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Important nurseries and seed merchants of Uttar Pradesh

1. Azad Nurseries, Laxmi Gate, Saharanpur.
2. American Seed Store, Ayodhya.
3. Ashoka Seed Farm (Regd.) Darwaja Road, Ayodhya
4. Beiz Nursery, Azmatgarh Palace, Varanasi.
5. Ganesh Bagh Nursery, Kamachchha, Varanasi.
6. Ram Das & Co. Kamachchha, Varanasi.

Edge plant

Very low growing plants grown only for the purpose of decoration and demarcation and not for screening are known as edging. Live and inert materials used for living of borders flower beds, paths, lawn, shrubbery and herbaceous border are known as edging. Formal edgings are: Bricks, stones, tiles, concrete etc. Informal edging are: Grass verges and crazy paths made up of tiles stones etc.

Herbaceous border

In this system plant are arranged in irregular group of a kind for harmonious are contrasting colour effect, either all flowering at one time or successfully in such a way that those flowering latter should grow up and screen the all ready flowered. The planting of annuals in the border of a plot is called as herbaceous border. When the border is to be viewed from both side tall plant are planted in center followed by medium and dwarf planting in both side. Herbaceous border may include all the herbaceous plant including herbaceous perennial (Flowering and non flowering) bulbous and annuals (see plate 20 & 21).

Standard solution: Standard solution is defined as a solution whose strength is known. e.g. 1 N solution.

Molar solution: Molar solution can be defined as a solution containing the number of moles of a solute (substance) i.e. molecular weight in gram per litre of the solution. e g. Mol. wt. of NaCl 23+35.5 58.5,

So 58.5 g NaCl per 941.5 ml of water= 1 M NaCI solution. Molarity is generally designated by M.

Molal solution: Number of moles of a substance/solute per litre of solvent makes a molal solution. Mobility is generally designated by m.

Purpose: The estimation of total soluble constituents gives the approximate amount of water soluble substance present in the sample. Among the various soluble substances the amount of sugar is 80-85 percent. The TSS value is roughly considered to be the amount of sugar and soluble minerals present in fruits and vegetables. The total soluble solid content can be determined by hand refrectometer.

Material and equipments: Hand refrectometer, juice, muslin cloth or tissue paper and glass rod.

Principle: A weighed sample is dried in an oven at 60-70⁰C up to a period of time when weighing made at 2 hour intervals do not differ by more than 2-3 mg.

Purpose: The ash content of plants represents the deposition of minerals elements in the plant or in its parts. The value of ash content in the plant tissue indicates the health of the plant. Plant ash is also used both in qualitative and quantitative estimation of mineral elements.

Material and Equipments: Crucible, oven, chemical balance and weight box.

Principle: To determine water in soluble solids, a known quantity of sample is boiled in water and the insoluble material is collected on a weighed filter paper. The insoluble mass is then washed with hot water and dried in oven.

Purpose: The organic acids present in fruits and vegetables influence the flavour, colour, keeping quality and maturity. The maturity standards are determined by the acid and sugar ratio. The total acidity (citric acid) is determined by titrating the juice against standard alkali solution.

Equipments and chemicals: 10 ml., pipette, 25ml. Burette, small glass funnel, dropper, juice extractor, distilled water, 100ml. volumetric flask, burette stand, beaker, N/10 sodium hydroxide, filter paper, phenolphthalein indicator (one gram of phenolphthalein in 100ml. of 95% ethyl alcohol)

Fructose, a keto-hexose (called as fruit sugar), is usually accompanied by sucrose in fruits and estimated by the methods of Ashwell (1957).

Materials

Resourcinol reagent: Dissolve 1g resorcinol and 0.25 g thiourea in 10 ml glacial acetic acid. This is stable in the dark.

Dilute HCl: Mix five part of conc. HCl with one part of distilled water.

Standard fructose solution: Dissolve 50mg of fructose in 50 ml water. Dilute 5 ml of this stock soln. to 50 ml for a working standard.

Principle: Sample extract in oxalic acid is titrated against standard sodium 2, 6 dichlorophenolindophenol dye to a faint pink colour which persists for 5-10 seconds.

(Indophenols Method)

Principle: Addition of calcium chloride results in the precipitation of pectin as calcium pectate from an acid solution. Calcium pectate is washed with water to make free from chloride and is dried and weighed.

