger currents, greater wave action, and a more dynamic environment compared to nearshore farms

The soil–plant relationship is central to crop productivity because soil conditions directly influence root development, water uptake, nutrient availability and plant growth. This chapter focuses particularly on the problems associated with salt-affected soils, including saline, sodic and acid soils. It explains the formation, distribution and characteristics of saline soils and describes the production constraints created by salinity stress. The effects of salinity on plant growth, evaluation of saline soils, reclamation and leaching are discussed together with leaching requirements and crop salt tolerance. Water and nutrient management strategies for saline soils, including the use of biofertilizers, are considered. Sodic soils are examined through their formation, characteristics, exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), followed by reclamation practices and amendment use, particularly gypsum. The chapter also addresses acid soils, their formation, chemical characteristics, nutrient availability, plant-growth constraints and amelioration through liming. Calcareous soils and their management are also included, providing a comprehensive treatment of problematic soils affecting soil–plant interactions

Abstract

Cultural knowledge on food and beverages is as old as human civilization. However, the traditional knowledge related to food habits and ecosystem conservation has been found to be unique in each cultural and ethnic group across the world. From time immemorial, the Nyishi tribe of Arunachal Pradesh has developed an unique set of traditional knowledge that allows the better utilization of food bioresources of their natural surrounding to sustain their livelihood. Historically, such knowledge was transmited through customary laws, folklore, and oral literature. Literature studies have revealed the lack of scientific investigation on ethnobiology of traditional food bioresources used by the Nyishi tribe of Arunachal Pradesh. Hence, in the present investigation, an attempt has been made to unveil the hidden age-old cultural food and beverage knowledge practised among the Nyishi of Papum Pare and Lower Subansiri district of Arunachal Pradesh. A total of 63 plant and 41 animal species have been reported during field survey in 4 circles covering a total of 12 different localities which includes rural, semi-urbans and urban type ecosystem in the 2 selected districts.

7.1 Meaning of Sampling
    
Before we consider sampling theory, we first define the terms population and sample.
 
The word ‘population’ or ‘universe’ in statistics is used to refer to any collection of individuals or of their attributes or of results of operations which can be numerically specified. For example the assemblage of heights of all the individuals in the population is called a population of heights.  Similarly we may consider the population of weights, wages, yields of grain; prices of wheat, mileages of automobile tyres, etc. a population containing a finite number of individuals or members is called a finite population.  For instance the population f ages of the workers in a factory constitute a finite population of ages. A population with infinite number of members is known as infinite population.  For example the population of pressures of temperatures at various points in the atmosphere is an infinite population. 

We have seen the procedures of testing hypothesis about population parameters in chapter 11. Frequently our interest is to test whether a set of observed values are in agreement with those which would occur if some specified hypothesis were true. The X² statistic provides a measure of agreement between such observed and expected frequencies.

The X² distribution has a number of applications in testing of hypotheses. It is used to test, (1) the independence of attributes, (2) the  goodness of fit, (3) the homogeneity of variances, (4) the homogeneity of correlation coefficients, and (5) the linkage in genetic problems. For applying X² test procedure we have to use only the actual observed frequencies and not the percentages or ratios. Further, the samples should be independent and the observations within a sample should be non-overlapping. The expected frequency in each category should be more than 5. The number of observations should be large, say, more than 50.

10.1 Introduction

In previous lessons we have been dealing with problems connected with variation occurring in any one variable, say the income of a person, the height or weight of an individual, the wage of a worker in a factory, the sales of a shop, demand of a commodity etc.  The values of a single variable were obtained from every member of the population and the different characteristics were described by certain descriptive constants after grouping into frequency distribution.  In this lesson, we shall be dealing with problems wherein there are paired variables and every individual or member of the population exhibits two values, one for each of the variables under consideration.  Example of the two variables which are to be studies together are (i) the income and expenditure of a household, (ii) the price and demand or supply of a commodity, (iii) the height and weight of a student, and (iv) the grain yield and straw yield of paddy, (v) Height of father and height of son, etc.

