eChapters

Potato is one of the major non cereal food crops in the world and ranks fourth after rice, wheat and maize. Due to its high production potential per unit area and time, the crop has been recorded for sustaining millions of lives during the times of war and hunger. Native of South America, this crop was introduced into India in early seventieth century. Currently India ranks 3rd for area and 2nd for production in the world [AICRP (Potato) Bulletin No. 2]. Potato is generally grown as rabi crop during October to December in gangetic plains of India but in hills it is grown almost throughout the year as commercial cultivation. In some states like Karnataka, it is generally grown during kharif season.

‘Cucurbits’ is a term coined by Liberty Hyde Bailey for cultivated species of the family Cucurbitacae (Robinson and Decker-Walters, 2004). Presently, the term has been used not only for cultivated forms, but also for any species of the family Cucurbitacae. Among vegetables, the cucurbits form one of the largest groups with their wide adaptation from arid climates to the humid tropics. The family consists of about 118 genera and 825 species. In Asia, about 23 edible major and minor cucurbits are grown as vegetable. They are grown in summer and rainy seasons in India and even in winter in some parts of southern and western India as both annual and perennial crops. 

Brinjal (Solanum melongena Linn.) is one of the widely used vegetable crops and is popular in many countries viz. Central, South and South-East Asia, some part of Africa and Central America (Gurubban, 1977). It is also known as the aubergine, eggplant, melongene, guinea squash etc. Various data indicate that from the several species that evolved in Africa, one (Solanum incanum), gave rise to a distinct species which spread to South-East Asia as the wild ancestor of Solanum melongena (Lester, 1998). It was domesticated in India from the species Solanum incanum and India or Indo-China region is recognized as the centre of the eggplant diversity (Vavilov, 1951). Solanum melongena is a delicate, tropical perennial often cultivated as an annual in temperate climates. The fruit is botanically classified as a berry and contains numerous small, soft seeds which are edible, but have a bitter taste because they contain nicotinoid alkaloids. This is unsurprising as it is a close relative of tobacco.

Taxonomy is the science of identifying (discovering), describing, naming and classifying organisms. It is a complex summing up of knowledge starting with thorough analysis to base the synthesis that will end up in the name of a taxon. Correct identification of biological taxa is a necessary prerequisite to all other enquiries about the biological world. Taxonomists attempt to divide the world of living things (biodiversity) into distinguishable entities (taxa-such as species, genera, and families), develop tools (e.g., identification keys) to allow others to recognize and identify these taxa, and organize the described taxa within a hierarchical classification system that reflects evolutionary relationships. The outcomes of taxonomy are, therefore, very practical in terms of providing tools to facilitate identification, an infrastructure for organizing biological information, and a universal language for communicating information about the identity and classification of biological entities. Thus, naming and ordering of objects into groups is probably the most fundamental step in the development of scientific principles. Taxonomy identifies and enumerates the components of biological diversity providing basic knowledge underpinning pest management (Ramaraju and Pratheep, 2008). 

Vegetation is a key component in hydrologic modeling. Transpiration, a component in hydrologic cycle, is contributed by vegetation. Most of the hydrologic model thus includes vegetation as a parameter. For accurate and appropriate model output, first requirement is good quality data. Most of the time, the data on vegetation is confusing, as in literature various researcher have used different values for common vegetation parameters. Here some common parameters of some important crops, which yield good quality results, are given.

Kharif crops are generally sown during last week of May and first week of June, while rabi crop are sown during last week of November and first week of December. But this period will vary from region to region as well as depends on variety of crop.

More information, more accurate and timely decision. In present high tech world, the more information you have it is easier to make an accurate decision. The information comes in many different ways, from reports to digital photos. A new way to analyze data is a geographic information system (GIS). GIS allows to bring all types of data together based on the geographic and locational component of the data. GIS is a useful tool for seeking innovative ways to solve the problems.

9.1 What is GIS?

A geographic information system (GIS) is a system designed to capture, store manipulate, analyze, manage and present all types of geographically referenced data. GIS can be defined as a computer-based system for digital entry, storage, transformation, analysis and display of spatial data. A geographic information system integrates hardware, software and geographically referenced data for further analysis. GIS allows users to interpret the georeferenced data in many ways that reveal relationships, patterns and trends.

