eChapters

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Fenugreek is one of the oldest cultivated spice crops of the world and grown for its medicinal value and forage in India, Western Asia and Nile valley since remote antiquity. In Egypt, it has been cultivated since 1000 BC and is part of the Indian diet for over 3000 years. Fenugreek is used as an important component of holy smoke in Egyptian incense. It is found growing wild in parts of northern India and cultivated all over the subcontinent for its green leaves and seeds. