eBook Chapters

A family of about 23 genera and 800 species, Violaceae are distributed in both tropical and temperate regions. Only three genera (Hybanthus, Vahila and Viola) have been reported from India. Famous pansies, violas and violets belong to this family. Some of the larger genera with their approximate number of species in parenthesis include Viola (500), Rinorea (340) and Hybanthus (150). Majority of Indian Violaceae are found in Himalayas and hills of
southern and western India.
Garden pansy is an annual or perennial herb planted in flower beds worldwide owing to its pretty shape and contrasting colour markings, looking like a butterfly. It is called as ‘King of annuals’. In horticultural industry, there are variety of forms, sizes, and shapes of pansies which are employed for landscape planting, garden design, and container gardening. With the advent of F1 hybrids, pansies are known as high quality bedding plants. Dried flowers of Viola odorata Vern. are used against cough, influenza, and lung troubles while oil obtained from flowers is used in perfumes and flavourings.
Selected Indian Genera and Species
• Except for garden favourites, such as pansies, violas and violets, the family is of little economic importance. Over 100 species of Viola, are being grown as ornamental plants.

12.1 Introduction

There is no other pair of words except the pair “Multi-Collinearity” which is more misused both in “Econometric Texts” and in “Applied Literature”. In many practical problems, many of our explanatory variables are found to be highly correlated among themselves.

One of the assumptions of the “classical linear regression model (CLRM) is that there is no “Multicolinearity” among the regressor variables included in the regression model.

INTRODUCTION

Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is afflicted by many kinds of viruses and their various strains belonging to different taxonomic groups (Table 1) throughout the world resultingin declinein yieldand tuber quality. Exact estimation of yield and economic losses caused by potato viruses depends on a number of factors mainly strain of the virus, variety, seasonand growingconditions etc. Generally crop losses ranges between 5 to15 per cent if all plants are secondarily infected with PVX and PVS; 15-30 per cent for 100 per cent secondary infection of PVYnand 40-70 per cent due to PLRV. Besides, in Europe and North America Potato spindle tuber viroid (PSTVd) is wellknown to reduce yieldssignificantly (16-64 per cent) dependingon the viroid strain/potato varietyand warmweather (Singh, 1988). Thesevere strains of Potato virus Y (PVY)and Potato leafroll virus (PLRV) have the potential to reduce yield up to 80 per cent, while mild viruses like Potato virus X (PVX), Potato virus S (PVS)and Potato virus M (PVM) can cause up to 30 per cent yield loss in infected plants. Atospovirus Groundnut bud necrosis virus (GBNV) causing severe stem/leaf necrosis disease in plains/plateaux of central/western India heavily infects the early crop of potato. Similarly, a whitefly transmitted begomovirus Tomato leaf curl New Delhi virus-potato (ToLCNDV) known to cause apical leafcurl disease in India, has become a serious problem in North Indian plains.

The viruses can be mechanically transmitted with plant sap, by contact and with seeds. Infectedtubers, whitefly and aphid vectors are importantfactors for the transmission of the virusesin nature. Potatoviruses are transmitted by aphids in two ways. The viruses are either non-persistent (stylet-borne) or persistent and circulative (they are ingested and persist in the aphid throughout its life cycle). The most common persistent and circulative virus affecting potatoes in India is PLRV. Common non-persistent or stylet-borne viruses are PVY, PVA, PVS and PVM. Control of circulative viruses by insecticides is highly effective, which is not the ease with stylet borneviruses. Sustainable potato production is possible only if the virus incidenceis kept under check especially in sub tropics where the weather is highlyconducive both for vectors and the common viruses. In thischapterthe major viruses and viroidof potato including symptomatology, diagnostics and their management have been discussed.

(Tenosynovitis; Ruptured gastrocnemius tendon; Reovirus infection)

Viral arthritis is a reovirus infection primarily of broilers characterized by arthritis and tenosynovitis (primarily of the tarsus and metatarsus, the digital flexor and tarsometatarsal extensor tendons) and, occasionally, by rupture of the gastrocnemius tendon(s) resulting in lameness and condemnations at slaughter. The disease is reported worldwide.

Viral diseases causing problems to the routine performance of the wild animals are caused substantially by many viral agents also

The duck environment usually involves the presence of water bodies (man-made or natural) which may enhance the co-mingling of free-living waterfowl species with the domestic flock promote disease transmission. Besides, environmental conditions also influence disease manifestation in ducks. The most of the viral diseases in ducks are contagious and transmitted very easily among the healthy birds in contact. The infectious viral diseases most commonly seen in domestic waterfowl species includes duck plaque, duck viral hepatitis, avian influenza, musky duck parvo virus infections, duck pox etc. These viral diseases cause great economic loss to the poultry industry due to high mortality and morbidity rate.

Viruses are submicroscopic particles made up of nucleic acid covered with a protein coat. The nucleic acid is either RNA or DNA and not both. Protein coat is often covered with an envelope and depending on the presence or absence of an envelope, virus can be an enveloped or non enveloped virus. Size of the virus vary from 20-200 nm. Shape of the virus varies from a simple icosahedra to bullet shape to complex brick shape.