Remote sensing is emerged as an important application of science in all fields for collection of information from a far. This chapter describes the fundamental concepts of remote sensing, electromagnetic radiation (EMR), the interactions between EMR and earth surface features, satellites etc.

8.1 What is Remote Sensing?

Remote sensing is nothing but acquiring information about an object without touching the object itself. In other words, remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon, without making physical contact with that object. In present era, the term generally refers to the use of aerial sensor technologies to detect and classify objects on the Earth by means of propagated signals. As remote sensing is obtaining information about objects without making physical contact with them, remote sensing can be described as ‘reconnaissance from a distance’, ‘teledetection’ or a form of the common phrase ‘look but don’t touch’.

The artificial neural network (ANN), a data driven model, is inherently suited to the problems that are mathematically difficult to describe. An ANN is a flexible mathematical structure that is capable of identifying complex nonlinear relationships between input and output data sets, where explicit knowledge of the internal processes is not available. In this chapter general structure of ANN is described and also explained briefly with a case study.

7.1 What is Artificial Neural Network?

An Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is an information processing paradigm that is inspired by the way biological nervous system, such as brain process the information. An ANN is an adaptive (Adaptive means that the system parameters are changed during operation i.e. training phase), most often nonlinear system that learns to perform a function (an input/output map) from data. In more practical term, neural networks are non-linear statistical data modeling tools. They can be used to model complex relationships between inputs and outputs or to find out patterns in the data.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) technology is increasingly used in our everyday lives. It is used in a variety of industries from gaming, journalism/media, to finance, as well as in the research fields from water resources to robotics. In this chapter concept and applications of AI are discussed in brief.

6.1 Historical Background

After World War II, a number of people worked independently on intelligent machines. The English mathematician Alan Turing was the first who explained the concept of intelligent machines through a lecture in 1947. He stated that intelligent machines could be developed by programming computers rather than by building machines. Since late 1950 many researchers are working on intelligent machines, mostly on programming computers

Data mining is a powerful technology which helps in extracting future trends and behaviour from large databases. Thereby it helps decision makers to make knowledge-driven decisions. One common form of real-world data is time series. The suitable models are required to analyze time series data. This chapter provides a short introduction to stochastic system, uncertainty, basic statistics time series analysis and some stochastic models.

In this era of computer, mathematical models become integral part of hydrologic studies due to advancement in soft technology. But question always arises as ‘Why should modeling?’ It was well expressed by Rosenblueth and Wiener (1945) as

No substantial part of the universe is so simple that it can be grasped and controlled without abstraction. Abstraction consists in replacing the parts of the universe under consideration by a model of similar but simpler structure. Models, formal or intellectual on the one hand, or material on the other are thus a central necessity of scientific procedure.

Modeling is heart of hydroinformatics. Simulation modeling became integrated part of modern science to justify feasibility of selected option among various competitive alternatives. Simulation modeling is a tool to evaluate the performance of a system, existing or proposed, under different configurations of interest and over long periods of real time. This chapter describes basic concepts, model simulation, model variables, modeling process, model performance etc. in brief.

Data collection is a tedious and time consuming work, particularly from remote places. So many times the collected data is noisy. But data is the base for future planning and management of water resources. Planning based on noisy data could lead to failure. The modern data collection and subsequent control system i.e. telemetry and SCADA, are introduced in this chapter.

Water is a social requirement. Society now become aware about it’s dependence upon water and hence realized the importance of water in sustaining not only the development but also life. Water: too little, too much, too dirty; is general scenario in the world. But with increase in population water become limiting resource and is becoming scarcer and scarcer day by day. As water become scarcer commodity, the users (stakeholders) become more conscious regarding their share in water and ultimately this situation may lead to water conflicts. Earlier water related problems were generally tackled by hydro-engineers, but now in present climate changed scenario these problems go beyond the hydraulics and hydrology. Now a days politicians, ecologists, Non Government Organizations (NGOs), the media and the stakeholders etc are playing a crucial role in decision making in respect to water management issues. Now water projects are designed in reference to social context (Social context means cultural, economic, political, sociological, legal and other such aspects). When social factors are taken into consideration while tackling the water problems, it could not possible to satisfy all involved. Thus it is required to agree upon a compromise solution acceptable to all. Over recent few decades, information and communication technology (ICT) flourishes with great advances. It provides the ways to search for compromise solutions. In this chapter information, hydroinformatics, evolution of hydroinformatics and role of internet in hydroinformatics are discussed.

