eChapters

Among the various natural resources upon which all living organisms depend, soil is the unique because of its non-renewable in nature, heterogeneity in space and time and susceptibility to degradation inflicted by biotic as well as abiotic agents. Whereas, escalating population demands, in one way, to bring more land under the plough for providing food, fodder, fuel and fibre, simultaneously, on the other way, these finite natural resources are dwindling by leaps and bound, through overexploitations and mismanagement, the combined effect of which leads to land degradation, a serious global threat and major environmental issues in the present times.

Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns. These shifts may be natural, such as through variations in the solar cycle. But since the 1800s, human activities have been the main driver of climate change, primarily due to burning fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas. (https://www.un.org/ en/climatechange/what-is-climate-change) While it is possible to achieve enhanced food production to meet the demands of growing populations, the prevailing negative environmental trends, if continued, might cause crises in many parts of the world (Molden, 2007). The effects of climate change on agriculture can take place through changes in average temperatures, rainfall, and climate extremes (e.g., heat waves); changes in pests and diseases; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods; and changes in sea level. (Anonymous, 2014A)

The classification of pyrolysis processes plays a crucial role in understanding and categorizing the various methods used for thermal decomposition of biomass, waste materials, and carbonaceous feedstocks. This chapter provides an in-depth overview of the classification schemes employed in the field of pyrolysis. It discusses the different factors considered for classification, including temperature, heating rate, feedstock, reactor configuration, and operating conditions. Understanding these classifications is essential for selecting the appropriate pyrolysis process based on specific objectives, feedstock availability, and desired product yields.

7.1 General

Science and technology have been advancing rapidly, but unfortunately, their impact has been largely negative. Pollution is not the only issue we face today, but also the depletion of fossil fuels, climate change, and excessive land degradation. The persistent presence of heavy metals in soil poses a significant threat to our planet. Many efforts have been made to remediate soils contaminated with toxic chemicals.

There are several issues that need urgent attention at the moment, and a solution is necessary to tackle them all at once. Biochar is a great option because of its numerous benefits, such as a large surface area, high porosity, high carbon sequestration rate, excess nutrients, and potential to produce syngas and bio oil. By using biochar, we can reduce the bioavailability of pollutants in soil, combat climate change by sequestering carbon, and reduce the use of fossil fuels by producing syngas and bio-oil. Additionally, biochar improves soil health, which can contribute to food security.

1. Monsoon: Types and Behavior in India

The monsoon is a dynamic and vital climatic phenomenon in India, playing a pivotal role in shaping the country’s weather patterns, agricultural practices, and overall water resource management. This seasonal shift in wind patterns brings about distinct wet and dry periods, impacting various regions differently. Understanding the types and behavior of the monsoon is essential for effective planning and adaptation to this critical aspect of India’s climate (fig 1).

Types of Monsoon in India

1. Southwest Monsoon (June to September)

The southwest monsoon is the lifeline of India’s agriculture, bringing the much needed rainfall that supports a majority of the country’s crops.

5.1. Introduction

Rice-fallows are a rainfed rice mono-crop production system, where only a single crop (rice) is grown and these lands remain without any crop for the rest of the period of the year (fallow). An estimate shows that rice-fallow areas extended over 22.3 M ha in South Asia, maximum in India ( 88.3%) followed by Bangladesh (8.7%), Nepal (1.4%), Sri Lanka (1.1%), Pakistan (0.5%), and Bhutan (0.02%) (Gumma et al., 2016). The eastern part of India accounts for ~ 84% (9.7 million ha) of the country’s total rice-fallow area (i.e. 11.7 million ha) (Ali et al., 2014; Singh et al., 2017), despite high rainfall during rainy / monsoon season. The reasons are that after the rainy season, irrigation facilities are lacking, very fast depletion of the soil residual moisture due to temperature rise, the poor economic condition of the farmers, and a lack of awareness or knowledge of available technologies. Additionally, delayed harvesting of long-duration rice (150-160 days) results in late sowing of winter crops, which, in turn, exacerbates the temperature and moisture stresses in winter crops (Kumar et al., 2018a; 2018b). Overall, the challenges of growing another crop in rice-fallow areas are the lack of irrigation facilities including declining groundwater levels, the dominance of the long-duration rice varieties cultivation, higher evaporative loss of the residual soil moisture, degradation of soil quality, and poor financial conditions of the farming community with diminishing profit. Recently, climate change with erratic rainfall and delayed monsoon arrival added more challenges for these areas in several places. Deficit soil moisture imposes stress on the crops and negatively affects the winter crops productivity in the rice-fallow system, and several times it results in complete crop failure (Singh et al., 2012; Ghosh et al., 2016).

This chapter focuses on presenting empirical findings from data analysis to provide sufficient interpretation so to draw reliable conclusions. To enhance and complement the textual contents of the study, tables and models are frequently utilized. Additionally, the discussion serves to contextualize the study’s findings and establish connections with the research work.

The pattern of distribution of the variable, Education (x2 ) depicts that the maximum education of the respondents is 5 and the minimum is 2. The mean value of education of the respondents is 4.09 with standard deviation of 0.82. The Coefficient of Variation is 19.96 per cent which indicates the distribution of variable is highly consistent.

the maximum functional education of the respondents is 15 and the minimum is 2. The mean value of functional education of the respondents is 8.27 with standard deviation of 3.39. The distribution of the variable is fairly consistent with a CV value of 41.06 per cent.

The pattern of distribution of the variable, Size of family (x4 ) depicts that the maximum size of family of the respondents is 9 and the minimum is 3. The mean value of size of family of the respondents is 5.62 with standard deviation of 1.48. The Coefficient of Variation is 26.34 per cent which indicates the distribution of variable is fairly consistent.

The pattern of distribution of the variable, Cultivated Land Holding per capita (x5 ) depicts that the maximum cultivated land holding of the respondents is 1.92 and the minimum is 0.25. The mean value of cultivated land holding of the respondents is 0.77 with standard deviation of 0.30. The distribution of the variable is fairly consistent with a CV value of 38.83 per cent.

the maximum no. of land fragment of the respondents is 2 and the minimum is 1. The mean value of no. of land fragment of the respondents is 1.24 with standard deviation of 0.43. The Coefficient of Variation is 34.73 per cent which indicates the distribution of variable is fairly consistent.

The pattern of distribution of the variable, Avg. size of land fragment (x7 ) depicts that the maximum avg. size of land fragment of the respondents is 1.25 and the minimum is 0.25. The mean value of avg. size of land fragment of the respondents is 0.64 with standard deviation of 0.19. The distribution of the variable is fairly consistent with a CV value of 30.18 per cent.