Virus are classified based on their nucleic acid (DNAor RNA) and protein profile. However, additional details on type of disease, host range, and geographic distribution of the virus are also used in classification. The classification of the virus is decided by the International committee on taxonomy of virus (ICTV).

Viruses are obligatory intracellular parasites requiring a living cell to replicate. As the virion is lacking its own metabolic machinery, it depends fully on the living host cell for machinery and raw materials for its metabolism and replication. This complex biology of the virus has made it difficult to clearly identify a viral process to design drugs for selective killing without damaging the host cell. Any attempt to kill the intracellular virus affects the host cell.

Replication of Virus in a Cell

There are two kinds of entry into and exit of virus from a cell: a) receptor mediated endocytosis (RME), b) direct entry by fusion. Non-enveloped virus enter the cell by RME (Fig. 1). RME of virus is similar to regular entry of other macromolecules into the cell. With this receptor mediated specified process, virus enter a cell in a vesicle which later fuses with lysosome. Inside the lysosome, viral particles undergo partial changes in protein coat due to digestion by lysosomal enzymes and move to cytoplasm. Finally, this uncoated nucleic acid replicates followed by synthesis of proteins and assembly of viral capsid proteins and genome to full blown virus particles. The site of assembly of the virus may be in the cytoplasm or nucleus of a cell which is referred to as inclusion body. Inclusion bodies which varies in size, shape, location and staining reaction can be used as a diagnostic feature for some viruses. Non- enveloped virus exit from a cell by damaging plasma membrane and hence clearly show cytopathic effect(CPE) in cell culture.

A. Viral Diseases of Shrimp

Shrimp farming which has grown to an industry in the last three decades is young compared to fish farming in the world. Yet the shrimp farming is facing serious problems with several types of viral diseases. Intensive culture in hatcheries and grow outs along with movement of stock across national and international borders of these animals with poor immune system has encouraged emergence of large number of viruses. During a short span of 30 years, 15 viruses of economic concern have been reported in shrimp culture of the Asia Pacific region. Shrimp viruses (Plate 8) can be broadly categorised into two groups:

1. Viruses infecting ectodermal (epidermis, hypodermal epithelium of fore and hindgut, nerve cord and nerve ganglia) and mesodermal (hematopoitic organs, antennal gland, gonads, lymphoid organ, connective tissue and striated muscle) origin tissues and replicating within the cytoplasm (YHV, TSV) and within the nucleus (IHHNV, WSSV), 2. viruses like MBV, HPV, BMNV, and BP infecting endodermal origin tissue and replicating within the nucleus of hepatopancreatic and mid gut epithelial cells. Lack of established shrimp cell line is the major drawback in study of shrimp viruses. Following are some of the common viruses causing diseases in shrimp hatcheries and grow out ponds in the Asia Pacific region.

Plant viruses, like all other viruses, are obligate intracellular parasites that do not have the molecular machinery to replicate without the host. The plant viruses are defined as viruses pathogenic to higher plants. The discovery of plant viruses causing disease is accredited to Beijerinck who determined in 1898 that the plant sap obtained from tobacco leaves with the mosaic disease remained infectious even after passing through a filter. This was in contrast to bacteria, which were retained by the filter. Beijerinck referred to the infectious filtrate as a contagium vivum fluidum, thus, he used modern term virus.

Viruses occasionally cause significant problems in vegetable crops. However, the prevalence and severity of viral diseases differ from year to year. Aphids spread many of the viral diseases observed in vegetables. There are two types of viral transmission by aphids, i.e., persistent and non-persistent transmission. It is important to understand the difference between these two because persistent and non-persistent viruses differ both in their uptake and behaviour within the insect vector, consiquently, tactics used to limit their and spread vary considerably. In persistent transmission, the aphid usually carries the virus for life. Uptake of virus requires extended feeding and after an incubation period of several hours or days, the virus replicates and circulates within the insect. Because of the time required for feeding before acquisition by an insect vector, the spread of persistent virus is favoured by colonizing aphid species that spend time in the crop. Controlling the aphid vectors with insecticides can reduce the spread of persistent plant virus significantly. In contrast, aphids can acquire non-persistent viruses (NPV) within a few seconds after sampling an infected plant. Winged migratory aphids can move quickly from infected plants onto healthy ones, transmitting the virus in the process. Aphids rapidly lose the virus particles from their mouthparts, which are cleaned when they feed on the next available plant and are unable to transmit disease to additional plants. Because of the speed in which aphids acquire and transmit non-persistent viruses, insecticides are not usually effective in controlling their spread. One of the most common viruses found in many vegetable crops is cucumber mosaic virus (CMV). This is transmitted by several aphid species in a non-persistent manner. There are several strains of CMV that can infect over 775 different plant species in 85 families including snap bean, peppers, tomato, lettuce, tobacco and sugar beets. Symptoms vary depending upon the plant species infected but range may be from yellow-green mottling on leaves and fruits to severe stunting of plants. The viral diseases affecting different vegetable crops are being discussed below:

1 The serotype of aphthovirus causing most outbreaks of FMD in India is

a) A b) O

c) C d) Asia-1

Clinical Symptoms • External haemorrhages

• Pale gills • Ascites

• Destruction of tissues in the kidney, spleen, and liver

• Excessive mucus secretion

• Skin hemorrhages with edema of the tissues

• Skin ulceration around the mouth and base of the fins

Causative Agent: Rhabdovirus

Host (Common sp.)