Zero energy cool chamber : Zero energy cool chamber storage significantly delays the rate of increase in physiological loss of weight (PLW) of the fruits stored in cool chamber 30% (mango) to 70% (banana) lower than that of the fruits stored in ambient conditions. Cool chamber storage extended the storage life of mango by 3 to 6 days and that of banana by 5 to 8 days over those in ambient conditions.

Yaw: Aircraft rotation around the vertical axis (NCRST).

Yeasts : Unicellular micro-organisms, (fungi) producing zymase (enzyme), which converts sugars into alchohol and CO₂. A single-celled ascomycete fungus, economically important in capable of fermentation and an important source of vitamins.

Yield: Plant part harvested and the quantity of it. In agriculture, necessarily related to a specified crop or crops or to a group of animals or to an area, and to a period of time. For multipurpose trees, the amount of each specified part harvested. See also Production.

X₁, X₂, X₃ : The symbols used to designate the first, second and third generation of X-ray treated plants/seeds.

Xanthophyll : A carotenoid plant pigment (carotene), yellowish in colour, present in chloroplasts and other plants parts where chlorophyll is absent, It assists in photosynthesis.

Xenia: i) The direct influence of foreign pollen on the endosperm due to phenomenon of double fertiliztion which may allow the male parent to affect the appearance of seed. ii) Changes due to effect of foreign pollen in visible characters of endosporem, e.g. Maize- when variety with white endosperm is pollinated by one with deep yellow endosperm, endosperm of resulting seed is pale yellow.

Wasteland: Land not capable of producing materials or services of values.

Water available : The amount of water, plants can extract from unit volume of soil. It is mainly derived from capillary water and corresponds roughly to the water held by the soil between the limits of field moisture capacity and the wilting co-efficient.

Water balance: i) The distribution of water in space, and over time, within a system. Where plants are growing on land this means considering rainfall (and also interception loss, stemflow and throughfall), drainage, evapotranspiration, runoff and soil water storage. ii) Balance of input and output of water within a given defined hydrological area such as a basin or a lake, taking into account net changes of storage. 

Validation: i) The process of assessing the accuracy for a given purpose of a simulation model by comparing the model’s predictions with independent results. ii) Ground validation is the confirmation of information from satellite imagery or aerial photography. See also Ground truth.

Values: Values are characteristics of things that make them more or less desirable, important, or useful.

Variability: Absence of uniformity. Quality of differing from the average value. This term is usually used in a general sense and qualified by such words as ‘low’, ‘moderate’, and ‘high’. For quantitative comparisons, the concept of a variance is used.

Ultra freezing: Cryopreservation of seeds immersed in liquid nitrogen (LN₂) at a very low temperature, -196^ºC, can be used for many seeds provided the moisture content is relatively low, about 8 to 15 percent and the seeds are in sealed containers.

Unclassed forest: Forest land owned by Government but not constituted in to a reserved, village or protected forest.
 
Under bark: Measurement of the diameter or circumference of a trunk or branch made with the bark removed. See also Over bark.

Table, normal yield: A standard yield table with which to compare actual yields. The values of a normal yield table are derived as averages of the best producing fully stocked areas for given species, sites, and methods of treatment.

Table, stand: A summary table showing number of trees by species and diameter class for any given area.

Table, stock: A summary table showing for any given area the volume of trees by species and diameter class.

S₁, S₂, S₃ : The symbols used to designate the first, second/third generation of selfing. S1 is obtained by sowing seeds of so plants and so on.
Saccharometer: A type of hydrometer used for finding the concentration of sugar solutions by determining their density; usually graduated to read the percentage direct.
Safari Park: Safaris are specialized zoos where the captive animals are housed in any large naturalistic enclosures and the visitors are allowed to enter the enclosure to view the animals in a mechanized vehicle or a predetermined route from close quarters.

R₁, R₂, R₃: The symbols used to designate first, second and third irradiation generation.

Race: i) A genetic subdivision of a species, with more or less distinct characteristics when grown in a particular environment. Sometimes used to denote a portion of a cline. Differences among races may or may not be adaptive; differences among ecotypes are presumed to be adaptive. Hence, ‘race’ is a more general term than ecotype. ii) A genetically and often geographically distinct mating group within a species; also a group of pathogens that infect a given set of plant varieties.