Results and Discussion:

Concept Result is the outcome, consequences or conclusion of a problem, probe or experiment organized after a period of time. This conclusion can be one result, multiple results or no result as such. The length of time taken to find a result can vary from less than a second to many years. In this chapter the result of the Research has been elaborated and also discussed later.

The purpose of the discussion/revelation is to interpret and describe the significance of our findings in light of what was already known about the research problem being investigated, and to explain any new understanding or insights about the problem, after we have taken the findings into consideration. The discussion will always connect to the introduction by way of the research questions or hypothesis we posed and the literature we reviewed, but it does not simply repeat or rearrange the introduction and the discussion always explain how our study has moved towards the research problem.

This table presents the distribution of 19 independent variables(x1-x19) and 6 dependent variables (y1-y6) in terms of their Minimum, Maximum, Mean, Variance, Standard deviation, and Coefficient of variation.

Here, it is depicted that the average age (x1) of the respondents is 50.307. The C.V. value for the variable is 18.521. So, it indicates that the distribution of the variable is highly consistent.

From the table it is depicted that the average education (x2) of the respondents is 7.600. So, almost on an average the individual education is 8 for every respondent. The C.V. value for the variable is 41.553. So, it indicates that the distribution of the variable is fairly consistent.

This chapter focuses on presenting empirical findings from data analysis to provide sufficient interpretation so to draw reliable conclusions. To enhance and complement the textual contents of the study, tables and models are frequently utilized. Additionally, the discussion serves to contextualize the study’s findings and establish connections with the research work.

Result: The Table 13 depicts the distributive characteristics of the variables for the 90 respondents under the study.

Revelation: The pattern of distribution of the variable, Age (x1 ) depicts that the maximum age of the respondents is 70 and the minimum is 26. The mean value of age of the respondents is 42.98 with standard deviation of 10.77. The distribution of the variable is strongly consistent with a CV value of 25.06 per cent.

The pattern of distribution of the variable, Education (x2 ) depicts that the maximum education of the respondents is 5 and the minimum is 2. The mean value of education of the respondents is 4.09 with standard deviation of 0.82. The Coefficient of Variation is 19.96 per cent which indicates the distribution of variable is highly consistent.

Pack inspection: It is similar to continuous inspection except that here inspector(s) may make in-process checks during different processing operations under contract but not required to be present all the times in the plant during operation.

Package: The package means a pre packed box, tin, barrel, pouch or can etc in which food article is packed.

Package store: A store that sells bottled or canned alcoholic beverages for consumption off the premises.

Packaging: Packaging is an industrial and marketing technique for containing, protecting, identifying and facilitating the sale and distribution of agricultural, industrial and consumer products (Plate 467). Packaging is defined as an enclosure of products, items or package in a wrapped pouch, bags, box, cup, bottle or any container form to perform one or more of the functions as containment, protection and preservation, communication and utility or performance. Technically, packaging is a system or method by which a product from the manufacturing point to the consumer level reaches in a safe and sound condition at an affordable cost. The primary purpose of the packaging is to protect the food product, to keep it in good condition and to preserve the flavour until it reaches the consumer. It is therefore, very essential that a suitable form of the packaging is chosen for a finished product. Packaging is an art, which determines the buying decision of a consumer. or Wrapping / placement of objects in paper / other packaging materials, keeping in box, etc is known as packaging which has two main functions, to assemble the produce / objects in convenient units for handling and to protect them during transporting, marketing and storage which results in extended shelf life of the produce. “Packaging” play a very important role not only in ensuring safety of the product during transportation, storage and distribution and in conveying information about the pack contents to the consumers, but also ensuring desired sensory characteristics and micro biological soundless till consumed.

Saccharification: The process of breaking a complex carbohydrate (starch or cellulose) into its monosaccharide components is called saccharification.

Saccharimeter: A device (polarimeter) used for measuring the amount of sugar in a solution is called saccharimeter. It is also known as saccharometer. It is a hydrometer with a special scale.

Saccharin: A crystalline compound C7 H5 NO3 S that is unrelated to the carbohydrates, is several hundred times sweeter than sucrose, and is used as a calorie free sweetener.

Saccharomyces: It is one of the genus (Saccharomyces) of the family Saccharomycetaceae and is usually unicellular yeasts (brewer’s yeast) that are distinguished by their sparse or absent mycelium and reproduced asexually by budding.

Safe food: Food that provide maximum nutrition and quality while revealing a minimal hazard to public health and they assume any risk present to be minimal.

Tuberculosis

Tuberculosis is a chronic bacterial disease of cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goat and pigs caused by Mycobacterium sp. and characterized by presence of tubercle nodules in lungs, spleen and lymph nodes (Fig.2.1).

Etiology

• Mycobacterium tuberculosis

• M. bovis

Pathogenesis

Disease spreads through contact with infected animals or their discharges or morbid tissues. The infected animals release the organisms through sputum at coughing and contact animals get infection through droplet inhalation.Besides sputum, faeces, urine, vaginal discharges, semen, milk, lymph and wound discharges may act source of infection. It is also transmitted through contaminated instruments, utensils and beddings. After entry through inhalation or ingestion, bacilli localizes at the point of entry and produce typical tubercle in associated lymph nodes. Mostly pharyngeal and mesenteric lymph nodes are affected. From lymph nodes, infection may extend across body cavities, blood vessels and lymph vessels. The inhaled organism enter in the bronchial tree after lodging in bronchi a tissue reaction takes place. Neutrophilic infiltration is there and when neutrophils are necrosed, macrophages come to destroy the organism but they fail then many macrophages becomes elongated to form epithelioid cells, the hall mark of granulomatous inflammation. Some macrophages are joint together to form giant cells to destroy the acid fast bacilli. As a consequence of this some bacilli are phagocytosed and are destroyed. A zone of lymphocytes, macrophages, epithelioid cells, giant cells and fibrous connective tissues are formed around the central necrosed area.

Trypanosomosis

Trypanosomosis is an infectious disease of animals caused by protozoan parasite and characterized by emaciation, enlargement of spleen and lymph nodes, petechiae on serous membranes, ulceration on tongue and gastric mucosa and gelatinous exudate in subcutaneous region.

Etiology

• Trypanosoma evansi

Pathogenesis

The disease is mainly transmitted through bite of flies like Tabanus, Stomoxys, Haematopota etc. The carrier animals remain as potential source of infection. The pathogenesis of disease is not completely known. After entering in mammalian host, trypanosomes multiply in blood stream by binary fission leading to parasitaenia. The parasites has variable surface glycoproteins which cause continuous exposure of immune system leading to hyperplasia of spleen and lymph nodes. In chronic cases, due to formation of antigen- antibody complexes glomerulonephritis and vasculitis is seen.