• Common carp

• Koi carp

• Crucian carp

• Silver carp

• Bighead carp

• Grass carp

• Goldfish

Ranikhet Disease

Ranikhet disease is a contagious viral disease of poultry characterized by high mortality petechial hemorrhage in proventriculus, ulcers and hemorrhage at caecal tonsils and pneumoencephalitis. It is also known as Newcastle disease (Fig.3.1).

Etiology

• Paramyxo virus

• RNA virus-3 types

• Lentogenic- mild virulent

• Mesogenic- moderate virulent

• Velogenic- highly virulent

Wound healing is a complex phenomenon with three distinctive yet overlapping phases i.e. Inflammatory, proliferative and remodeling phases. Present study was conducted to unravel the molecular insights of Mangiferin in immunocompromised excisional rat model. Firstly, immunocompromised state was established following hydrocortisone injection @80 mg/kg body weight through intra muscular route and determining the immunocompromised state with neutrophilia, lymphocytopenia and reduced splenic weight in adult male rats weighing 200-250 grams. Then, 120 animals were randomly and equally divided into five groups i.e. group I served as Healthy control, group II served as Immunocompromised control, group III served as Immunocompromised group treated with silver sulphadiazine and group IV and V served as Immunocompromised group treated with 2.5 % Mangiferin and Immunocompromised group treated with 5 % Mangiferin, respectively. Study was conducted for a period of 28 days. Six animals were humanely sacrificed at weekly interval till day 28th of study. Wound healing efficacy and molecular cascading of pharmacodynamics of Mangiferin was determined following gross studies including digital photography, wound area measurement and per cent wound contraction and biochemical indices viz. hydroxyproline, DNA content, total protein and LPO assay.

The human civilization and environmental eco-system are the two most important components of real world. The technology intervention to safeguard human civilization and the environment has always been the foremost priority of scientific and engineering community through their innovative expeditions.

Importance of virtual water in agriculture
Virtual water is with the meaning of the concept when water embedded in goods and services and is exchangeable from one country to a different. The country is under water-scarce; the water that’s ‘saved’ is often used towards other ends. Water-scarce countries (like Israel) discourage the export of relatively water-intensive crops (like orange, water melon) precisely to stop large quantities of water from being exported to different parts of the earth. In recent years, the concept of virtual water on trade has gained weight both within the scientific also as restricted by the political debate. The notion of the concept is ambiguous. It changes between an analytical, descriptive concept and a political induced strategy. As an analytical concept, virtual water trade represents an instrument that permits the identification and assessment of policy options not only within the scientific but also within the political discourse. As a politically induced strategy, the question of virtual water trade are often implemented during a sustainable way, whether the implementation are often managed during a social, economical, and ecological fashion, and that countries the concept offers a meaningful option. the info that underlie the concept of virtual water can readily be wont to construct water satellite accounts and brought into economic models of international trade like the Computable General Equilibrium of Global Trade Analysis Project such a model are frequently wont to study the economic implications of changes within the water system or water policy, also because the water resource implications of economic development and trade liberalization. The data pertaining to virtual water is product of GTAP.
Keywords: Virtual water; foodstuff and food; water content in different food materials; water deficit areas;

Plant viruses are unusual group of plant pathogens that almost depend on host cellular machinery for their survival, hence categorized under obligate intracellular parasites. They are smart entities as they encode very few proteins but take the advantage of host cellular metabolism to complete their replication and movement within plants cells. These viruses passively enter the host cells through various means such as wounds and injury, environmental factors, or by several vectors. Genomic material, either RNA or DNA of viruses, disassembles inside the plant cells, and replicates and transcribes mRNA to protein with the help of host factors and energy. Once they manage to assemble their required genetic materials and capsid protein, virions are then released to neighboring cells for further infecting other cells. They even reach to distant cells through plant vascular system causing systemic infection and different symptoms in host plant.

The most important property of a virus is its infectivity or ability to invade a cell and parasitize that cell to replicate itself. To measure infectivity, a titre is defined as the given number of infectious virus units/unit volume and an infectious unit is the smallest amount of virus that produces some recognizable effect in the host system. There are two basic types of infectivity assays (a) Quantal assays and (b) Quantitative assays.

Quantal assays do not measure the number of infectious virus particles present in the inoculum but denote a value for the virus titre where measurement is based on an all or none principle, CPE + or -, dead or alive etc. In the quantitative assays, the number of virus particles present in the suspension can be quantified.