Qine: A character gradient. A gradual change in one or more characters between adjacent parts of a population. Such variation in a character is called “clinal variation.” See Ecotype; Race.

Quadrat: i) An ecological sampling unit of any kind. ii) A small field study unit or sample area, usually a square meter or a milliacre (1/1000th acre) in size, established for the purpose of detailed observation.

Quadrangle: A standard map size and scale used by the U.S. Geological Survey (TWS).

Quadrat, denuded: A quadrat from which the vegetation has been completely removed at least once.

Palatable: Having a good or at least a tolerable flavour. Some plants, although not poisonous, simply do not taste good and animals avoid them, for example, the leaves of Prosopis juliflora. Others are so highly palatable that establishing the tree can become difficult, for example, Leucaena leucocephala. Hence ‘palatability’. See also Digestibility.

Palm: Member of the aracaceae (previously palmae) family, containing over 200 genera and more than 2700 species, many of them economically important for food, fibre, canes, waxes, wood, thatch, and so forth. Typical agroforestry tree.

O horizon: A soil layer dominated by organic materials occurring at the surface of the soil. 

Oblique Aerial Photographs: An oblique photographis one which has been taken with the optical axis of the camera intentionally tilted from perpendicular position obliquely. The degree of tiltfrom the perpendicular further classifies oblique photographs into high oblique photograph and low oblique photograph. A high oblique photograph is one which is taken with the optical axis of the camera making an angle >30^° with the vertical axis and which shows the apparent horizon on the photograph.

N₂O: Nitrous Oxide.
Naphthalene Acetic Acid (NAA): Is represented which is a synthesised auxin.
Naphthalene ring/molecule: Two benzene rings condense to give the naphthalene molecule/ring.
Natality (birth-rate): i) It refers to the production of new individuals by birth or hatching. The natality rate is the number of young ones produced per female. ii) Refers to number of young individuals born or hatched per unit of time. iii) Refers to an organism or population of organisms that occurs naturally (i.e., independent of human activity) in an area.
Natural forest: A forest composed of indigenous trees and not classified as forest plantation. 

Macroclimate: The climate of a region. See also Microclimate, topoclimate.
Macronutrient: A chemical element necessary in large amounts (usually > 50 ppm in the plant) for the growth of plants. Includes c, h, o, n, p, k, ca, mg, s. ‘Macro’ refers to quantity and not to essentiality of the element. See also Micronutrient.
Maggot: Legless larva, especially of a fly.
Main effect: The response to different levels of a treatment factor, measured independently of other factors. In a balanced design such as a randomized complete block, the main effects of levels of a treatment factor are estimated by averaging the corresponding responses over all levels of every other factor.

L layer: The litter layer of the forest floor, consisting of unaltered dead remains of plants and animals.

Land : Land is a broader term than soil. In addition to soil, its attributes include other physical conditions such as mineral diposits and water supply; Location in relation centers of commerce, population, and other land; the site of the individual tracts or holdings; and existing plant cover and works of improvement.

Land capability: The suitability of land for use without damage. Land capability (as ordinarily used in the united states) is an expression of the effect of physical land conditions, including climate, on total suitability for use without damage, for crops that require regular tillage, for grazing, for woodland and for wildlife. Land capability involves consideration of the risk of land damage from erosion and from other causes and also difficulties in land use owing to physical land characteristics, including climate.

Kaolinite: An aluminosilicate mineral of the 1.1 crystal lattice group.

Ketchup: Strained concentrated extract of fruit/vegetable which is having spiced vinegar.

Keystone species: i) A species that other species depend upon for survival. ii) A species whose impacts on its community or ecosystem are large, and much larger than would be expected from its abundance. iii) A keystone species is one which has a disproportionately large impact on its ecosystem, and its presence affects many other organisms by helping determine the types and numbers of other species in the community. If a keystone species is removed the delicate balance of an ecosystem would be dramatically changed, and the ecosystem itself could collapse. Important pollinators, such as hummingbirds, bats or butterflies, can be keystone species, as so many other species are reliant on them for survival. Predators such as Jaguar, are often keystone species. Jaguars are present in very small numbers in Central and South America, but they play a critical role in keeping populations of other mammals in check. Identifying and protecting keystone species is important for the long term survival of an ecosystem.