Proper soil management without impairing soil health is the prerequisite for achieving higher productivity from agriculture land. The arable soils of tropics and subtopics are poor in organic matter due to high temperature and intense microbial activity. The importance of organic matter in improving soil fertility through maintenance of optimum levels of soil organic matter as well as plants nutrients is well recognized. There is need to encourage more ecofriendly and productive farming system.

A growing number of farmers, ecologists and scientists are coming to conclusion that conventional farming can not be sustained because in the end it does more harm than good and it is high time to think of sounder ways of farming which are healthy for the soil, environment, plants, animals and human beings.

The practices of economically sound, viable and culturally appropriate agriculture is termed as sustainable agriculture. The excessive and imbalanced use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides on soil and plant in not only harmful to soil microflora and fauna but also reduces the productivity potential of the land. The conventional intensive agriculture has depleted the soil organic matter content and plant nutrients besides the susceptibility of crops to pest and disease. Nitrates the ultimate product of N- fertilizers pollute the ground of water and food, has higher levels of non-protein nitrogen (NPN). Increasing levels of NPN in human bodies have been reported. Soil is a dynamic living system and if it is not manured to feed soil biota, soil health gets deteriorated which is essential for cycling of plants nutrients.

Phosphorus is one of the essential plant nutrients, which is required in optimum amounts for proper growth of plants and soil biota. Being a constituent of ATP it is involved in various processes such as cell division, energy generation and transfer of genetic characteristics and regulation of metabolic pathways (Theodorou and Plaxton, 1993). Phosphorus constitutes about 0.2% plant dry weight (Schachtman et al., 1998). The average soil contains 0.05% phosphorus but only one tenth of this is available to plants due to its poor solubility and chemical fixation in soil (Narayansamy et al., 1981, Barber, 1984). About 98 percent of Indian soils have inadequate supply of available phosphorus (Ghosh and Hasan 1979, Hasan, 1994). A survey of Indian soils showed that out of 363 districts, only 2,2% were high, 51.5% medium and 46.3% were low in phosphorus content (Ghosh 1982).

The problem of P fertilization may become serious in coming years because of the fact that manufacture of phosphatic fertilizers requires the use of non renewable resources such as high grade rock phosphate and sulphur which are becoming costlier. The situation is further aggravated by the fact that P is readily fixed in the soil and the average utilization efficiency of added fertilizer P by plants ranges from 15-25% only (Gaur 1982, 1990). The recent report showed that 42 per cent of soil samples fell in low category, 38 per cent in medium and 20 per cent in high category (Motsara, 2002). It has been observed that the vast alluvial tracts of the country are either low or medium in available P. Hence they need P application at recommended rates.

1. The “silviculture of Indian trees” in three volume was published in 1921, by _____________. (R.S. Troup)

2. _____________ silvicultural system aims at opening of the canopy for regeneration and even-aged condition of the crop. (Uniform shelter wood system)

3. Irregular involutions and convolutions on the bole just above the base of a tree are called as ____________. (Fluting)

4. Stool shoots refers to the production of coppice shoots from_____________ of stumps. (Near the top)

5. Geographical area covered by forest area in India is_____________ per cent. (21-22%)

6. Indian forests were classified into _______ number of groups by Champion and Seth in 1968. (16)

7. The most favourable soil for the growth of Shorea robusta (Sal) is_____________. (Well drained deep moist sandy loam)

8. The clear felling system was introduced for the first time by_____________. (Heinrich Vancotta)

9. The book “Genera Plantarum” was written by_____________. (Englaer and Prantl)

10. “Pricking” is a term used in raising plants in_____________ area. (Main plantation)

3.1 Conceptual Framework

Aconceptual framework is an analytical tool that is used to get a comprehensive understanding of the study. It embodies the specific direction by which the research will have to be undertaken. It is generally constructed to provide the researcher the element ofattainable and researchable problems and ideas supported by methodology, design, prospective analysis and empirical conclusion. The conceptual framework is often called as the research paradigm.

The subject matter of the present research is Resilience and productivity of agriculture in different social-ecology: the farmers’ perception, status and interpretation. It is expected that the terminologies and concepts used to frame up the topic need to undergo brief explanation for the better understanding of its meaning.

Resilience: Resilience is about anticipating, planning and reducing disaster risk to effectively protect persons, communities and countries, their livelihoods, health, cultural heritage, socio-economic assets and ecosystems. The ideas of ‘bounce back’, ‘spring forward’ and ‘build back better’ are often used in the context of resilience.

Productivity: Productivity is commonly defined as a ratio between the output volume and the volume of inputs. It measures how efficiently production inputs, are being used in an economy to produce a given level of output.

Agriculture: The word agriculture derives from the Latin ager (field) and colo (cultivate) signifying, when combined, the Latin agricultura: field or land tillage. But the word has come to subsume a very wide spectrum of activities that are integral to agriculture and have their own descriptive terms, such as cultivation, domestication, horticulture, arboriculture, and vegeculture, as well as forms of livestock management such as mixed crop-livestock farming, pastoralism, and transhumance. The Oxford English Dictionary (1971) defines agriculture as “The science and art of cultivating the soil, including the allied pursuits of gathering in the crops and rearing livestock; tillage, husbandry, farming.”

In any social science research, it is hardly possible to conceptualize and perceive the data and interpret the data more accurately until and unless a clear understanding of the characteristics in the area and attitude or the behavior of people is at commend of the interpreter who intends to unveil an understanding of the implication and behavioral complexes of the individual who live in the area under reference and form a representative part of the larger community. The socio-demographic background of the local people in a rural setting has been critically administered in this section. A research setting is a surrounding in which input and elements of research are contextually imbibed, interactive and mutually contributive to the system performance. Research setting is immensely important in the sense because it is characterizing and influencing the interplays of different factors and components. Besides the investigators must also have the basic knowledge about the socio demographic background of the people so as to have an easy understanding of their knowledge, attitude and behavior.

Research setting refers to the detail information of an area where the study has been conducted. The study area, generally comprises of a particular geographical area viz. a state, district, block, or gram panchayat area selected according to the convenience of the investigator who possess adequate knowledge regarding the location, communication facility etc. of the locality so that he/she can easily approach each and every corner of the area for data collection. Here. in this study the data collection was done mostly over telephone based on the interview schedule due to Covid-19 pandemic situation.