Procedure: Standardize the pH meter with a buffer solution of pH. Take the sample solution in a 100 ml beaker. Put the electrodes in the solution and read on pH meter. After each observation, wipe the electrodes with a piece of cotton soaked in distilled water and rinse the electrodes with water with the help of a wash bottle and dry with filter paper.

Preparation of the material: Common minute material for analysis in Waring blender for 1 to 2 minutes. Do not over heat. Pass it through No.60 sieve and put is in airtight container.

Procedure: Take 2 to 3 g sample in duplicate in pre-dried and pre-weighed 7 cm diameter aluminium dishes. Remove the dish cover and put them in vacuum oven and dry for 6 hours at 88°C and 26-22 inch vacuum. During this process, admit to oven a slow current of air (2 bubbles per second) dried by passing H₂SO₄ replace the cover, cool it in desiccators and weigh again.

Canning: Cannings the process by which sealing of the food product and sterilizing them by heat for long storage is known as canning.

The term canning was first invented by N. Appert (1804) in France. In honour of the inventor canning is also known as appertization (Appart is known as the father of canning). The main principle of canning is destruction of spoilage organism by means of heat. The procedure of the canning should be as follows.

Jam:-Jam is a product made by boiling fruit pulp with sufficient sugar to a reasonably thick consistency. Jam is mainly prepared by apple, pear, sapota, apricot, peach, papaya, karonda etc. It can be prepared from one kind of fruits or from two or more kind of fruits. In general jam contain 0.5-0.6% acid and invert sugar should not be more than 40%.

Jelly:-Jelly is a semi solid product prepared by boiling a solution of pectin containing fruit extract free from pulp after the addition of sugar and acid. A perfect jelly should be transparent, well set, should have original flavour of the fruits, attractive colour and it should be free from dullness. Jelly is mainly prepared by guava, sour apple, wood apple, loquat and papaya. Apricot, pineapple, strawberry etc of low pectin containing fruits can also utilize after addition of pectin powder because these fruits have low pectin contain.

Marmalade: Marmalade is a fruit jelly in which peels of the fruits is in suspended forms. This product is generally prepared from citrus fruit like orange and lemon. The citrus marmalade can be classified into jelly marmalade and jam marmalade. 1 kg pectin extract required 750g sugar and 62g shredded peel.

Preserve:- Amature fruits/vegetable or its pieces impregnated with heavy sugar syrup till it become tender and transparent is known as preserve. The fruits like aonla, bael, apple, pear, mango, cherry, karonda, pineapple, papaya are commonly used.

Candied fruit:-A fruits/vegetable impregnated with cane sugar syrup and subsequently drained free of syrup and dried is known as candy. The most suitable fruits are aonla, apple, pear, cherry, karonda, pineapple, papaya are commonly used. In candy the total sugar contains of the impregnated fruits is kept about 75% to prevent fermentation.

Beverages:-The fruit beverages are easily digestible, highly refreshing, thirst quenching, appetizing, nutritionally for superior than many other synthetic drink. There are two types of fruit beverages i.e. unfermented beverages and fermented beverages. Natural juice, RTS (Ready to Serve), nector, cordial, squash, crush syrup, fruit juice concentrate and fruit juice powder are the main unfermented beverages. The fermented beverages are wine, champaigne, port, sherry, tokay, muscut, neera, cidar, orange wine, berry wine and fenny are the important.

Squash: It is a type of fruit beverage containing at list 25% fruit juice or pulp and 40-50% TSS commercially. It’s also containing about 1% citric acid and 350ppm sulphurdioxide or 600ppm sodium benzoate. Generally it is diluted before serving. Mango, orange, pineapple, lemon, lime, guava, litchi etc are commercially used for squash making using KMS as preservative. The coloured fruit like jamun, passion fruit, peach, phalasa, plum, mulberry, strawberry and grapefruits are also used for making squash but due to bleaching effect KMS is not used as preservative. In such types of fruits sodium benzoate used as preservative.

Material balance data

Guava pulp : 5.00 kg

Amount of sugar added : 4.50 kg

Amount of glucose added : 500 gm

Amount of SMP added : 700 gm

Pickles:- Pickles are a product which is prepared by using the common salt or vinegars of fruits and vegetables. It is a good appetizer and adds to the palatability of a meal. It’s also help full to stimulating the flow of gastric juices and thus helps full indigestion. Pickles are mainly preserving by salt, vinegar, oil and it can also be preserved by the mixture of salt, spices, vinegar and oil.