Jalshakti: It is a material (starch based polymer) which can absorb and hold 80-100 times its weight of water. It is a gel on which plant roots lock themselves and tap the water. It can be used on most soils and in all composts to promote vigorous growth and minimise plant stress. It is used by mixing with growing medium at the rate of 1-2% by weight. Plant roots attach themselves to hydrated granules of the chemical and tap their water store. Jalshakti reduces watering needs.

Jam: Concentrated fruit pulp with natural fruit flavour where pectin imparts a good set and high sugar concentration (68%) facilitates its preservation.
 
Jungle: The general Indian term for forest.

Ideotype: A conceptual model of a plant type that will be best suited to a particular set of circumstances. Ideotypes can be defined in terms of both form and function. There can be ‘isolation’, ‘competition’ and ‘crop’ ideotypes.
Illuvial horizon: i) A soil layer in which material from above has been deposited; the layer of accumulation. ii) A soil horizon that receives material in solution or suspension from some other part of the soil. See also Eluviations.
Image: Picture or graphical representation. In remote sensing and GIS as a term that describes digital representations of earth features (TWS).

H layer: The humus layer of the forest floor, consisting largely of well-decomposed, amorphous organic matter.
 
Habitat: i) The sum of effective environmental conditions under which an organism lives. ii) Often used for the natural range of distribution of a species. iii) The kind of place in which a plant or animal lives, such as forest habitat, grassland habitat etc. iv) The ecosystem in which a plant or animal lives and obtains food and water. v) It refers to a place or ecological community, or a set of ecological communities, in which an organism or population of organisms occurs. vi) The immediate environment occupied by an organism. vii) The natural environment of an organism excluding other living organisms (the biotope). See also Site. viii) The place or environment where an animal (or plant) naturally or normally lives and raises young.

Game: A species of wildlife hunted or trapped by humans, including upland birds, waterfowl, small game, forbearing, and larger mammals that are within the purview of management.

Gamete: i) A mature sex cell, such as sperm/egg used in fertilization. A reproductive cell whose nucleus and often cytoplasm fuses with that of another gamete during fertilization resulting in the formation of a zygote. Gametes are usually differentiated into male and female gametes. ii)  A male or female reproductive cell, typically the product of meiosis, capable of uniting in the process of fertilization with one of the opposite sex.

F : Symbol for a generation; F₁ the first generation of a hybrid; F₂ the second; and so on.

F1 : The first filial generation of a cross between two individuals; parental generation (P₁) from which experiment starts.

F2 : The second filial generation of a cross between two individuals; the offspring resulting from crossing the members of the F₁ among themselves.

Flayer: The fragmentation layer in the forest floor, immediately below the litter layer, composed of fragmented, partially decomposed organic materials that are sufficiently well preserved to permit identification as to origin.

E horizon: A mineral soil horizon in which the main feature is loss of silicate clay, iron, aluminum, or some combination of these, leaving a concentration of sand and silt particles of quartz or other resistant materials. 

Earth Summit: International conference held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 to discuss issues concerning climate change, world poverty, environment and development, the worlds forest and biodiversity.

Ecocentric value: The value of ecological entities irrespective of their usefulness to humans. 

Dabbling ducks: Duck species that principally feed in shallow water by “tipping up” or dabbling on the surface.
 
Damping off: i) The wilting of young seedlings by certain fungi that cause decay of stem, or roots. The major diseases of germinating seeds are grouped under the single name ‘damping off’. It is caused by a number of separate fungi, mainly species of Pythium, Rhizoctonia and Phytophthora. The disease is expressed either by the failure of seedling to emerge or by the death of the seedling shortly after emergence. Protection from this is to allow the surface of the soil to dry before doing additional watering. Sphagnum moss spread thinly over the soil surface is also effective in reducing damping off. ii) A term used to describe the action of parasitic soil fungi, which cause rotting of seedlings before or soon after germination. This can sometimes be avoided by adding sand to the soil mixture to improve drainage, thus preventing the fungi from multiplying rapidly, or by using fungicides. Eucalypts and pine species are particularly susceptible to damping off.