Chemicals are commonly employed to manage plant diseases, pests, and weeds, but they are only effective if administered promptly once an infestation has been discovered. These chemicals must be sprayed, dusted, or misted over the ground and plants. Since the chemicals are expensive, it is important to have tools for applying them evenly and effectively. Crop Protection Products (CPP) like herbicides, pesticides, and fungicides work best when they are used at the right time during the crop’s most productive times. This problem is getting worse because there aren’t enough people to do the work. In this situation, the only choice that makes sense is to automate the application process. Most of the time, poisons are put on with dusters or sprayers. Dusting is the easier way to apply chemicals. It works best with movable equipment and usually only needs simple tools, but it is less effective than spraying because the dust doesn’t stick around as long. High volume spraying is usually efficient and reliable, but it is more expensive than low volume spraying, which fixes some of the problems with the first two methods while keeping the things that work well about them.

9.1 Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
i) Understand the concept of Sample, Population, Sampling Frame, Sample Size, etc.;
ii) Differentiate between Probability and Non-Probability Sampling methods;
iii) Understand the various methods of sampling;
iv) Recognize Sampling and Non-Sampling errors;
v) Determine Sample Size.

The science that includes classification, nomenclature and identification of plants is called plant taxonomy. Taxa (Sing. Taxon):A general term for taxonomic classification, irrespective of rank.
18.1 Plant Types (habit and habitat)
1. Annual: A plant that completes its entire life cycle, from seed to reproduction to death, in one single year.
2. Biennial: A plant that completes its entire life cycle in two years.
3. Perennial: A plant that grows and reproduces for many years.
4. Monocarpic: plants that flower and set seeds once during its lifetime. They flower only after attaining maturity. They flower gregariously in a single season e.g. Bamboo and Kurinjis.
5. Polycarpic: Plants that flower and set seeds many times during its lifetime.
6. Aquatic: Organisms growing in water.
7. Shrub: A much branched, small, woody perennial plant with several branches from ground level upwards.
8. Tree: A tall, woody, perennial plant with a single trunk which usually bears branches.

Agroclimatology plays a vital role in the cultivation and production of creeper vegetables in India. Creeper vegetables, such as cucumber, bitter gourd, and bottle gourd, are an essential part of Indian cuisine and are grown extensively throughout the country. With its diverse climate and geographical conditions, India offers a suitable environment for the growth of a wide range of creeper
vegetables.
In terms of area and production, creeper vegetables account for a significant share of the total vegetable production in India. According to the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India, the area under creeper vegetable cultivation has been increasing steadily over the years, with a corresponding rise in production. This trend is attributed to the growing
demand for these vegetables, both domestically and internationally.
Creeper vegetables are not only an important source of nutrition but also contribute significantly to the country’s economy. They are a vital source of income for many small and marginal farmers, who cultivate these crops on a large scale. Moreover, the export of creeper vegetables earns significant foreign exchange for the country.
The importance of creeper vegetables in India can be gauged from the fact that they are an integral part of various traditional and cultural festivals. For instance, bitter gourd is considered a auspicious vegetable in many Indian communities and is often prepared during special occasions.

Root-type vegetables are a diverse group of underground plant structures that are edible and serve as a vital source of nutrition for humans. These vegetables can be further categorized into two main types: true roots, such as carrots, beets, turnips, and radishes, which are modified taproots that store food; and tuberous roots, such as Potatoes, sweet potatoes and yams, which are modified
stems that store food. A root is a compact, often enlarged storage organ with hairy stems that develops from root tissue. So a tuber is a root crop, but a plant can be a root and not a tuber. Carrots and cassava are root vegetable crops. Potatoes, sweet potatoes and yams, on the other hand, are edible tuber crops (Fig. 5.1).
The primary difference in propagation lies in the plant part used: tubers, like potatoes, are propagated from modified stems or roots with “eyes” (nodes) that sprout, while root crops, like carrots, are propagated from seeds or root cuttings, as their roots don’t have these propagation points. Another major difference is that tubers will have long shelf life compared to roots.
• Tubers
• Origin: Tubers are modified stems or roots that store nutrients.
• Propagation: They can be propagated vegetatively by using pieces of the tuber that contain “eyes” (nodes) which sprout and grow into new plants.
• Examples: Potatoes, sweet potatoes, and cassava.

7.1 Introduction
The preceding chapters have detailed the myriad ways in which meteorological data is collected, from direct in situ observations to various ground-based and space-borne remote sensing platforms. We have also explored the crucial aspects of data formatting, storage, and retrieval, recognizing the immense volume and diversity of atmospheric information. However, the journey from raw measurement to actionable insight is not complete without a critical intermediate step: data quality control (QC) and preprocessing. No observational system, regardless of its sophistication, is entirely free from errors, biases, or inconsistencies. Sensors can drift, communication links can suffer interference, environmental factors can contaminate readings, and automated systems can malfunction. Consequently, raw meteorological data often contains spurious values, missing records, or systematic biases that, if left unaddressed, can severely compromise the accuracy of weather forecasts, the reliability of climate analyses, and the validity of scientific research.
This chapter will delve into the essential processes of quality control, which involves rigorously identifying, flagging, and, where appropriate, correcting or removing erroneous data points. We will explore various automated and manual techniques employed to ensure the integrity and reliability of meteorological observations. Furthermore, we will examine preprocessing steps, which prepare the quality-controlled data for its intended use, including tasks such as unit conversions, interpolation to common grids, and handling of missing values. By understanding the meticulous procedures involved in data
quality control and preprocessing, we gain a profound appreciation for how raw atmospheric signals are transformed into the trustworthy information that underpins all of modern meteorology.

Results and Discussion: Concept
Result is the outcome, consequences or conclusion of a problem, probe or experiment organized after a period of time. This conclusion can be one result, multiple results or no result as such. The length of time taken to find a result can vary from less than a second to many years. In this chapter the result of the Research has been elaborated and also discussed later.
The purpose of the discussion/revelation is to interpret and describe the significance of our findings in light of what was already known about the research problem being investigated, and to explain any new understanding or insights about the problem, after we have taken the findings into consideration. The discussion will always connect to the introduction by way of the research questions or hypothesis we posed and the literature we reviewed, but it does not simply repeat or rearrange the introduction and the discussion always explain how our study has moved towards the research problem.

4. Research Setting
Research setting presents the set of an ecosystem, here social-ecological systems, where the variables and characters are created, evolved, characterized and interact with others. Research setting is not a stale or lentic ecosystem rather it is agile, evolving and dynamic, so in this present work, we have perceived research setting as the performing social-ecology which sustains and keeps constantly characterizing the behaviour and dynamics of the variables under study, e.g. a settlement in close proximity to natural water body is expected to have interaction with ethiophonal diversity and performing economy therewith similarly, another set of respondents with the same set of variables but living in a forest ecosystem. The interaction and exposition of the variables will follow a different expression and pathway. So, while we will go for modelling, with the same set of variables but in different ecological set up, it is expected that the nature of interaction and expression will follow the unique characters of the concerned ecosystem.
4.1. Area of Study
The area of investigation of this study is situated in the state of West Bengal located in the eastern part of India. The state of West Bengal in eastern India has unique social and ecological backgrounds which influence the living standard and behavioural patterns of the people in many ways. The present research design has accommodated two agro- ecological set ups in West Bengal, India, and these are New Alluvial and Terai zone.