1.     Introduction    424

2.    Conventional Methods of Hydrogen Production    426

3.    Biological Methods of Hydrogen Production    429

    3.1.    Hydrogen production by biophotolysis of water, 430
        3.1.1. Photolysis by cyanobacteria (Blue green algae), 430
            3.1.1.1. Nitrogenase dependent hydrogen production, 434
            3.1.1.2.  Hydrogenase-dependent hydrogen production, 437
            3.1.1.3.  Factors affecting  hydrogen production by cyanobacteria, 440
            3.1.1.4.   Bioreactors for cyanobacterial hydrogen production, 443
            3.1.1.5. Future prospects for cyanobacterial hydrogen production, 446

1.    Introduction    496

2.    Strain Development Technologies    496

    2.1.    Screening of natural variants of microorganisms, 496
    2.2.    Genetic manipulation of microorganisms, 498
        2.2.1.    Random mutagenesis and selection, 498
        2.2.2.    Conjugation, 504
        2.2.3.    Transduction, 504
        2.2.4.    Transposition, 506
        2.2.5.      Hybridization, 507
        2.2.6.    Rare Mating, 509
        2.2.7.    Cytoduction, 510
        2.2.8.    Protoplast fusion, 511
        2.2.9.    Transformation, 511
        2.2.10.    Gene cloning and transformation (Recombinant DNA technology), 513

Summary

Genes are discrete elements that govern the appearance of specific traits. Morgan Sturtevant and their coworkers demonstrated that genes have specific address. They reside at particular locations on particular chromosomes and these addresses remain constant from one individual of the species to the next. Transcription is the first step leading to gene expression. It is the process of creating a complementary RNA copy of a sequence of DNA. Both RNA and DNA are nucleic acids, which use base pairs of nucleotides as a complementary language that can be converted back and forth from DNA to RNA by the action of the correct enzymes. During transcription, a DNA sequence is read by RNA polymerase, which produces a complementary, antiparallel RNA strand. translation is the second stage of protein biosynthesis (part of the overall process of gene expression). In translation, messenger RNA (mRNA) produced by transcription is decoded by the ribosome to produce a specific amino acid chain, or polypeptide, that will later fold into an active protein.

As biotechnology increasingly affects almost all aspects of human life, it is essential that the science behind this technology is explained in simple terms to the public to eliminate the misconceptions that may inhibit its acceptability. The basic question that is often asked is what is a gene, a promoter and a terminator? Genes are the basic units of heredity, composed of DNA sequences, which are transmitted from parents to offspring and which, independently or in combination with other genes, control specific traits in an organism. These traits may be, for example, plant height, flower color, fruit and seed size together with regulatory processes, such as assimilate partitioning and drought resistance. Genes are the basis for both the similarity and differences that exist among organisms, and are transmitted from one generation to another.

Plant biodiversity, in particular, is arguably the single greatest resource that humankind has garnered from nature during our long cultural development. Nowhere is the value of biodiversity more evident than in our food supply. Roughly one third of all plant species have edible fruits, tubers, nuts, seeds, leaves, roots, or stems. The World Health Organization estimates that 3.5 billion people in developing countries rely on plant-based medicine for their primary health care, in which tuber crops also play a major role (Tuxill, 1999). There are 25 hot spots of biodiversity of which Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayan are the most important ones in India. About 7% of world flora and 6.5% of world fauna are in India. Indo-Burma region is one of the eight hottest hot spots of the world, and is the centre of origin of tuber crops like Dioscorea, Colocasia, Amorphophallus and Alocasia.

Abstract

The field of bioinformatics emerged as a tool to facilitate biological discoveries more than 10 years ago. Structure prediction is fundamentally different from the inverse problem of protein design. Protein structure prediction is one of the most important goals pursued by bioinformatics and theoretical chemistry; it is highly important in medicine and biotechnology. Structure prediction is fundamentally different from the inverse problem of protein design. While the genome of many organism have been sequenced over the last few year, transforming such raw sequence data into knowledge remains a hard task. A great number of prediction program for genes have been developed hat try to address this problem, which consists of locating the genes along a genome.

Abstract

Agriculture, which was once a livelihood for millions, is now turning into a not -so-profitable occupation. The interest has reduced especially among the youth because of its input intensive nature. Among all other  things, the most important input in profitable and sustainable agriculture is timely information. However, with the increasing value of the ratio of farmers to extension personnel, getting timely information is a challenge. Then again, rationally used, we are surrounded by communication devices and the most essential and affordable of all are mobile phones. They have made communication easier, faster, affordable and profitable. The boom in mobile based agro-advisory services in the developing countries around the world has found its own subscriber base among the bottom of the pyramid farmers in rural areas and has been developing their economic conditions. Their services range from crop information, market price alerts to holistic agricultural information which are available free of cost and under subscription.