C horizon: i) A horizon or layer, excluding hard bedrock, that is little affected by pedogenic processes and lacks properties of O, A, E, or B horizons —note the material of C horizons may be either like or unlike that from which the solum presumably formed. ii) A mineral horizon generally beneath the soil solum that is relatively unaffected by biological activity and pedogenesis and is lacking properties diagnostic of an a horizon or a b horizon. See also Soil horizon.

B horizon: i) A soil horizon that formed below an A horizon, E horizon, or O horizon, dominated by obliteration of all or much of the original rock structure and showing one or more of the following: a) illuvial concentration of silicate clay, iron, aluminium, humus, carbonates, gypsum, or silica, alone or in combination; b) evidence of removal of carbonates; c) residual concentration of sesquioxides; d) coatings of sesquioxides that make the horizon conspicuously lower in value, higher in chroma, or redder in hue than the overlying or underlying horizons without apparent illuviation of iron; e) alteration that forms silicate clay or liberates oxides, or both, that forms granular, blocky, or prismatic structure if volume changes accompany changes in moisture content; or f) brittleness. ii) A soil horizon usually beneath the a horizon that is characterized by one or more of the following: a) A concentration of silicate clays, iron and aluminium oxides, and humus, alone or in combination; b) a blocky or prismatic structure, and  c) coatings of iron and aluminium oxides that give darker, stronger or redder colour.

A horizon: i) The surface soil horizon of a mineral soil having maximum organic matter accumulation, maximum biological activity or eluviation of materials such as iron, aluminium oxides and silicate clays. ii) A mineral horizon that formed at the surface or below an O horizon, obliterating all or much of the original rock structure and (a) characterized by an accumulation of humified organic matter intimately mixed with the mineral fraction and not dominated by properties characteristic of E horizon or B horizon. See also B horizon, C horizon.

Abatement: Refers to reducing the degree or intensity of greenhouse-gas emissions.

6.1 Strength of India
    ·    In India, pomegranate is cultivated over 1.31 lakh ha with a production of 13.46 lakh tonnes and a productivity of 10.27 t/ha. 
    ·    India is the largest producer of pomegranates in the world.
    ·    Pomegranate is currently ranked 10th in terms of fruit consumed annually in the world. India is the only country in the world where pomegranate is available throughout the year i.e. From January to December. It is cultivated in 3 seasons (Ambia bahar, Mrig bahar and hasth bahar) in Deccan plateau of India. 
    ·    India is endowed with wide agro climatic conditions that offer immense scope for cultivation of various kinds of fruit crops. This provides an excellent platform for the country to emerge as a leading producer of fruit crop. 

5.1 Present Status

Export of pomegranate has decreased in quantity from 36,027.43 tons in 2012-13 to 20,997.02 tons in 2014-15, whereas in value term it show an increase trend during the same period. There is tremendous potential for exports of pomegranate from India and it is fact that India is largest producer of pomegranates in the world. Moreover, India produces finest edible quality of pomegranates which are available almost throughout the year. The major Markets of India’s pomegranate during the year 2014-15 were UAE, Nepal, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Netherland.

4.1 Harvesting

Pomegranate being non-climacteric fruits should be picked when fully ripe. Its fruits become ready for picking 120-130 days after fruit set. Mature fruits should be immediately removed from the plants as delay in harvesting leads to fruit cracking. Fruits harvested at a premature stage have poor keeping quality and are prone to damage during handling and transport. The fruits are harvested when outer rind becomes yellowish and the fruit when tapped produces a metallic sound. The round fruits become flattened from all the sides and basal beak shaped portion shrinks at the time of maturity. Fruits are harvested with the help of secateurs by retaining 1 cm stalk with the fruit. All the fruits should be harvested in 2-3 pickings within a span of one month.

3.1 Integrated Insect Pests Management

1. Anar butterfly [Deudorix (Virachola) isocrates Fabricus]

Pomegranate fruit borer or pomegranate butterfly is the most widespread, polyphagous and destructive pest distributed all over India and common in Asia. Peak incidence is during the month of August in monsoon season, while it is more during November/December in winter crop. Infestation from flowering to button stage causing loss up to 50 per cent of the fruit. Adult bluish brown butterfly, female with V shaped patch on forewing. Full-grown larvae are dark brown with short hair and white patches all over the body and measures about 16 to 20mm long. The larvae bore into the pomegranate fruits soon after hatching. Once inside the fruit, larvae (approx 2cm length) feed on the flesh and seeds.  The bored hole is plugged by the last abdominal segment of the larva. When fully grown, the larva comes out by boring through the hard shell and spins a web, which ties the fruit, stalk to the main branch. Offensive smell and excreta of caterpillars coming out of the entry holes with excreta stuck around the holes. The fruits rot and drop off. The holes ultimately expose the rest of the fruit to disease, and typically rot off the tree.