Introduction
The early human beings undertook extensive exploration of wild species in different plant species before selection followed by domestication for food and other purposes. The identification and selection of innumerable wild plant species and their domestication formed an integral part of early agriculture. Thus the organized cultivation of plant species is the result of selection in and among numerous wild species followed by domestication. It started around 9000-11000 years ago and has given birth to agriculture. The evolution of numerous human civilisations/settlements across the globe is largely shaped by agriculture. Selection continued during domestication which has led to the improvement in the wild plant species and transformed wild plant species into cultivated crop plants. Subsequently, the crop plants were differentiated into distinct landraces depending on morphological features, adaptation, economic use, etc. across different continents on Earth. Selection by humans and/or by nature is a continuous and dynamic process and will continue in future as well. However, a deep understanding of genetic diversity in crop species is essential for successful selection by human beings (Naqvi et al., 2022). The objective of the selection and domestication were dynamic and varied depending on cultural, social, economic and climatic factors. In general, the major objective of selection was to increase yield and bring desirable changes in valuable traits of economic importance. The significance of selection has increased over the years and will continue to increase in future as well. The procedure and methods followed while selecting traits or genotypes of economic importance have led to the birth of a new discipline, plant breeding. In the early years, plant breeding was more of an art than a science. As science progressed, the increased understanding of the genetics of traits complemented plant breeding with scientific back-up. Subsequently, genetics has become the basis of selection, the essence of plant breeding.
Globally, the demand for food, fodder, fuel, energy etc. is increasing continuously and increased crop production is considered as the most viable and sustainable answer or solution. The major driving force for increased demand is the growing population. However, the challenges to increasing crop production are also many namely, the decreasing arable land for agriculture, changing climate (increased extreme temperatures and altered rainfall patterns etc.), decreasing natural resources like water and energy etc. (Razzaq et al., 2021). Further, global warming also impacts the overall agricultural production across crops adversely. In this scenario, the role of plant breeding is vital to sustain higher crop production on a sustainable basis. The responsibility of plant breeders also increases in terms of the development of new, high-yielding, stress (biotic and abiotic) tolerant, high-quality and higher resource use efficient genotypes continually. Historically, conventional/traditional plant breeding has made significant progress in several crops in terms of increasing production, productivity, stress tolerance, nutritional value, etc. Conventional plant breeding relied fundamentally on extensive evaluation of available germplasm for a range of traits of economic importance and utilization of genetic diversity found in the landraces and closely related species (primary and secondary gene pools) (Prohens, 2011; Mangal et al., 2024). The success in conventional plant breeding largely depends on the expertise of breeders while undertaking phenotypic selection. It mainly involved selection within broad genetic base germplasm like landraces, open-pollinated varieties, exploration of wild and related species, and their evaluation for traits of interest, followed by hybridization and cyclical selection (Hallauer and Carena, 2009). The

Introduction
In the ever-evolving landscape of agriculture, the intersection of science and technology continually reshapes the way we approach crop improvement. Among the most revolutionary advancements in recent years is the advent of genome editing technologies. These powerful tools offer unprecedented precision and efficiency in modifying the genetic makeup of plants, holding immense promise for revolutionizing the field of plant breeding. Genome editing plays a crucial role in plant breeding by enabling plant breeders to make precise and targeted changes to the DNA of crops, offering significant advantages over conventional breeding methods. Besides, crop improvement, these new breeding tools shorten the time needed to introduce desirable traits into crops, from decades to just a few years. They have revolutionized plant breeding by providing breeders with the ability to efficiently create crops that are more resilient, better adapted, and can produce higher yields with fewer resources, ultimately contributing to sustainable food production and addressing the challenges posed by climate change and population growth.
This comprehensive review aims to explore the transformative potential of genome editing technologies in genetic improvement of crop plants. The review will commence by elucidating the underlying mechanisms of genome editing technologies, offering insights into the molecular machinery that drives precise DNA modifications mediated by ZFNs, TALENs, CRISPR/Cas, base editing, prime editing and other new variants of CRISPR/Cas systems, highlighting their respective strengths and limitations. From enhancing crop productivity and quality to conferring resistance against biotic and abiotic stresses, these technologies offer a versatile toolkit for addressing pressing agricultural challenges. Case studies and examples from recent research will illuminate the successes and potential pitfalls of employing genome editing in crop improvement efforts. Besides, the regulatory and ethical considerations surrounding the deployment of genome editing in agriculture will be addressed. In conclusion, this comprehensive review seeks to provide a holistic perspective on harnessing genome editing technologies in plant breeding. By elucidating the scientific principles, applications, regulatory challenges, and ethical considerations, we hope to facilitate informed discourse and decision-making surrounding the integration of these transformative tools into agricultural practices. As we stand at the precipice of a new era in crop improvement, embracing the potential of genome editing holds the promise of unlocking sustainable solutions to global food security challenges.

Agriculture is one of the oldest and most fundamental activities of human civilization, serving as the bedrock upon which societies and economies have been built. In its simplest definition, agriculture is the science and practice of cultivating the soil, growing crops, and raising livestock. However, its significance extends far beyond mere food production; it is integral to the economic, social, and environmental fabric of nations. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of agriculture, beginning with its basic definition and expanding to cover its critical role in human civilization. It delves into the diverse agricultural practices observed in Pakistan, a country where agriculture is not only a tradition but also a cornerstone of the economy. The discussion covers how climate, geography, and government policies influence these practices and shape the challenges and opportunities within the sector. Moreover, this chapter explores the economic impact of agriculture on Pakistan, particularly in terms of employment, poverty alleviation, and rural development. It also addresses the role of agriculture in ensuring food security, the environmental implications of farming practices, and the need for sustainable methods to secure the future of this vital industry. Finally, the chapter touches on the technological advancements and innovations that are driving modern agricultural practices and the broader implications of these changes for the future of farming. In the heartlands of progress and sustenance, where the earth meets the sky, lies a discipline that stands as the foundation of civilizations throughout history – agriculture. More than just a vocation, agriculture is an intricate science that has shaped societies, provided nourishment, and propelled the evolution of humanity. It intertwines the art of nurturing the land with the precision of scientific inquiry, producing a symphony of growth and harvest that sustains life itself. At its core, agriculture is the embodiment of a delicate balance between nature’s offerings and human ingenuity. It’s the art of coaxing the earth’s potential, and the science of unraveling its secrets. From the rhythmic dance of seasons to the intricacies of soil composition, every facet of agriculture is woven into the tapestry of life on Earth. And as we stride into an era where global challenges like population growth, climate change, and resource scarcity loom, the importance of understanding the science behind farming has never been more crucial.

