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Qualitative detection of undesirable constituents, adulterants in Feeds: The nutritive value of feed ingredients from the same origin may exhibit variation. The factors which are responsible for the variation are natural variation are natural variation, processing, adulteration and damage, deterioration. These days, due to shortage and high prices of feed ingredients, adulteration is one of the main problems. Feed quality can be examined by different techniques:
(a) Feed microscopy: Stereo or compound microscopy may be used for: (i) Screening method; (ii) Floatation technique.
(b) Chemical tests: For heavy metals, nitrates, phosphates, sulfates, free sulfur, salts: carbonate, chloride, salt, sugar, urea, blood, hoof or horn, leather meal, uric acid.

17.1. The Nigerian Unemployment Milieu: Control Measures taken by the Government

At this juncture, the little efforts that have been made by the government to control unemployment to an extent shall be examined. Records from the Central Bank of Nigeria (1987), show the following efforts made by the government:

1. Youths Empowerment/ employment and skills programme. This was done in terms of provided minor jobs or ‘white-colar’ jobs.

2. Agricultural programmes such as the ‘Operation Feed the Nation’ by the Obasanjo Military Administration.

3. Provision of small scale industries and graduates employment.

4. Special public works (which were temporary). Some of these efforts are still in place while others are forgotten. For example, on the pages of the Businessday Newspaper, on August 4th (pg 13), 12th (pg 49), 21st and 27th, 2009 were the following headings revealed:

Beverage: It includes all drinks whether they are fermented or unfermented, prepared from fruits or non-fruit, sweetened or unsweetened eg. tea, coffee, coca cola, cider, maaza are all beverages.

Fruit Beverages : Beverage which is prepared partly or fully from fruit juice or pulps with or without additives eg. pure fruit juice, squash, cordial, RTS beverage etc.

Non-fruit Beverage : Beverage which does not contain any fruit part eg. Coca cola, pepsi, sherbet etc.

Unfermented Juice or Pure Fruit Juice: This is the natural juice pressed out of the fruit and practically its composition remains unaltered during preparation and preservation. No additives like sugar, acid, water etc. are added. eg apple juice, orange juice.

Fruit Juice Beverage: This is the fruit juice that has been considerably altered in composition by adding water, sugar, acid, flavour, colours, preservatives etc. before consumption. It may or may not be diluted before it is served as a drink eg. squashes, nectars, appetizers etc.

The world ‘‘Unfruitfulness’’ means a state or character of being unfruitful or barrenness. It is a vital constraint in so many fruit crops leading to a great loss to the farming community. In contrary, ‘Fruitfulness’ is the state where a fruit plant is not only having the ability of flowering and fruiting, but also carry on these fruits up to maturity. The inability of the plant to do so is known as ‘unfruitfulness’ or ‘barrenness’. 

The world ‘‘Unfruitfulness’’ means a state or character of being unfruitful or barrenness. It is a vital constraint in so many fruit crops leading to a great loss to the farming community. In contrary, ‘Fruitfulness’ is the state where a fruit plant is not only having the ability of flowering and fruiting, but also carry on these fruits up to maturity. The inability of the plant to do so is known as ‘unfruitfulness’ or ‘barrenness’. Despite of profuse flowering, poor fruit retention in an orchard has been found owing to poor fruit setting at initial stage and subsequently abscission of the fruitlets. All the trees of an orchard do not bear flowers and fruits in the same extent or regularly and sometimes fail to bear flowers and fruits under similar conditions while other trees bears heavily. Such type of characteristics of trees may be attributed to unfruitfulness. Thus, all the problems affecting fruit retention upto final stage can be considered under unfruitfulness of a tree. Therefore, it is a very complex problem of an orchard and needs proper understanding for economical and effective management to maintain sustainable production of fruit crops.

CAUSES OF UNFRUITFULNESS

There are innumerable causes perceived behind unfruitfulness. Majorly, It may be due to poor root shoot ratio, lack of balance between vegetative and reproductive (fruiting) growth, heavy crop load which leads to restriction of fruit bud production and finally short of the crop in the following years.