2.1 Soil and Climate

Pomegranate grows well in sandy-loam and well-drained soils having a pH of 7.5. It can also be grown on light soils. Quality and colour development in light soils is good but poor in heavy soils. It tolerates salinity up to 9.00 EC/mm and sodicity 6.78 ESP. Even it can be grown well in slightly saline soils as it is considered a saline-tolerant plant (Patil and Waghmare 1983; Rao and Khandelwal 2001; Ram Asrey et al., 2002). Accumulation of salts, in excess of 0.5% of the soil mass causes dying off of growing roots. Interestingly, application of Paclobutrazol (250 ppm) was reported to reduce salinity damage (Saeed 2005). The presence of water-soluble salts like sulphates and chlorides and ex- changeable sodium negatively affect root formation.

1.1 Introduction

Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) is a well-known table fruit of tropical and subtropical regions of the world. The Romans received it from Carthage, hence the name of the genus Punica. Some botanists place it in the family Lythraceae, of the peculiar type of fruit, called as balausta, most authorities make it the only genus in the family Punicaceae. It belongs to genera Punica and family Punicaceae (Chatterjee & Randhawa, 1952; Joshi, 1956). It is a small tree, measuring less than 4 m when cultivated, although it can reach 7 m in the wild. Recent research findings corroborate traditional use of pomegranate as a medical remedy as all parts of this plant have several bioactive metabolites (Holland et al. 2009). Consequently, its demand has increased tremendously not only in the western world but also in other parts of the globe.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The most significant factors distinguishing organic farming from eco-farming are the existence of production standards and certification procedures. Certification of organic farming is the procedure by which a written assurance is given by the certification agency that a clearly identified production or processing system has been methodically assessed and conforms to the specified requirements. It is a process certification rather than a product certification. Certification and labelling is usually done by an independent body to provide a guarantee that the production standards are met.  In case of organic products, certification is an acknowledgement that the products are produced according to organic production standards of certification bodies or associations or of the country. Organic production system is a land use system in accordance with set standards to the location specific conditions by integrating practices that foster cycling of resources, promoting ecological balance and conserve biodiversity. The prime principles of organic farming are,

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The crop production is as old as human civilization, it is an art, science and business. In the world of ‘Fast Food,’ food safety is a watch word. To accomplish safety food to consumers and fair price to producers through appropriate market channels, the concept of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) has evolved in recent years. The stakeholders include governments, food processing and retailing industries, farmers, and consumers, who seek to meet specific objectives of food security, food quality, production efficiency, livelihoods and environmental benefits in both the medium and long term. GAP offers a means to help reach those objectives.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The cumin (Cuminum cyminum Linn.) belonging to family Apiaceace is an important seed spice believed to be indigenous to northern Egypt, East Mediterranean region, Iran, Turkey  and India (Amin, 2003; Raghavan, 2007). It is popularly known as safed jeera and is one of the most common spices of daily use in the Indian sub-continent. Cumin is well known to ancient civilization. It is one of the oldest spices known since biblical times, valued mostly for their digestive properties and for flaovouring bread and other dishes during the periods of ceremonial fasting. As early as 5000 BC, Egyptians preserved the bodies of their kings by mummifying them with cumin, anise and marjoram.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) is important seed spices belonging to family Apiaceae, and a native of Southern Europe and Mediterranean area. Later it spread to the far East and far north in Europe. To the ancient Greeks, fennel represented success and so it was called “Marathon” in reference to the battle, fought in fennel field where the Greeks defeated the Persians in 490 B.C. Fennel was also a symbol of success to the Romans. During the thirteenth century in England, fennel was considered as a royal spice and was served to kings with fruits, bread and pickled fish seasoned with fennel seeds. Fennel was even described by Longfellow in his poem The Goblet of Life. According to early Sanskrit writings, fennel has been described as Madhurika and was known as far back as 2000 BC for its cultivation in India.