Introduction Soil, often referred to as the “skin of the earth,” is a critical component of our planet’s ecosystem, serving as the foundation for all terrestrial life. This chapter explores the science of soil, delving into its formation, classification, and the complex properties that define its role in agriculture and environmental sustainability. Understanding soil is fundamental to addressing global challenges such as food security, climate change, and sustainable land management. The chapter begins with an examination of soil formation and classification, providing insights into the diverse types of soils that exist across different landscapes. It then discusses the physical and chemical properties of soil, including their impact on soil health and fertility. The role of soil microbiology is highlighted, emphasizing the importance of microorganisms in maintaining soil health and promoting plant growth. As we progress through the chapter, we explore modern concepts in soil science, including sustainable soil management practices and their significance in mitigating the effects of global warming. The chapter also addresses the crucial role of soil in food security, demonstrating how effective soil management can enhance agricultural productivity and resilience in the face of climate change. Finally, the chapter touches upon the threats to soil health and the importance of sustainable soil management in ensuring a prosperous future for all. Soil science is a vital discipline within agriculture that focuses on the study of soils and their properties. This chapter delves into various aspects of soil science, including soil formation and classification, soil physical and chemical properties, soil fertility and nutrient cycling, soil conservation and erosion control, and soil microbiology and soil health. Soil is the foundation of agriculture, providing the medium for plant growth and supporting the intricate web of life that sustains our ecosystems. Understanding the science of soil is essential for optimizing crop production, protecting natural resources, and ensuring sustainable land management practices. In this chapter, we will explore the fascinating world of soil science, delving into its various aspects to gain insights into soil formation, composition, fertility, and conservation. By understanding the principles and processes underlying soil science, we can make informed decisions to enhance soil health, maximize nutrient availability, mitigate erosion, and promote sustainable agricultural practices.

Introduction
Having meticulously explored the foundations of crop-weather interactions, the development and validation of crop growth models, the wisdom embedded in Indigenous Technical Knowledge, and the systematic organization of Crop Weather Calendars, we now arrive at the culmination of this knowledge synthesis: the Agroadvisory Based on Weather Forecast. This chapter delves into the critical process of transforming raw meteorological data and scientific understanding into actionable, timely, and location-specific advice for the farming community. An agroadvisory, at its core, is a targeted recommendation provided to farmers, guiding them on various agricultural operations by integrating current weather conditions, short- to medium-range weather forecasts, and the specific needs of their crops at different growth stages. It represents the final, practical output of complex agro-meteorological research and forecasting efforts, designed to empower farmers to make adaptive decisions that can significantly impact their yield, resource efficiency, and resilience against climatic shocks. In the upcoming sections, we will comprehensively examine the multi-faceted nature of weather-based agroadvisories. Our exploration will detail:
• The Conceptual Framework: Understanding the underlying principles and objectives of these advisories, emphasizing their shift from reactive responses to proactive planning.
• Essential Components of an Agroadvisory: Breaking down the key pieces of information typically included, such as weather forecasts (temperature, rainfall, wind, humidity), crop-specific phenological stages, potential risks (pests, diseases, extreme weather), and precise recommendations for farm operations (sowing, irrigation, fertilization, pest control, harvesting).

Introduction 
In a time when the world is in dire need of sustainable energy solutions, investigating biofuels becomes an essential path to supplying the always expanding supply[1]. This book chapter explores the dynamic world of solid and liquid biofuels, providing a thorough analysis of their properties, methods of production, uses, and wider ramifications in relation to renewable energy sources. Setting the scene, the introduction clarifies the role of biofuels in the larger context of renewable energy. Exploring solid and liquid biofuels becomes critical as the globe struggles with issues like climate change, depleting fossil fuel reserves, and the need to switch to cleaner energy sources[2]. These biofuels, which are defined as energy carriers made from biomass, offer a viable substitute and have the capacity to both reduce environmental impact and promote energy security. As the chapter progresses, biofuels are divided into two main categories: liquid and solid. Biofuels that are solid, such as wood, agricultural leftovers, pellets, and briquettes, serve as a starting point for investigating alternative energy sources. This section walks readers through the complexities involved in producing solid biofuel, including harvesting, pre-treatment, and creative pelletization methods. By doing this, it highlights the renewable nature of solid biofuels and their ability to lower greenhouse gas emissions, highlighting their benefits for the environment. Simultaneously, difficulties associated with its application, ranging from administrative worries to land use issues, are examined closely. Turning its attention to liquid biofuels, the chapter tells the story of ethanol, biodiesel, and advanced biofuels. By examining the choice of feedstock, manufacturing procedures, and real-world uses, it highlights the adaptability of liquid biofuels in the energy system. Although they are not without difficulties related to land use, food production, and water use, their ability to function with current infrastructure and their critical role in improving energy security stand out as distinguishing characteristics[3].

3.1 Introduction
Since the dawn of humanity, the expansion of invention and technological innovation has made it possible to make a variety of goods to meet its needs. To get a competitive edge in the market, the manufacture of a product has three main goals, viz. efficient product planning, efficient manufacturing, and effective cost control.
These can be achieved through a random thinking, if the designer is fortunate to have the best design of a product of interest, which satisfies the needs of its customers. But it will rarely happen. Design thinking maximizes the possibility of happening of the best design in the journey of design a product in shorter possible time.
Design thinking, an emerging field in this direction, tries to create a product by utilizing the following steps.
i. Empathize
ii. Define
iii. Ideate
iv. Prototype
v. Test
3.2 Definition of Design Thinking
A design methodology called “Design Thinking” offers a problem-based approach to problem solving. By understanding the human needs which changes quickly, re-framing the issue in human-centric ways, generating a lot of ideas during brainstorming sessions, and taking a hands-on approach during prototyping and testing, design thinking is incredibly helpful in handling complicated challenges that are ill-defined or unknown. Anyone can use the Design Thinking approach to tackle complex problems that arise in our society, such as those in our businesses, governments, and other spheres of influence, if they have an understanding of these five steps of the process.