Unfruitfulness is a major problem in many fruit crops and their varieties. ‘Fruitfulness’ refers to the state, where a plant is not only capable of flowering and bearing fruit but also takes these fruits to maturity. The inability of plant to reach the fruits to maturity is known as ‘unfruitfulness’ or ‘barrenness’. In spite of adequate flowering, low fruit yields in orchards have been experienced because of low initial fruit set and subsequently higher fruit-let abscission. In an orchard, all the trees do not bear fruits equally or regularly and sometimes fail to flower and bear fruit under similar conditions, where another fruit tree bears heavily. This failure to fruit may be attributed to unfruitfulness. It is associated with internal and external factors.

Internal factors: These are as follows.

Introduction

Impact Assessment is simply defined as the process of identifying the future consequences of a current or proposed action. The “impact” is the difference between what would happen with the action and what would happen without it (International Association for Impact Assessment). It’s a structured process for considering the implications, for people and their environment, of proposed actions while there is still an opportunity to modify (or even, if appropriate, abandon) the proposals. It is applied at all levels of decision-making, from policies to specific projects.

IA aims to

• provide information for decision-making that analyses the biophysical, social, economic and institutional consequences of proposed actions;

• promote transparency and participation of the public in decision-making;

• identify procedures and methods for the follow-up (monitoring and mitigation of adverse consequences) in policy, planning and project cycles; and contribute to environmentally sound and sustainable development.

I. Decimal Multiples and Sub-Multiples

II. Description of Units

Mechanical Units

Electric and Magnetic Units

The esu and emu unit systems are cgs systems.

esu denotes “electrostatic unit”, sometimes given prefix “stat”, e.g. statcoulomb emu denotes “electromagnetic unit”, sometimes given prefix “ab”, e.g. abcoulomb Some emu units have special names:

I. Scope and Importance of Horticulture
• The total Geographical area of India is 328.73 ha which stands seventh position in the world.
• India’s population is about 138.5 crores as on November 5, 2020 (UN data) which stands second in the world after China.
• Population depends on agriculture is around 55-70%.
• The term Horticulture derived from two Latin words, Hortus - Garden, Cultura - Cultivation.
• Protected enclosures are used to grow vegetables, flowers and ornamental plants etc

A. Mixing and Homogenization

1. I.ntroduction to Mixing and Homogenization

In the food industry, mixing and homogenization are fundamental procedures that are essential to the production of a wide range of food items. To produce the desired qualities and final result with uniformity and consistency, various ingredients are blended. Ensuring product quality, stability, and customer happiness are contingent upon these processes.

Importance of Mixing and Homogenization

Mixing and homogenization are paramount for several reason

A. History, Principles, and Scope of Biological Control

Biological Control

Biological control, defined as the use of living organisms to reduce the population of pest species, stands out as one of the most successful, cost effective, and environmentally friendly methods of pest management. This natural process is intrinsic to maintaining ecological balance and supporting the greenery of our planet by enabling plants to produce the necessary biomass to sustain diverse forms of life.

The Essence and Impact of Biological Control

Biological control is an omnipresent force in both natural and human-made ecosystems, constantly active without any human intervention. Its origins trace back over 500 million years with the evolution of the first ecosystems. The process involves naturally occurring reductions in pest populations, which historically, have allowed for the flourishing of plant life critical to the earth’s ecological systems. Without these biological control mechanisms, the amount of energy produced by plants would be a fraction of current levels, drastically reducing the earth’s capacity to support life.

I. Importance of Growth and Development
• Growth is an irreversible increase in size and evaluated by mass length and height, surface area or volume.
• Growth is produced by cell division in meristem.
• Root and shoot of vascular cambium are meristematic.
• Apical meristem of root and shoot is developed during embryo development.
• Plant growth is determinate (leaves, flowers, fruits) or indeterminate (root, stem).
• Monocarpic species flowers only once and die.
• Polycarpic species after flowering return to vegetative and flower at once before drying.
• Monocarpic annuals – monocarpic species lives for only one year/one season. Eg. Marigold, cosmos etc.