Viruses can be cultivated only in living cells. Laboratory animals, embryonated avian eggs and cell cultures are three systems available for this purpose. These three systems are used for the basic procedures of isolation and identification of viruses, maintenance of stock cultures and production of vaccines.
Cultivation of Viruses in Laboratory Animals
Animal inoculation helps to confirm the infectious nature of the disease. Laboratory animals used for many kinds of virological works such as clinical studies, pathogenicity of viruses, epizootiology, potency tests on vaccines and production of diagnostic and prophylactic antisera.

An ideal experimental animal is one that is
1. Uniformly and fully susceptible to the virus under study
2. Free from intercurrent infection and adventitious lesions and
3. Inexpensive purchase and maintain
If possible it is better to use germ free, specific pathogen free or colostrums deprived animals for experimental purpose. The same species of animals or atleast closely related species of the natural host is selected for inoculation, wherever possible. For example in case of swine fever, which shows a high degree of host specificity, the same species should be used for inoculation. in others such as in case of rabies with low host specificity, the causative virus will grow in a wide range of animals.

Principle

Isolating the virus in a laboratory is the gold standard for diagnosing many viral infections. Virus isolation is a highly specialised technique used to diagnose viral infections and produce a stock of viruses for research purposes. The isolation of the virus relies on the suitability of the sample, the ability of the cells to allow entry, the successful replication of the virus, and the release of viral particles from the cells. The choice of cell lines is dependent upon the suspected viral disease and the availability of such cell lines in the laboratory.

Materials required

Equipment

a) Biosafety cabinet level 2 (B2)

b) Carbon Dioxide (CO2 ) Incubator (set to 37°C with a 5% CO2 in air atmosphere)

c) Refrigerated centrifuge

d) Refrigerator

e) Inverted Microscope

f) Water bath

g) -86°C/-80°C deep freezer

h) Autoclave

i) Hot air oven

j) Filtration Assembly

Principle

Neutralization refers to the process of reducing or nullifying the effect of a specific component. Neutralization is a process in which the effects of viral antigens or viruses reduce through Ag-Ab reactions. Neutralizing antibodies are a specific type of antibodies that play a role in neutralization. Not all antibodies generated within our body possess the capability to impede the effects of antigens. Only antibodies with the ability to neutralize can prevent the uptake of viral particles by cells and counteract their effects. The virus neutralization assay is a serological test utilized to identify the existence and extent of functional systemic antibodies that hinder the ability of a virus to cause infection.

Media and Materials

Equipment

a) Biosafety cabinet level 2 (B2)

b) Carbon Dioxide (CO2 ) Incubator (set to 37°C with a 5% CO2 in air atmosphere)

c) Refrigerated centrifuge

d) Refrigerator e) Inverted Microscope

f) Micro pipettes (1-10 μl, 10-200 μl, 100-1000 μl)

g) -86°C/-80°C deep freezer

h) Autoclave

i) Hot air oven

j) Filtration Assembly

Plant viruses are ultramicroscopic particles that multiply only within living cells and are potentially pathogenic while composed of nucleic acids surrounded by protein coat.

More than half of the known viruses cause diseases of plants. All plant species are probably susceptible to one or more plant viruses. Symptoms of virus infection may include stunting, yellowing, necrosis, mosaic, mottling, ring spots, or abnormal structures. Economic damage consists of reduced yield and quality.

Viruses neither divide nor produce any kind of specialized reproductive structures such as spores. Instead, they multiply by inducing host cells to form more viruses. Viruses causes disease not by consuming cells or killing them with toxins, but by utilizing cellular substances during multiplication, taking up spaces in cells, and disrupting cellular processes. These in turn upset the cellular metabolism and lead to the development of abnormal substances and conditions injurious to the functions and life of the cells or the organism. The property of transmissibility is an essential criterion for viruses. Plant viruses are transmitted from plant to plant in a number of ways. Mode of transmission includes vegetative propagation, mechanically through sap, seeds, pollen, dodder and by insects.

A five-kingdom classification system fails to classify viruses because they are not considered to be living. They neither reproduce independently nor utilize energy

General properties of virus

Viruses differ fundamentally from other classes of microorganism in that:

1.They are ultramicroscopic disease-producing entities.

2.They are simple in structure, basically composed of nucleic acid wrapped up in a protein coat.

3.The genome nucleic acid is either DNA or RNA , either single stranded or double stranded, but never both

4.Viruses have no metabolic activity of their own and lack enzyme systems and other constituents fundamental for independent growth and multiplication.

5.They do not posses ribosomes, nor transfer RNA and enzymes required for synthesis of nucleic acids and proteins.

6.Viruses are incapable of growth and division.

Virus can be defined as a genetic element containing either DNA or RNA that replicates in host cells as intracellular parasites but is characterized by having an extracellular state.

Virus can use the metabolic machinery of the host cell and can modify the genetics of the host cell. Virus has both extracellular and intracellular state.

Extracellular State

Outside the host cell, the virus is a minute particle containing nucleic acid surrounded by protein, which is referred as virions or virus particles. Virions are inert and have no biosynthetic and metabolic functions. Extracellular state or virus particle is the perfect stage of virus to study the morphology and chemistry.