8.1. Introduction
Micronutrients are vitamins, minerals, and nutraceuticals that do not provide energy and do not raise any sensation of hunger known as “hidden hunger” or “insensible hunger”. Hidden hunger that causes micronutrient deficiency affects 2 billion people globally. Due to the deficiency of micronutrients, different diseases are noted among public health professionals that reflect poor community nutrition. To overcome these deficiency-related diseases, one of the important approaches is food fortification. Food fortification is a public health policy to reduce the number of individuals, who suffer from micronutrient deficiencies within a population. Common examples include iodine-tagged common salt, vitamin A-containing oil, and iron-enriched rice all of which are examples of food fortification. In the agricultural field, food fortification (FF) and/or food enrichment (FE) is the most efficient strategy to overcome various micronutrient deficiencies by the addition of essential micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) to enhance the nutritional value of cultivated crops. According to World Health Organization (WHO) and Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN), “Food fortification” is defined as “the practice of deliberately increasing the content of an essential micronutrient, i.e., vitamins and minerals (including trace elements) in a food irrespective of whether the nutrients were originally in the food before processing or not, so as to improve the nutritional quality of the food supply and to provide a public health benefit with minimum risk to health” (Pant and Chinwan, 2014). “Fortificant” refers to the incorporation of substances in the food to provide micronutrients. “Micronutrients” refers to the important dietary components, including vitamins and minerals, that are required in very small amounts but are engaged in very critical roles in various body functions and disease prevention.

Biology is the study of life and living organisms that encompasses a vast range of topics from the microscopic scale of cellular processes to the complex interactions within ecosystems. It explores living organisms’ structure, function, growth, evolution, and distribution, integrating diverse fields such as genetics, ecology, and physiology. Chemistry is often referred to as the central science, delves into the composition, structure, properties, and changes of matter. It explores how substances interact with each other and transform through chemical reactions. This field underpins a multitude of scientific disciplines, linking concepts in physics with applications in biology, medicine, and engineering. The chemistry of living organisms is known as Biochemistry. The concept behind Biochemistry deals with the biology and the conventional chemistry. As we all know living organisms can grow, reproduce, and respond but do you know that all these activities could easily be interpreted by chemistry? The complex organic molecules are present

Introduction to Metabolism Metabolism is the sum of all biochemical reactions (physical and chemical processes) occurring within the body to sustain life. In total, it encompasses all the processes converting the energy from nutrients into usable forms, thereby facilitating the synthesis of biomolecules necessary for sustaining life. This process occurring in all living organisms ensures that a continuous supply of energy and precursors is maintained to perform cellular functions, such as growth, reproduction, maintenance and response to environmental stimuli. Therefore, studying the body’s metabolism provides insights into the physiology, mechanism of disease occurrence and potential therapeutic interventions. Specifically, metabolism is a highly regulated process involving a set of biochemical reactions that can be broadly grouped into: a) Catabolism involves the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler components, releasing energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Catabolic reactions assist in the extraction

Supply Chain and Inventory Control
A supply chain refers to the interconnected network of individuals, organizations, resources, activities, and technologies involved in the creation and delivery of a product or service from its origin to the end consumer. It encompasses all stages of production, including sourcing raw materials, manufacturing, transportation, warehousing, distribution, and the final delivery to customers.
Key components of a supply chain include:
1. Suppliers: Entities that provide raw materials or components necessary for production.
2. Manufacturers: Organizations that convert raw materials into finished products through various processes.
3. Distributors: Companies that handle the logistics of transporting goods from manufacturers to retailers or directly to consumers.
4. Retailers: Businesses that sell products to end consumers, either through physical stores or online platforms.
5. Customers: The final recipients of the product or service.
Preparation of Drug Lists
The preparation of drug lists is an essential component of medication management in healthcare settings. These lists help ensure that healthcare providers have access to the necessary medications while promoting safe and effective use. Below is a detailed overview of various categories of drug lists, including high-risk drugs, emergency drugs, Schedule H1 drugs, NDPS (Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances) drugs, and reserved antibiotics.

1. Introduction
Pharmaceutical pollution has emerged as a significant global concern, raising alarms about its potential impacts on ecosystems and human health. The journey of pharmaceutical compounds from their point of use to contamination of water bodies reveals a complex and interconnected web of anthropogenic activities. From manufacturing plants to individual households, these pollutants persistently infiltrate aquatic systems, creating a growing

Rainfall, runoff, evaporation, and other hydrological variables exhibit considerable natural uncertainty and therefore cannot be treated as entirely deterministic phenomena. Statistical and probability methods make it possible to organize observations, describe their variability, identify relationships, estimate extreme events, and predict values associated with selected probabilities. Hydrological data may be analysed daily, weekly, monthly, seasonally, or annually and expressed through averages, maxima, minima, dispersion, skewness, and frequency. This chapter introduces statistical terminology, correlation, regression, probability distributions, plotting positions, goodness-of-fit tests, model-evaluation tools, reliability, standard error, and risk analysis. These techniques are essential for flood-frequency analysis, planning, and hydraulic design.

Pacemaker: A region from which waves of contraction in the heartbeat cycle are propagated.

Paedogenesis: Reproduction by the juvenile form; the production of eggs or young by an immature or larval stage of an animal; reproduction by larviform individuals.

Paeudotrachea: A ridged groove on the ventral surface of the labellum of some higher Diptera, used to take up liquid food.

Page precedence: The principle that when two or more conflicting homonyms or synonyms are published in the same work (or portion of a work) and, as a consequence, are of the same date, the names shall have priority according to the sequence in which they first appear in the work (or portion) concerned.

Paint gun: Type of small, hand-carried, air-blast machine.

Pair-wise coevolution: see Specific coevolution.

• Definition of Bioinformatics
• History of Bioinformatics 
• Structural Bioinformatics
• New Branch of Bioinformatics 
• Bioinformatics - Application in Agriculture
• Analyzing Protein Sequence
• Pairwise Alignment
• Multiple Alignment
• Blast - A Sequence Alignment Tool
• EMBL
• SWISS–PROT
• Rice Genome Project
• Software for Bio-informatics
• Major Categories of Bioinformatics Software
• Internet Sites For Bioinformatics

Most of us consider weeds to be the troublesome, competitive, aggressive, undesirable, unsightly elements of the plant world. We hate weeds since desirable plants cultivated by us are deprived of food, water, sunlight and space by these plants. They can easily colonize an area and thrive even under non-ideal conditions of growth and may affect human welfare adversely. It is perhaps due to this that the saying, when weeds win all the people lose, has come into existence.