2.1 Introduction

Microbes are the oldest form of the life on earth. These organisms date more than 3 billion years to a time when they were discovered with oceans. They are so tiny in size that million microbes can fit into the eye of a needle. Without microbes, we can’t live. Thus, understanding microbes is vital to understanding past and future. Microbes play many roles in the earth’s environment recycling dead plant and animal matter through the soil, removing CO2 from the atmosphere by photosynthesis in the oceans and nitrogen from the atmosphere to form nitrogenous fertilizers plants. Microbes play an important role in nutrient recycling, management, organic matter, decomposition and increasing the crop productivity and quality and protection against diseases (Panwar et al., 2009). Over the past century, many of the basic scientific principles of plant nutrition and soil fertility have been explained. In developed countries, inorganic chemical fertilizers have been widely accepted as a major source of improving and maintaining soil fertility.

Kerala, popularly known as the God’s own country, is situated at the southern tip of India between latitude range 8°15‘ N to 12°50’ N and 74°50’ E to 77°30’ E longitude. The State is graced with 44 rivers and numbers of streams and has rich biodiversity and tropical rain forests spread in 13 agro-ecological zones under humid tropics. Kerala is the Gateway of monsoon in India. Though Kerala is identified as Plantation State, the major staple food is rice. The annual rainfall in Kerala is about 2.7 times the national average. More or less assured amount of rainfall is being received in almost every year over the State, though inter-annual variability is felt more in recent decades. Uncertainties in rainfall are also felt much in the recent decades. Droughts during summer and floods during rainy season are frequent. Natural disasters like landslides/mud slips during rainy season are common across the mid and high lands of Kerala as the intensity of rainfall is high. Atmospheric temperature across the State is increasing. 1983 was a disastrous drought year in Kerala. The severe summer affected the State’s plantation crops economy to a considerable extent. Insignificant rainfall led to the severe summer drought during 1982–83.

Introduction

Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae are fungi that exhibit symbiosis with roots of higher plants. The term vesicular arbuscular is derived from characteristic structure i.e. ‘branched hyphae or arbuscles’ that are formed with in the root cortical cells and vesicles or ‘swollen lipid storing organs’ that occur with in or between them.

Introduction

Today we are part of a highly complex and dynamic society. The complexity and dynamism are primarily due to the chain of changes induced by the scientific and industrial developments. The impetus provided by the information explosion coupled with scientific and technological developments to human life has triggered several unimaginable developments in the number, structure and functions of formal organizations. Realization of the supremacy of human mind over the tangible and exhaustible organizational resources like money, material and machine has led to the concept of ‘human capital’, which is now being considered as the most critical organizational resource to ensure organizational effectiveness and efficiency. Analogously huge investments are going in towards servicing and developing this critical resource of human capital in organizations. In this context, the concepts of human resource development (HRD) and training assume greater significance. In fact, training has been considered as a potential tool for HRD since ages. However, as a distinct profession, and also as a critical management tool, training is still in its early years. At the same time, there have been significant changes in the way training is conceived, understood and practiced.

Agricultural colleges and universities were first formed in the belief that farm production could be increased as a result of the systematic application of current technology and agricultural research findings. The mission of these early educational institutions was to scientifically study agriculture with the participation of the farming community; to carry the results to a broad range of farmers who could use them; and to train farmers, extension workers, agricultural teachers and researchers so that agricultural production could continue to be increased on a sustained basis. In many of the developing countries, agricultural education and training have failed to adapt and respond to the realities of rural societies. In response to the urgent need to review and adjust teaching and training in agriculture at all levels. The training is an important tool to overcome the problem faced by the rural people all over the world. The availability of the resource is the crucial determining factors to strengthen the training Programme for the needy people.