Intracellular State

The active state in which the virus replicate in the host cell. When the virus nucleic acid is introduced to host cell and replication starts, the process is referred as infection. The cell in which infection of virus and replication takes place is referred as host cell.

A. Viruses: Structure and Characteristics
What is a Virus?
A virus is an infectious agent composed primarily of nucleic acid (either DNA or RNA) enclosed in a protein coat called a capsid. In some cases, viruses may also have an outer lipid membrane or envelope. Plant viruses are much smaller than bacteria and fungi, and they lack the cellular structures necessary for independent life. They can only replicate by hijacking the host cell’s machinery.
Structure of Viruses
1. Nucleic Acid: This is the genetic material of the virus, which can be either RNA or DNA, and it carries the instructions for making new virus particles. Plant viruses are mostly RNA viruses, though some DNA viruses also exist.
2. Capsid: The protein shell that encloses and protects the nucleic acid. The capsid is made of protein subunits called capsomeres and can take various shapes, such as rod-like (rigid or flexible) or spherical.
3. Envelope: Some plant viruses may have an outer lipid envelope derived from the host cell’s membrane, which provides additional protection.

Definition of Virus
Viruses are very small (submicroscopic) infectious particles (virions) composed of a protein coat and a nucleic acid core. They carry genetic information encoded in their nucleic acid, which typically specifies two or more proteins. Translation of the genome (to produce proteins) or transcription and replication (to produce more nucleic acid) takes place within the host cell and uses some of the host’s biochemical “machinery”. Viruses do not capture or store free energy and are not functionally active outside their host. They are therefore parasites (and usually pathogens) but are not usually regarded as genuine microorganisms.
Mathwas (1981) considers a virus as a set of one or more template molecules normally encased in a protective coat or coats of protein or lipoprotein, which is able to organize its own replication only within suitable host cells where its production is:
i) Dependent on hosts protein synthesizing machinery (ribosomes).
ii) Organised from pools of required material rather than binary fission and
iii) Located at sites which are not separated from the host cell contents by a lipoprotein bilayer membrane.

Definition of Virus

According to Luria and Darnell (1968), Viruses are entities whose genome is a nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA, which reproduce inside living cells and use their synthetic machinery to direct the synthesis of specialized particles- the virions, which contain the viral genome and transfer it to other cells.

Nature of Virus

The physical and chemical nature of viruses eluded scientists until the 1930s. Stanley (1935) announced crystallization of Tobacco mosaic viruses, a feat for which he got a Nobel Prize. Stanley thought the crystals to be pure proteins. It was the pioneer work of F.C. Bawden and N.W. Pirie of England which showed that the viruses consists of proetein and nucleic acid. The chemical nature of viruses was settled. It consisted of nucleic acid and protein. The viruses chemically were proved to be nucleic acid. The mature particle of a plant virus is generally called virion and the whole infective particle is called as Nuclcocapsid.

Introduction

The microbial cells of bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, algae and protozoa are visible by light microscopy. Beyond the resolution of light microscope are the unique organisms that are sub microscopic and intracellular parasites known as viruses. The term virus is a Latin word means poisonous substance. The viruses are functionally and metabolically different from the cellular organisms as (i) they are infectious agents and contain only one type of nucleic acid encapsulated in a protein coat. Some may possess membranes but do not have any cytoplasm or metabolism of their own. (ii) They are much smaller in size than the smallest bacteria and can pass through bacteriological filters. 

The thoracic cavity (Fig. 3-3 A, B and C) contains lungs and pleura, the heart and pericardium, the great vessels connected with the heart (the aortae, azygos veins and venae cavae), the oesophagus, trachea, the lymph nodes, vessels, nerves and lymphatics. All of these contents except the lungs and pleural sacs are located in the mediastinum, while the lungs along with the pleural sacs are situated on either sides of the mediastinum.

Lungs

The right and left lungs (Fig. 3-3 A and B) are paired organs which occupy greater space of the thoracic cavity. Each lung is enclosed in a double layered bag of serous membrane called the pleural sac. The right lung is larger, almost double in size than the left one. The difference in size is mainly due to an additional lobe called the intermediate lobe and the greater size of an apical lobe of the right lung. Each lung is divided into different lobes formed by deep fissures extending from the ventral border to almost the area of the root of the lung. Each lung is soft, light weighted, spongy and elastic. The surface of the lung is smooth and glistening and it is mapped out into irregular areas indicating the lobules of the lungs. In the fresh, unpreserved cadaver the lung collapses to about one third of its original size and looses its normal shape. The colour in fresh state is pink, in bled animals it is pale grey and in unbled animals it is dark red. In embalmed specimens, the outer surface of the lungs is marked by the imprints of other organs and structures that are related to lungs in the thoracic cavity.