Ingredient of 1kg mango pickles: Mango piece 1kg, salt 150g, fenugreek powder 25g, turmeric powder 15g, nigella seed 15g, red chilli powder 10g, clove headless 8 number, black pepper 15g, cumin 15g, cardamom large 15g, aniseed powder 15g, asafoetida 2g and mustard oil 350ml.

Ingredient of 1kg mixed pickles: Cauliflower + diced carrot + turnip slice + vegetable pea each in equal amount of 1kg, salt 100g, ginger chopped 20g, onion chopped 50g, garlic chopped 10g, red chilli powder, black pepper, turmeric, cardamom large, aniseed powder, cumin, fenugreek powder each of 10g, clove headless 5 number and mustard 50g, vinegar 200 ml and mustard oil 450 ml.

Sauce/Ketchup:-Fully ripe red fruits are selected, all green and blemish part are discarded. It is made from strained tomato juice or pulp and spices, salt, sugar and vinegar with or without onion and garlic and contains not less than 12% tomato solid and 25% total solid.

Ingredient of tomato sauce/ketchup: Tomato pulp 1kg, sugar 75g, salt 10g, onion chopped 50g, ginger chopped 10g, garlic chopped 5g, red chilli powder 5g, cinnamon, cardamom large, aniseed, cumin, black pepper powder 10g each, clove headless 5 number, vinegar 25ml or glacial acetic acid 5ml and sodium benzoate 0.25g/kg final product.

Ingredient of tomato chutney: Tomato 1kg, sugar 500g, salt 25g, onion chopped 100g, ginger chopped 10g, garlic chopped 5g, red chilli powder 10g, cinnamon, cardamom large, aniseed, cumin, black pepper powder 10g each, vinegar 100ml and sodium benzoate 0.50g/kg final product.

Structure of turmeric process

Boiling

• Boiling figures in water in copper vessels/galvanized iron/earthen vessels
• If water is acidic then add NaCO₃
• Stopped boiling when froth starts coming out and white fume appears
• Then dried in the sun for 10-15 days till they become hard and brittle

Curing- Curing is a process in which produce is subjected to undergow through a special treatment to get the quality product.

Distillation of rose oil and rose water:

For distillation of rose oil and rose water initially the fresh rose flower are hydro distilled. The oil and water are collected together. The oil which floats upon the water is separated by decantation get oil directly, while the water is re-distillated. The oil obtained from re-distillation is called recovered oil or water oil. The direct oil and water oil are then combined to make the commercial rose oil.

The water obtained from the second re-distillation step is the commercial rose water

Plants are used as medicine since time immemorial. One of the area of Ethnobotany, Ethnopharmacology is considered as the scientific evaluation of traditional medicinal plants (Cotton, 1996). Cox (1994) has suggested that the ethno-directed sampling is most likely to succeed in identifying drugs used in the treatment of gastrointestinal, inflammatory and dermatological complaints. The Plant kingdom is a virtual goldmine of potential drug targets and other active molecules awaiting to be discovered. It has been estimated that only 10 - 15 per cent of the 7,50,000 existing species of higher plants have been surveyed for biologically active compounds. Natural products produced by plants, fungi, bacteria, insects and animals have been isolated as biologically active pharmacophores. Approximately one-third of the top-selling drugs in the world are natural products or their derivatives often with ethnopharmacological background. Moreover, natural products are widely recognized in the pharmaceutical industry for their broad structural diversity as well as their wide range of pharmacological activities.

New medicines have been discovered with traditional, empirical and molecular approaches (Harvey, 1999). The traditional approach makes use of material that has been found by trial and error over many years in different cultures and systems of medicine (Cotton, 1996). Examples include drugs such as morphine , quinine and ephedrine that have been in wide spread use for a long time, and more recently adopted compound such as the antimalarial artemisinin. The empirical approach builds on an understanding of a relevant physiological process and often develops a therapeutic agent from a naturally occurring lead molecule (Verpoorte, 2000). Examples include tubocurarine and other muscle relaxants, propranolol and other adrenoreceptor antagonists, cimetidine and other histamine H₂ receptor antagonists. With the development of molecular biological techniques and the advances in genomics, the majority of drug discovery is currently based on the molecular approach.