The terminology committee of the Weed Society of America gives the simple definition of weed as a plant growing where it is not desired. King (1974) in his book Weeds of the World observed that ‘‘a plant classed as a weed in one region where it has few, if any, uses may when growing in another region, possess some very valuable uses, or in few cases may actually be cultivated’’. For instance, Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) is a highly troublesome weed in crop fields, but in village pastures, it is a much sought for forage grass. Quack grass (Agropyron repens) is a very good soil binding grass on erodable non-crop lands but it is a serious weed when it infests crop fields and orchards. Campbell (1923) considered weeds as ‘honest, independent competitors for food materials in the struggle for existence’. He pointed out that the term, weed has developed in the minds of people not according to specific qualities or by a definite concept in the mind of man, but by human caprice, e.g., corn is a cultivated crop, hence, desirable plant in a corn field. However, if a corn plant grows in a Soya bean field, it is considered a weed by the Soyabean farmer. Sometimes, two persons may differ about the weedy nature of a plant at the same place and time, e.g., water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is a weed for fisherman but it is a plant of aesthetic value for a city dweller.

Thus, a corollary to the above definitions of weed is that weeds are those plants, which grow out of their place, interfere with the utilization of natural resources, prolific, persistent, resistant, competitive, harmful and even poisonous in nature and can grow under adverse conditions.

1. INTRODUCTION

This chapter looks at ICTs in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), with a focus on several selected countries in the region. Exciting and positive developments are happening throughout SSA Africa in ICTs. For instance, in spite of extensive poverty, SSA has had the fastest growing mobile market in the world over the last five years. The mobile telephone in the region has morphed to serve uniquely African development needs, including those in rural areas. It is being used for market information, extension messages and as virtual currency. In Kenya and Uganda, mobile phone services provide cheap messages about crop price information via text messaging. In Tanzania, there are ‘market spies’, farmers who visit local markets and remain in contact with the village using mobile phones to negotiate for better prices.

In spite of the growing use of mobile telephony and other ICTs, Africa has lagged behind in harnessing ICT potential for extension and other rural development issues in comparison to countries such as China, India, and Chile. Sub-Saharan Africa has the lowest teledensity in the world (Bertolini, 2006a). Many challenges exist to ICT use in SSA, and there are concerns that many rural African communities are being further left behind through the ‘digital divide’.

Agricultural practices in India remained virtually unchanged for over 2000 years till 1950-60. With technological advancement in medicine and improvement in health care services, population in India substantially increased in the post independence period. The result was that there was acute shortage of food during 1960s and India had to import massive quantities of wheat from USA to avert famine. Most of these food shipments were in the form of aid. It was then that Government of India realised the gravity of situation and invested heavily in agricultural research. Fortunately, during this period food research laboratories in the West developed hybrid varieties of seeds to suit various types of soil and climatic conditions. At the same time new types of fertilizers and pesticides were introduced which showed dramatic increase in the yield. The agricultural research laboratories in India were able to build on this research and provided extension services to adopt new agricultural techniques to farms in India. This led to dramatic improvement in agricultural production which was hailed as “Green Revolution”. Within two decades a country perennially deficient in food and subject to cyclic famines became a food surplus country in spite of the fact that there was a continuous rise in population which doubled in 30 years after independence. This trend continued into 1980’s when Government built huge buffer stocks of wheat and rice to meet the needs during lean production years.

However the momentum of Green Revolution could not be maintained and certain disturbing trends were noticed in 1990s. The growth rate in productivity declined from 2.99 per cent per annum to 1.21 per cent This was not because we had come to a technical plateau our yields of various products are still quite low as compared to those achieved by developed countries and even some of the developing countries.

Meteorology is defined as the branch of science concerned with the processes and phenomena of the atmosphere. It is also defined as the climate and weather of a region. The word meteorology is derived from two Greek words: Meteor and logus. Meteor means event occurring above the earth surface and logus means to study. Meteorology is science deals with the physics, chemistry and dynamics of atmosphere and also their direct and indirect effects upon the earth surface, oceans and thereby life in general.

Climatology: Climatology is scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time. Different regions of the world have different characteristic climates which determine the crops of any region. Climatology is derived from Greek word ‘klima’ – place/zone or slope of the earth and logs is study. It discovers, describes and interprets the climate on the basis of causes and long term effects on variation in regional and global climate. Climatology is the science which studies average condition of weather or the state behavior of the atmosphere over a place or region for a long period of time.

Agrometeorology: Agrometeorology is the study of weather and use of weather and climate information to enhance crop production. Agrometeorology is defined as the branch of meteorology that deals with relationship between weather and climate on crop, livestock production and soil management.

Where is the Central Institute for Medicinal & Aromatic Plants situated at?

A. Srinagar        B. Bengaluru

C. Anand           D. Lucknow

Landform, water and plants form the three basic elements of garden designing. Each of these basic element is described and discussed in detail.

I Landform

“Landform” refers to three-dimensional relief of earth’s surface. Thus, in simple words it is the lay of land, synonymous with, “topography”. Land is defined as the surface of the earth and all its natural resources. Landform is thus 3-D view of earth’s surface including all the visible feature of an area of land and landscape refers to the picture representing a view of natural inland scenery. Landform is the common module in exterior environments, a base, an axis, a thread, which ties all the physical elements, space together along the horizon or the water edge. Landforms can be classified as macro-landforms, micro-landforms and mini-landforms. Macro-landforms refers to valleys, mountains, rolling hills, prairies, desert, seashore and plains. Micro-landforms refers to mounds, slopes, level areas or elevation changes using steps and ramps. Mini-landforms refers to subtle, undulations or ripples of a sand dunes or the textural variation of stones and rocks.

Different techniques are used for explaining and representing the type of landform. These include (i) Contour lines, (ii) Models, (iii) Ratio method, (iv) Value and colour, (v) Spot elevation, (vi) Computer graphics, (vi) Hatches (disconnected lines are used) and (viii) Percentage method. These techniques are used for proper study of the landform, to identify loopholes and need to modification in order to establish proper drainage or to modify the site in order to accommodate of various elements or to create an aesthetically pleasing ground plan.

13.1 Introduction

In agricultural lands, when the pores of the soil within the root zone of the crop get saturated with the subsoil water due to infiltration of high rainfall, excess irrigation or heavy seepage loss in the unlined canal systems, the air circulation within the soil pores get totally stopped. This phenomenon is called as waterlogging. In canal commands where there is continuous flow of water in the canals and canals are mostly unlined, there is heavy loss of seepage which raises the ground water table. This raising water table sometimes comes up to the ground surface which impedes surface drainage. By capillary action, under ground water rises to the crop root zone and submerges the roots of the crops for most of the time. This situation is called as waterlogging which creates salinisation and alkalinisation problems affecting the plant growth.

The height to which soil water rises above the water table by capillary action is called as capillary fringe. Generally, the height of the capillary fringe varies from 1 to 1.5 m. When the water table comes to 1.5 m below the surface of the soil, the land is said to be waterlogged. At times, due to poor drainage conditions, surface water cannot be freely drained out. The stagnate water in these low lying areas also causes waterlogging which enhances the weed growth consequently affecting the crop yield.