Present study was undertaken to evaluate the ameliorative potential of α-tocopherol, curcumin and/or in combination with cisplatin following 28 days continuous exposure. Forty-eight male wistar rats of 190-210 g were divided into eight groups group I (NSS, i.p.), group II (corn oil, oral gavage) served as vehicle control, group III received cisplatin, group IV (α-tocopherol), group V (curcumin), group VI (cisplatin + α-tocopherol), group VII (cisplatin + curcumin), group VIII (cisplatin + curcumin + α-tocopherol). Cisplatin was given by intra-peritoneal route @ 0.5mg/kg b.wt., while α-tocopherol @ 100 mg/kg b.wt. and curcumin @ 50 mg/kg b.wt. by oral gavage continuously for 28 days. Cisplatin produced apparent signs of toxicity like rough coat, cachexia, decreased activity but no mortality in rats. Body weight and percent weight gain in rats with cisplatin alone and in combination with α-tocopherol and curcumin treated groups were significantly lower. Absolute and relative organ weight did not differ between different groups. Significant reduction in Hb on 21 day and 28 days after exposure was observed. Marked reduction in PCV, TLC and platelet count in cisplatin alone treated group following 28-day exposure however DLC remain unaltered. Significant decrease in creatinine clearance in all cisplatin exposed groups when compared to control groups.

Abstract
The future of progressive farming is shaped by the convergence of technology, sustainability, and innovation. This chapter explores the emerging trends, technologies, and strategies that are expected to define the next generation of farming practices. By integrating advancements in precision agriculture, biotechnology, sustainable resource management, and digital transformation, progressive farming aims to enhance productivity, sustainability, and resilience in agriculture. This vision encompasses the use of cutting-edge technologies, the adoption of holistic and sustainable practices, and the role of policy and education in fostering a new era of agriculture. Case studies and projections highlight the potential pathways and challenges for achieving these future goals.
Keywords: Progressive farming, future agriculture, precision agriculture, biotechnology, sustainability, digital transformation, agricultural technology, resilience, policy, education.

A visit to agri-based enterprises focusing on the integration of production, processing, and distribution offers valuable insights into how these sectors can be effectively linked to improve efficiency, reduce waste, and enhance profitability. Here’s a breakdown of what such a visit might entail and the functional aspects you’d likely observe:
I. Objectives of the Visit
• Understanding Integration: To observe firsthand how production, processing, and distribution are integrated in a real-world agri-business.
• Identifying Best Practices: To identify successful strategies and technologies used in the enterprise.
• Analyzing Functional Aspects: To examine the key functional areas and their roles in the integrated value chain.
• Learning About Challenges: To understand the obstacles faced by the enterprise and how they are overcome.
• Networking: To establish contacts with industry professionals and learn from their experiences.
II. Agri-Based Enterprises to Consider
The type of enterprise you visit will significantly shape your observations. Here are a few examples:
• Dairy Processing Plant: Integrates milk production at farms with processing (pasteurization, cheese-making) and distribution to retailers.
• Fruit and Vegetable Processing Unit: Links farms producing fruits and vegetables to processing (canning, freezing, juice extraction) and distribution networks.

Materials Required

Record book

Procedure

    1.    Follow the instructions given by the teacher and the factory representative.
    2.    Listen carefully to the explanations of the factory representative
    3.    Observe the functioning of various equipments
    4.    Ask queries wherever not understood properly.
    5.    Note down the observations in your record book  

Observations

    1.    Name and address of the factory or processing unit
    2.    Size of the Unit (Large, Small, Cottage, Home)
    3.    FPO Licence No.    
    4.    List of products manufactured    
    5.    Height of the processing plant    
    6.    Information regarding raw material store, finished product storage    
    7.    List of equipments installed in the factory
    8.    Water supply system     
    9.    Waste disposal system    
    10.    Hygiene in the surroundings    
    11.    Any other

Visit to a seed processing unit and attending the following questionnaire to know firsthand information on operations of shop floor

This practical assignment is conceptualized and operationalized to study the settlement pattern, social stratification system, family resource base, ongoing development programmes and SHG of SGSY.

PURPOSE

To acquaint students with the first-hand knowledge about the village pattern and the on-going developmental programmes.
 To study about the extension programmes like SHG of SGSY and their structure and function.

NAME OF THE UNIT: 

    1.    Location of Seed Storage 
    2.    Date of Inspections/visit

This visit gives students an exposure to mass media like radio, television studio and helps them in understanding elements, equipment and overall process of programme production used for disseminating information on agriculture and rural technologies.