A. Novel Dehydration Technologies

Dehydration, the process of removing moisture from food products, is crucial for enhancing shelf life, reducing weight and volume for transportation, and preserving nutritional value. Traditional dehydration methods, such as sun drying, air drying, and freeze drying, have been widely used for centuries. However, advancements in food technology have led to the development of novel dehydration technologies that offer improved efficiency, quality retention, and sustainability.1. Vacuum Microwave Dehydration

Vacuum microwave dehydration is a cutting-edge dehydration technique that combines the advantages of removing moisture from food products while preserving their color, flavor, texture, and nutritional content (fig 1).

A. Biology, Adaptation, and Host-Seeking Behavior of Predatory and Parasitic Insects

The study of the biological processes, adaptations, and host-seeking behaviors of predatory and parasitic insects is fundamental for enhancing the efficacy of pest management strategies. These aspects are central to leveraging natural predator and parasite behaviors for biological control.

i. Biology of Predatory and Parasitic Insects

The study of the biology of predatory and parasitic insects is a cornerstone in understanding how these organisms function as critical components of biological control programs. These insects play a pivotal role as natural enemies of pest species, with physiological and developmental traits finely tuned for the effective management of pest populations. By examining their complex life cycles, reproductive strategies, and other biological traits, researchers can optimize the use of these insects in integrated pest management (IPM) strategies.

1. Propagation
• Multiplication of plants is termed as propagation.
• Aim to achieve increase in number and preserve essential characteristics of mother plant.
• Most of the horticultural crops are propagated through vegetative means.
• Two types of propagation
• Sexual propagation - through seeds which is formed by sexual reproduction
• Asexual propagation - through vegetative parts or organs of a plant.

A. Non-thermal Processing

Non-thermal processing encompasses a diverse range of food preservation and treatment techniques that do not rely on heat as the primary means of achieving microbial inactivation or quality preservation. Unlike conventional thermal methods such as pasteurization and sterilization, which involve exposing food to elevated temperatures for a specified duration, non-thermal processing methods operate at or near ambient temperatures. These innovative technologies offer several advantages, including the preservation of sensory attributes, retention of nutritional quality, and minimization of detrimental effects on food texture and f lavour (fig 1).

A. Mass Production of Quality Bio-control Agents: Techniques, Formulations, Economics, Field Release/Application, and Evaluation

Biological control agents, such as phytophagous insects, play a significant role in integrated pest management by targeting and suppressing weed populations naturally. Effective utilization of these agents requires understanding their mass production, formulation, economics, field release/application, and evaluation.

Techniques for Mass Production of Bio-control Agents

Mass production of bio-control agents involves rearing insects or other organisms in large quantities while maintaining their effectiveness and quality. The following are key techniques used in mass production:

1. Laboratory Rearing: Laboratory rearing of bio-control agents is a meticulous process that ensures the continuous production of high quality insects under controlled environmental conditions. This technique involves creating optimal conditions for temperature, humidity, and light to simulate natural habitats. Nutritional requirements are met by providing specific diets, which can be natural or artificial, tailored to the needs of the bio-control agents. Breeding protocols are established to manage mating, egg-laying, and larval development cycles efficiently. By controlling these factors, laboratory rearing ensures a stable and sustainable supply of bio-control agents for field application.

1.1. Establishment of orchard
• A long term investment and deserves a very critical planning.
1.1.1. Location and site
• Well established fruit growing region, because one could get benefit of experience of other growers.
• Market should be close to the area with assured demand.
• Climate should be suitable to grow the chosen fruit crops; free from cyclones, frost, hailstorms and strong hot winds.
• Adequate and good quality water supply should be available round the year.