Rice is the principal crop of the region and cultivated in 3.9 million hectares area with an average productivity of about 1.3 t ha-1, which is very low. Irrigation resources are limited and confined to only 26 per cent and utilized for rice crop only. The region has rice based cropping system, in which lathyrus (grasspea),  is grown as utera (relay crop) in 0.46 million hectares. However, its productivity is not more than 2 to 3 q ha-1. Pulse crops are cultivated in an area of 0.44 m ha in kharif and 0.81 m ha in rabi season. The main pulse crops of the region are lathyrus, black gram, pigeonpea, chickpea, horsegram (kulthi), lentil and field pea. Area-wise, urd in kharif and lathyrus in rabi occupy the top position but as far as productivity is concerned, pigeonpea and chickpea are important. Pigeonpea and chickpea together can contribute a lot in increasing the pulses production in region. The average productivity of pigeonpea is 5.19 q ha-1 . It is also grown on rice bunds, which may give an additional production of 0.06 mt. Mung and urd are grown throughout the year in the region, however, powdery mildew and yellow mosaic virus diseases pose severe threat to these crops.

Weed control methods may be classified into two groups as follows:

    1.    Preventive method
    2.    Curative or remedial measures. Curative measures are sub-divided into eradication and control.

(a) Preventive Methods

Prevention is the measures taken to prevent the introduction or spread  of the weeds to new areas and to check the infestation prior to the germination of weed seeds. To achieve this, a wise step to be followed the principle- “Prevention is better than cure”.

Storage Systems

    1.    Low cost storage technology

        ·    In situ : Means delaying the harvest until the crop is required and employed 
    for the root crops.
        ·    Sand and Coir : Used for the Potatoes
        ·    Pits used for the Potatoes
        ·    Clamps used for the Potatoes
             Wind breaks used for the Onions – 6 months 1m height wooden stakes
        ·    Cellars : under ground / partly under ground. Ex: Apples, cabbage, 
    onions and potatoes during winter.
        ·    Barns : In Sudan onions are stored in palm leaf barns called “Rakubas”.
        ·    Evaporative Coolers
        ·    Zero energy cooling chambers
        ·    Night ventilation.

    2.    As a general rule, air circulation of storage room is designed to provide about 25m² / min / 3000 K cal of refrigeration predicated on a 5.5ºC

    3.    Frozen storage refers to storage at temperature where food is maintained in frozen conditions.

    4.    Good frozen storage generally means - 18ºC / below.

    5.    Below – 9.4ºC, there is no significant growth of microorganisms in food.

1. Tyson Foods Inc. 
2210 W. Oaklawn Drive, Springdale, AR 72762-6999 
Phone  : 479-290-4000; Fax  : 479-290-4061; Web site  : www.tyson.com

Executives : Chairman : John Tyson; Pres./CEO : Richard Bond; SVP-Intl. Ops. : Mike Baker; SVP-Commodity Trading & Risk Management : Jean Mrha Beach; Group VP-Research & Development, Logistics & Tech Services : Hal Carper; SVP & CIO : Gary Cooper; Group VP & International Pres. : Rick Greubel Jr.; SVP, Controller & CAO : Craig Hart; VP, Assoc. General Counsel & Secretary : R. Read Hudson; Group VP-Ops : Donnie King; SVP-Human Resources : Ken Kimbro; EVP & CFO : Dennis Leatherby; Group VP-Food Service : Bernard Leonard; Sr. Group VP-Fresh Meats : James Lochner; SVP-External Relations : Archie Shaffer III; Group VP-Consumer Prods : Donnie Smith; EVP & General Counsel : David Van Bebber; SVP-Renewable Products : Jeff Webster; VP-Investor Relations & Asst. Secretary : Ruth Ann Wisener

The Andaman and Nicobar group of Islands, popularly known as the Bay islands, consists of 572 islands, islets and rocks, situated off the Eastern coast of India. The Islands are covered from coast to coast with an almost impenetrable growth of luxuriant tropical rain forests. The luxuriant growth of dense forests with tangled mass of climbers, lianes, canes and plant communities provide an additional source of income. Many species of bamboos, bushes, shrubs and stunted trees have tremendous values (Mondal, et al 2000). Most of the diversity is still collected from wild forest habitats largely composed of trees, shrubs and other perennial vegetations. Underutilized fruits provide food, nutrition and sustenance to the natives. Broadly, such underutilized diversity in edible fruits falls into four categories (Groot et al 1993).

INTRODUCTION

Many economically important diseases are caused by Phytophthora spp. There are as many as 60 described Phytophthora species, most of which are primary invaders of plant tissues with limited saprophytic ability. Some important diseases with respect to symptoms, etiology and management have been described in this chapter as given below.