PURPOSE

To get acquainted the students about the mass media by visiting the community radio and television studio

To know the operating system how a programme is delivered in the radio and television

Controlled environment agriculture (CEA) refers to methods of cultivating crops in managed environments to optimize resources and increase productivity. CEA systems regulate both the aerial and root environments, ensuring that plants stay within their ideal growth conditions. One popular method within CEA is indoor hydroponic farming, where crops, including fruits and vegetables, are grown without soil.
CEA includes various levels of technology integration to achieve optimal
plant growth, including:
• Low-level Integration: Basic environmental control in open-field production, such as shading and irrigation systems.
• Passive Environmental Controls: Systems for soil-based crop production, such as covering materials and high tunnel structures. • Integrated Sensors and Active Control Systems: Used in greenhouse systems to regulate environmental factors and enhance sunlight.
• Full Indoor Production: The most advanced method, where technology is used to create an ideal environment for plants independent of external conditions.
HYDROPONIC SYSTEMS
In hydroponic systems, plants are either grown with their roots in direct contact with liquid nutrient solutions (often supported by floating rafts or trays) or placed in containers with other types of soilless media like coconut coir, rockwool, or peat mixes. Irrigation delivers all necessary nutrients in these soilless systems. Advantages and Disadvantages
Hydroponic systems offer several benefits, including:
• Year-Round Production: Crops can be grown continuously, even during winter months.

This practical assignment is conceptualized and designed to acquire practical learning experience through various activities implemented by NGOs in improving the livelihood of the targeted group. The assignment also projects a clear picture about the objectives, structure, functioning and activities of NGOs.

PURPOSE

To make the students acquainted with the NGOs and their learning experience in rural development.

THEORETICAL ORIENTATION

A non-governmental organization (NGO) is a not-for-profit organization that is independent from states and international governmental organizations. They are usually funded by donations but some avoid formal funding altogether and are run primarily by volunteers. NGOs are highly diverse groups of organizations engaged in a wide range of activities, and take different forms in different parts of the world.

THEORETICAL ORIENTATION

The word “democracy” is derived from the Greek roots - ‘cracy’ meaning ‘rule of and ‘demos’ meaning ‘the people’. It is governance of the people, by the people, for the people. Rule by majority is, no doubt, an important feature of this system of governance; but the more important ingredient is rule by consultation - consultation between the people’s representatives on one hand and consultation with the officers on the other. ‘Decentralization’ means devolution of central authority among local units close to the areas served. Where authority is devolved by this process on people’s institution, it is ‘democratic decentralization’.

At the instance of the Prime Minister it was decided to give the process of the three-tier administration the strictly Indian name, “Panchayati Raj” which means a system of government. Panchayati Raj was conceived system of democratic local self-Government. Earlier, Mahatma Gandhi also advocated panchayati raj as the foundation of India’s political system, as a decentralized form of government in which each village would be responsible for its own affairs. The term for such a vision was Gram Swaraj (“village self-governance”). The institution of Panchayat represented not only the collective will, but also the collective wisdom of the entire rural community.

The Balwant Rai Mehta Committee, headed by M P Balwant Rai Mehta, was a committee appointed by the Government of India in January 1957 to examine the work of the Community Development Programme (1952) and the National Extension Service (1953) and to suggest measures for their better work. The committee recommended the establishment of the scheme of ‘democratic decentralisation’ which finally came to be known as 'Panchayati Raj' which would be a 3-tier system - 'Gram Panchayat' at the village level, Panchayat Samiti at the block level, and Zilla Parishad at the district level.

This practical assignment is dealt with the appropriate extension strategies and methodologies adopted by KVK and ATIC in disseminating proven agriculture information and technologies to farmers through delivery mechanisms.

PURPOSE

To acquaint the first-hand knowledge of the KVK- Farm Science Centre and ATIC

To study the structure, function of the centre and the role of the centre in transfer of technology.

Wildlife Sanctuary is a natural habitat, owned by the government or private agency, that safeguards particular species of birds and animals to make sure that viable population of the wildlife and their habitats are maintained.

Visiting the zoo should be understood in terms of conservation by all and it is to be remembered that the zoo is a captive wild animal place wherein the public and particularly the children have ample opportunities to see the various species of wild fauna which includes not only the native species of wild mammals, reptiles, aves, amphibians, butterflies etc. but the exotic speciess of wild animals also in general.

Abstract

Visualisation of geological process raises special issues for scientists and animators. The degree of physical movement of a rising arch or along a fault line may be very small compared to the normal terrain variation. Over a long time period the major changes in the environment may come from the more substantial surface manifestations of changing draining regimes. In Tamil Nadu State in South-Eastern India there are continuing tectonic movements arising from the collision of the subcontinent with the greater Asian land mass. Over comparatively recent times (7000 years) these movements have had a major impact on drainage and other hydrological outcomes. The Cauvery River in particular has migrated several hundred kilometers over this period. A mosaic was made from recent satellite imagery and then manipulated to create surface textures for dates between -7000 years and +1000 years. Changes in the terrain surface, such as rising arch structures and descending grabens, have been modelled and animated. The combination of terrain movement and surface change provides a visual history of the period.