Phytochemicals from various parts of a plant or tree such as the leaves, the flowers, the seeds, the barks, the roots and the shrubs can be isolated. Once one comes in from collecting plants in the field, it is good idea to freeze them immediately in a freezer at – 20°C or a commercial freezer held at – 80°C (Kaufman et al., 1999). According to Harborne (1984, 1998), fresh plant tissues should be used for phytochemical analysis and the material should be plunged into boiling alcohol within minutes of its collection. Alternatively, plants may be dried before extraction. It is essential that the drying operation is carried out under controlled conditions to avoid too many chemical changes occurring. Once thoroughly dried, plants can be stored before analysis for long periods of time. It is possible to isolate some of the compounds from herbarium samples. One example of the use of the herbarium material is the essential oil analysis that was carried out on type specimens of Mentha leaf, the material being obtained from the original collection of Linneaus made before 1800 (Harborne, 1998). An obvious point to follow by the research worker is freeing of the plant tissue under study from contamination with other plants. While collecting roots, care must be taken that we are collecting roots from one plant. It is essential to use plants which are free from disease, i.e. which are not affected by viral, bacterial or fungal infection. In phytochemical analysis, at some stage in the investigation, a botanist of an acknowledged authority must authenticate the botanical identity of the plants studied and a voucher specimen of the plant may be deposited in a reputed Herbarium for future reference. It is advisable to keep a logbook of the plants that have been collected and used for phytochemical analysis. A backup inventory on the computer is also a good idea.

India is endowed with abundant natural resources and diverse agroclimatic conditions, which are ideal for cultivation of a number of annual or perennial crops, in different areas. Meticulous planning, extraordinary scientific support, judicious use of inputs and focused policy thrust have led to manifold increase in production and productivity of fruit trees. The horticultural crops, particularly fruit crops, are high-value and technology- intensive crops. Appropriate technologies are gaining popularity in entire country in view of their high potential of productivity, land utilization and more income. Today, our country is producing different kinds of fruits, but quantum of total fruit production is unable to cope with the present day demand. Various constraints, biotic and abiotic in nature, pose hindrances to meet the fuel potential. The poor productivity of fruit trees is the main reason of low availability of fruits. The low productivity of fruits is compounded by several environmental, genetic and conditional factors. Besides, productivity and quality of perennial fruits continued to remain low and there exists a wide gap in between actual and potential production. Visualizing the problems of perennial commercial fruit production, the main reason comes in forefront/top is a large number of old and senile orchards turning even unproductive, due to lack of information regarding non-adoption of appropriate agro-techniques and canopy management (Hare Krishna, 2012). Though, we have made rapid strides in fruit production, the productivity is very low compared to developed countries. The present scenario of production in our country is still technology deficit and what so ever the technologies are available very poor in adoption level and the situation still go worse even in the era of climate change.

Present situation demands that new technologies are needed to push the yield frontiers further by utilizing inputs more efficiently, diversifying to more sustainable and yielding higher quantum of quality production, particularly by integration of invasive and non-invasive medium-term strategic technologies. There are still challenges ahead in the way of the research which require concerted efforts in organizing, conducting and developing the technology as well as the proper way they are transferred to growers. The new generation of technologies will have to be much more site-specific, based on high quality science and a heightened opportunity for end-users, participation/adoption in identification of targets and achieving the objectives. These must be not only aimed at increasing the growers/farmers technical knowledge and understanding of science-based timely operations. It will also need to take on challenges of integrating the socio-economic context and role of markets for profitability and economic viability.

Today, our country is the second largest producer of fruits in the world, yet the per caput availability of fruits is below the recommended level (Chadha et al., 2013). The major reason for low availability of fruits is poor productivity. In addition, pressure of burgeoning population and ever increasing demand also result in reduced availability of fruits. The production of fruit crops is still nature dependent. The problem of low productivity of fruits is compounded by several environmental, genetic and conditional factors. At present, there exist a wide gap in between actual fruit yield and their potential yield in almost all tropical and subtropical fruit species, particularly in perennial and woody trees of fruits.

There is a great diversity in perennial fruit crops which permits considerable manipulation for various purposes and desirable outcome. For achieving even the average productivity in many fruit crops, the production constraints like lack of information regarding canopy management, non-adoption of appropriate agro-techniques and timely management practices are required, while the concern about existing a large number of old and senile orchards which has turned or are turning even unproductive needs attention (Hare Krishna, 2012). Though, the country’s fruit production status is showing an increase, but far below the potential production requires immediate attention to critically analyze the situation by revisiting the problems and its causes, identifying the gaps and development of need- based technologies in the present context.