Distillation, leaching, and extraction

A. Distillation

Distillation is a widely used separation process in various industries, including chemical, pharmaceutical and food processing. It is particularly important in the production of alcoholic beverages, essential oils, and purified water. Distillation works on the principle of exploiting differences in the volatility of components in a liquid mixture to separate them based on their boiling points.

Principles of Distillation

Distillation is a time-tested and versatile separation technique employed across a myriad of industries for separating components of liquid mixtures. Its effectiveness lies in its ability to leverage differences in boiling points among the various constituents of a mixture.

A. Successful Biological Control Projects

Biological control, the use of natural enemies to manage pest populations, has seen numerous successful implementations globally for example:

1. Control of Cottony Cushion Scale (Icerya purchasi)

The case of the cottony cushion scale, Icerya purchasi, in California's citrus orchards serves as a seminal example of biological control's efficacy. Originating from Australia, this pest posed a severe threat to the burgeoning citrus industry in California in the late 19th century. The story of its control through the introduction of natural enemies is not only a landmark in biological control history but also a demonstration of ecological problem-solving.

Background and Impact

Icerya purchasi is a sap-sucking insect that infests a wide range of host plants but shows a particular fondness for citrus trees. The infestation is damaging as the scale excretes a sticky substance known as honeydew, which promotes the growth of sooty mold, impairing photosynthesis and weakening the plants. The severity of the infestation threatened the economic viability of the citrus industry in California during the 1880s.

1.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Yemen, South Arabia, Sudan and Sinai.

• Introduced into Tamil Nadu in eighteenth century grown as an annual crop (5 to 7 months).

• C. angustifolia (Tirunelveli senna)

• Indigenous to Somalia, Southern Arabia, part of Sindh (Pakistan) and Kutch area of Gujarat.

• Cultivated in Gujarat, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu (Tirunelveli, Ramanathapuram, Madurai, Salem, Tiruchirapalli)

• C. acutifolia (Alexandrian senna)

• Indigenous to Sudan and Sinai.

• Cassia abovata

• Common all over India.

• C. italica

• Grows in west Rajasthan and Saurashtra (Gujarat)

• New source of the senna drug

1. Size reduction is also referred as

(a) Extraction

(b) Communication

(c) Leaching

(d) Distillation

2. Size reduction causes

(a) Decrease in the temperature of the product

(b) Increase in temperature of the product

(c) Increase in pressure

(d) Decrease in surface area

INTRODUCTION

Food processing is necessary for the conversion of raw food products in to finished products with desired textural, sensory and nutritional attributes. This is required to be done mainly due to seasonal production and facilitating non-seasonal availability of different commodities. Stages of processing are primary and secondary. In primary processing raw material is converted into food commodities, while in secondary processing commodities are converted into edible products. Processing is mainly done to convert the products into edible forms, to extend shelf life, availability, accessibility and also to provide variety into the form of value added products. Processing of products destroys inhibitors, microorganisms, retards physico-chemical and biochemical deterioration, maintains good sensory properties, preserves and enhances the nutritive value. Unit operations involve phase changes and sometimes chemical reactions also, which are undesirable as they cause inferior quality of the product (Gekas 1992). Different processes like separation, assembly, preservation and packaging are broader classification for unit operations in food processing (Saravacos and Kostaropoulos 2002).

4.1. Introduction

Food occupies first position among the basic needs of human beings. Food processing dates back to the prehistoric age when crude processing including various types of cooking, such as over fire, smoking, steaming, fermenting, sun drying and preserving with salt were in practice. These crude processing techniques remained essentially the same until the advent of the industrial revolution. However, the change in food habits and the quality consciousness of the consumers in the developed world raises the need of advancements in development of food processing like spray drying, juice concentrates, freeze drying and also introduces dried instant soups, reconstituted fruit juices, and self cooking meals such as ready-to-eat food rations etc., during 20th century.