Introduction

The continued northward movement (5±6 mm per year) of the subcontinental land mass of India induces substantial tectonic pressures all over India. In the southeast, primarily within Tamil Nadu, there is significant differential movement, both vertical and horizontal, of portions of the existing land mass. This is producing a number of effects:

10.1 Introduction
Having explored the advanced analytical techniques that allow us to extract meaningful insights and build predictive models from meteorological data, we now arrive at a crucial stage in the scientific process: communication and understanding. The chapter, “Visualization of Meteorological Data,” focuses on the art and science of transforming complex numerical datasets into insightful visual representations. In a field as inherently spatial and temporal as meteorology, effective visualization is not just about making pretty pictures;it is a fundamental tool for exploration, analysis, and the clear conveyance  of information about atmospheric phenomena (Fig. 10.1).
Consider the sheer volume and multifaceted nature of meteorological data. We grapple with variables spanning three spatial dimensions (and often more when considering altitude), evolving dynamically over time, and encompassing a wide array of physical quantities – temperature, pressure, wind vectors, humidity, precipitation rates, radiation fluxes, and more. Raw numbers and statistical summaries, while essential for quantitative analysis, often fail to reveal the intricate spatial patterns, temporal evolutions, and interrelationships that characterize weather and climate. This is where visualization steps in,
acting as a bridge between the abstract world of numerical data and our intuitive human capacity for visual pattern recognition.

In this chapter, we will explore multiple comparison tests, with a particular emphasis on three significant tests: least significant difference (LSD), Bonferroni, and the techniques to visualize their outcomes. We aim to facilitate a comprehensive understanding of how to conduct and interpret the results of these comparison tests visualization using the R software.

Treatment Comparison

The “doebioresearch” package is commonly used for testing the significance of treatment groups in various experimental designs such as randomized block design (RBD), completely randomized design (CRD), and least significant difference (LSD). This package excels in conducting multiple comparison tests like LSD, Duncan’s multiple range test (DMRT), and Tukey’s honestly significant difference (HSD). It efficiently calculates all comparisons in the background, resulting in the generation of only group labels, as previously demonstrated in the output of the “doebioresearch” package. Additionally, the “agricolae” package is another useful tool that provides detailed values for multiple comparison tests. These three tests—LSD, DMRT, and HSD—are particularly popular in agricultural experiments and form the focus of our discussion.

I. Least significant difference (LSD) test

• To conduct the least significant difference test for comparing treatment means, the “agricolae” package is essential.

• To install the “agricolae” package, use the following code:

• install.packages (“agricolae”)

• After installation, activate the package with this command:

• library (“agricolae”)

• The data frame required for analysis in this context remains consistent with what is needed for randomized block design (RBD), completely randomized design (CRD), LSD, and variability analysis, among others. As an illustration, consider an example involving variability analysis.

Vital Statistics

It is defined as that branch of biometry which deals with data and the laws of human mortality, morbidity and demography. According to N.B. Ryder, they “provide cumulative summaries for successive time periods of population movements like birth, death, migration, marriage and marital dissolution as well as demographic and other relevant characteristics of the individuals involved in these events.”

Measures of Vital Statistics of Population

The total number of vital events such as births and deaths are converted into rates and ratios for comparison of vital statistics from place to place or year to year. In order to determine the population at any time ‘t’ after the census or between two censuses, a number of methods have been devised. Therefore, a suitable method which makes use of births, deaths and migration statistics, if we assume that:

(i) The census data gives us the total size of the population of a region or community together with age and sex distribution

(ii) The birth, death and migration statistics during different periods are obtained from registers.

Vitamin A

Source of Vitamin

Berseem, legumes, alfalfa or other grass meal, fish oils, yellow corn, palm oil, commercial Vitamin A concentrate

Before the turn of present century, it was considered that carbohydrates, fats, proteins and minerals were sufficient for fulfilling the nutritional needs of animals. Later it was recognised that several other factors also need to be provided in the diet in small quantities, the absence of which resulted in diseases like beriberi, scurvy, pellagra and rickets. Funk in 1912 proposed the term vitamine for such factors, vita for being essential and amine because these factors were thought to be amines in chemical structure. Later it was discovered that not all such factors were amines, hence the last ‘e’ from the word vitamine was dropped.

The quantities of vitamins needed by the body are small, in the range of milligrams or micrograms. For this reason these compounds are also known as accessory foodstuffs. Thus vitamins came to be regarded as essential dietary factors which are required by an organism in small quantities and whose absence results in deficiency diseases. Many of these vitamins acts as coenzymes in important metabolic reactions of the body.

The vitamins have been broadly classified on the basis of their solubility. Fat soluble vitamins - A, D, E and K. Water soluble vitamins- B complex and C. This classification has proved useful from the functional point of view also for an extended period of time and is now an established classification scheme. The water soluble vitamins cannot be stored in the body over extended periods of time during periods of opulence and used during periods of scarcity.

Most vitamins cannot be synthesized by the body hence the need for dietary supplement. However, ruminants, have an advantage in that the rumen microorganisms can manufacture most of the B-complex vitamins which are utilized and required by the animal. Vitamin C is required only by human beings and guinea pig, hence is not of importance as a dietary ingredient for the domestic animals. Most other animals are able to synthesize adequate amounts of vitamin C required by them. The site of synthesis of vitamin C is not well established but it seems that the intestinal tract, liver and adrenal glands are actively involved.

At this stage it should be clarified about the dietary and physiological requirements. All vitamins are physiologically required by the domestic animals but only a few are required to be a essential dietary ingredient.