The low productivity of perennial fruits has been attributed to various factors, like small size of holdings, preponderance of old and senile trees and poor management of inputs such as water, nutrients and pesticides. Thickly-shaded mango orchards in Malihabad areas of Uttar Pradesh (Kalloo et al., 2005; Mishra, 2013), lanky as well as sick tall unproductive litchi orchards in Muzaffarpur and its adjoining areas in Bihar (Kumar, 2008), seedling orchards of guava and citrus fruits throughout the country, including disease-affected aonla and other perennial fruit plantations are commonly seen in large tracts in different parts of the country (Pandey et al., 2013; Singh 2007). In pomegranate, the old orchards become non- productive due to incidence of pests and diseases, and negligence (Hiwale, 2009).

The traditional trend of orcharding for most of the tropical and subtropical evergreen perennial fruit trees, in general, are regarded as not responsive to pruning. However, a number of observations made in recent decades have conclusively proved the effectiveness of this important operation in maintaining the sustained fruit yield and keeping the plant well within manageable limits. The efforts have been made to deal perennial fruits in quite details wherever deemed necessary. Climatic factors have been found to affect significantly on fruit bearing as a result of pruning treatments. Though, this aspect is one of the most misconceived and least understood when seen with shoot emergence and shoot physiology for perenation and phase change from vegetative to reproductive. Correct pruning may easily spell the difference between success and failure, yet many growers undertake infinite pains to get the best out of their trees but the neglect to give their consideration to important practice. It is obviously needless to mention here that their such efforts end in futility. For better understanding of principles and practices of pruning, it would be imperative to trace out its historical background. The present level of understanding about pruning has been developed through ages with the increased understanding of growth and developmental processes of fruit plants.

Rejuvenation of fruit trees is visionary approach to save the old senile declining trees for future sustainable quality fruit production through unique integration of invasive exhaustive operations in scientific manner and skilful management. Since unproductive and uneconomic orchards are in abundance, a large-scale uprooting and replacement with new plantations (rehabilitation) will be a long-term and expensive strategy. Therefore, research efforts have been initiated at various pioneer institutes/ SAUs to standardize. The technology for restoring the production potential of existing plantations by a technique called rejuvenation. Rejuvenation of old orchard is very vital under orchard management. Reiterative pruning and canopy re-building of perennial fruit trees is medium- term strategy requiring scientific skill and technique, for bringing back the youthful vigour with enhanced quantum of quality production in sustainable way within a time gap of three years for mango, litchi and cashew (Lal et al., 2000; Kumar, 2008), while two years for guava, aonla and pomegranate (Singh, 2007; Hiwale 2009) without any economic loss to growers. The old fruit orchards need to be rejuvenated since they show decline in yield and quality of produce. These trees/plants need to be rejuvenated which have attained a stage where they are no more profitable from the grower ’s point of view (Singh, 2007; Srivastava, 2007).

Botanical description :Botanically, cluster bean is known as Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L) Taub. (2n = 2x = 14) belongs to the family Papilionaceae.

Floral biology :Cluster bean is a self-pollinated crop having about 9 percent maximum natural out crossing. The plants are normally fully fertile, a few semi-sterile ones have also been reported.

Isolation distance :Cluster bean is a self-pollinated crop. Isolation distance of 50 metres for foundation and 25 metres for certified seed is essential.

Sowing :Cluster bean can be sown twice in a year, February - March in Northern plains and December - January in Southern plains.

Seed rate : In order to sow one hectare area about 30-40 kg seed of cluster bean is required.

Nutrition : The yield of cluster bean has been maximum when the crop was applied with 40 kg nitrogen and 60 kg phosphorus per hectare. The application of micronutrient to cluster bean crop proves very beneficial. Two sprays of molybdenum at 0.15 percent at 15 and 30 days after seedlings emergence give better yield.

OBSERVATION

The examination of the IRS - 1A imagery under raw and the digitally enhanced modes vividly display heavy concentration of suspended sediments in certain sectors along the east coast of Tamil Nadu. Such pockets of suspended sediments are seen as long and linear bodies trending parallel to the coast to the strike length of 20 - 30 km and width of 5 - 10 km. Such Phenomenon of suspended sediments concentration are strikingly observed in two sectors. One in between Tuticorin harbour and Vaippar river mouth and the other just at the mouth of Ponnaiyar river along Cuddalore-Pondicherry coast. Both of them are observed along conspicuous (Fig.1& 2) concave coasts.