Introduction: Food processing involves different steps from receiving raw material, preparing for product manufacture, and packaging to storage. All these steps are called unit operations. They are broadly categorized as raw
material preparation (receiving, sorting, grading, washing, peeling, blanching, slicing, cutting, dicing etc), processing (canning, drying, pulping, juicing, product manufacture like jam, jelly, preserves, candies, pickling, sauce making, etc.) and post-production handling including packaging and storage. A brief detail about each unit operation is discussed as under:
1. Raw Material Handling
Material handling includes varied operations such as hand or mechanical harvesting on the farm, transportation in trucks or refrigerated vehicles of perishable produce to the market or to the processing plant or to store/godowns. For conveying, a wide variety of mechanical conveyors is used depending on the type of material. Common conveyors used in the processing plant include screw conveyors, bucket conveyors, belt conveyors and vibratory conveyors. Throughout these operations, care is taken to maintain sanitary conditions, minimize bruises and product loss, maintain raw material quality like physical appearance, and vitamin contents, minimize microbial growth and minimize other detrimental changes to the product quality during handling etc. It also includes other unit operations like receiving, cleaning/washing, sorting, grading, peeling, halving, slicing, blanching etc for preparation of fruit and vegetables for processing.

1. Fundamental Concepts of Unit Operations

    1.    Process is the set of activities or industrial operations that modify the properties of raw materials with the purpose of obtaining products to satisfy the needs of a society.

    2.    Food process engineering includes the part of human activity in which the knowledge of physical, natural, and economic sciences is applied to agricultural products as related to their composition, energetic content, or physical state.

    3.    Food process engineering can also be defined as “the science of conceiving, calculating, designing, building, and running the facilities where the transformation processes of agricultural products, at the industrial level and as economically as possible, are carried out.

    4.    In a discontinuous operation the raw material is loaded in the equipment; after performing the required transformation, the obtained products are unloaded. These operations, also called “batch” or “intermittent,” are carried out in steps:

1.1. Origin and distribution
• South East Asia, with the greatest number of species found in Borneo, Java, Sumatra, and Malay Peninsula.
1.2. Varieties
• Neelum, Bangalora, Alphonso, Rumani, Banganapalli, Kalepad, Peter, PKM 1, PKM 2, Senthura, Jahangir, Mulgoa, Himayuddin, Paiyur 1, Mallika, Amrapali, Salem Bangalora, Arka Anmol, Arka Aruna, Arka Neelkiran, Arka Puneeth, Sindhu, Ratna and Arka Suprabath

Food Plant Hygiene

A. I.mportance of Food Plant Hygiene:

1. Ensures the Safety and Quality of Food Products: Proper hygiene practices within food processing facilities play a critical role in safeguarding the safety and quality of food products. By adhering to stringent hygiene protocols, including thorough cleaning, sanitation, and preventive measures, facilities can effectively prevent the contamination of food products by harmful microorganisms, chemicals, or physical hazards. This helps minimize the risk of foodborne illnesses and ensures that consumers receive safe and wholesome food products. Additionally, maintaining cleanliness and hygiene in food proce

1.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated in Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas.

• Cultivated in Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, North Eastern States, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

• It is the king of spices.

1.2. Economic importance

• Spiciness is due to the chemical compound piperine

• In foods, used as a spice.

• High in antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.

• May benefit for brain.

• May improve blood sugar control and lower cholesterol levels.

• May have cancer fighting properties.

1.1. Introduction

• Horticulture contributes 30% GDP from 11.73% of its arable land area.

• Fruits and vegetables

? Second largest producer

? Immense significance to man.

? Given place of honour on being offered to God at every festival and also mentioned in epics like Mahabharata, Ramayana and writings of Sushrutha and Charaka.

? Rich source of carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins and dietary fibres

? Provide variety in taste, interest and aesthetic appeal.

• Benefits kidney functions, prevention of cancer and cardiac disorders through contribution of ascorbic acid, p-carotene and non-starch polysaccharides besides biochemical constituents like phenols, flavonoids and alkaloids.

• Very high post-harvest losses in fruits and vegetables (20-40%).