Botany

The plant is highly cross pollinated due to heteromorphism and bees being the major pollinators.

Varieties: PKM 1 & PKM 2

Method of seed production : Seed to Seed.

Land requirement : Uproot all the wild and non specific moringa trees if any near the field within a radius of 1500ft. Good drainage facility is must for moringa.

Isolation requirement : A distance of at least 500 M is necessary for seed production.

Season : Early season (July August), Mid season (September), Late season (October -November). Best season is September October, so that flowering starts during summer which facilities better pollination and seed set.

ABSTRACT

Bats: A colony of 500 insectivorous bats of Hipposideros speoris inhabited a natural cave in Madurai (9^O58’ N. lat; 78^O10’ E long). At a depth of 40 m, the cave experiences a constant temperature of 27 + 0.1^OC, 95 % relative humidity and absolute and perpetual darkness. Therefore there were no day/night cues. Yet all the members of the bat colony flew out 10 to 15 min. after sunset as though they knew the time of sunset. Recorded flight and rest experiments in flight activity cages and a hand-wound Thermohygrograph drum 40 m from the cave mouth over periods of 50 days revealed that the free-flying conspecific bats were socially synchronizing the activity patterns of the three captive bats. Bats were telling other bats time.

Mice : In the field mouse, Mus booduga the mother conveys information of day and night to her pups by means of her presence and absence (PA) cycles. Her presence meant day and absence denoted night. We named this phenomenon maternal entrainment. Such entrainment of the time sense of the pups was possible if in every cycle the mother was presented for a minimum of 8 hr but not exceeding 16 hr. Therefore 8 hr and 16 hr describe the limits of maternal entrainment.

ABSTRACT

Insect societies such as those of ants, bees, wasps and termites are characterized by reproductive division of labour and cooperative brood care. Thus these societies consist of one or a smallnumber of reproductives (usually only queens but also kings in the case of termites) and a large number of sterile or nearly sterile workers

ABSTRACT

Malabar Spiny Dormouse (Platacanthomys lasiurus), the endemic rodent found in the Western Ghats of South India was studied in the Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary, Thiruvananthapuram District, Kerala, to determine the status, distribution, food and feeding of the species.

ABSTRACT

Science essentially involves confronting our ‘models’ of nature, against data from the real world, in a continuous effort to refine our knowledge of the system under study. Scientific monitoring of animal populations is therefore best viewed in the context of questions such as why monitor, what to monitor and how to monitor.

ABSTRACT

Social primates appear to be knowledgeable about one another’s behaviour to different extents. But do they know as much about one another’s beliefs and intentions? Are they adept at recognizing the similarities and differences between their own and others’ states of mind?

ABSTRACT

Male crickets use acoustic signals for long-distance mate attraction. Each cricket species has a unique calling song, used by females to recognize and localize conspecific males. Field cricket songs have wavelengths of several centimeters, which pose a difficult problem for these small animals in terms of localizing males, particularly in choruses. The chorus structure in terms of spacing, call intensity and timing, are important determinants both of the ability of males to synchronise their calls and of female mate-finding strategies.

ABSTRACT

Ethology, the biology of behaviour has been a fascinating area of biological investigations during past few decades. In recent past the information gathered by reputed ethologists on social behaviour of insects, fishes, birds and human beings are very helpful in the application of these principles for the welfare of the humanity as well as for the environmental sustainability. Ethology differs from the study of Animal Behavior, in that animal behaviorists generally are interested in learned behaviors while ethologists concentrate on innate behaviors.

ABSTRACT

Insects are considered the most successful in the animal kingdom. Many factors contribute to their success. One major factor that operates strikingly is the economy and optimal use of energy. One can give several examples taking the life of a single insect

ABSTRACT

The Indian false vampire bat, Megaderma lyra detects and captures prey (e.g. frogs) mainly by listening to the rustling sounds that are created when the prey is on ground. In addition, echolocation and vision are also involved. Mothers of M. lyra take meticulous care of their young. At the age of about seven weeks, juveniles exhibit gleaning flights. Among eight mother-young pairs, four young (group A) began to capture frogs at the age of 62 days

ABSTRACT

The Indian short-nosed fruit bat, Cynopterus sphinx is one among the three paleotropical species known to make tents. Once a tent is made, male typically defends it against other competing males and also defends the females who join his tent.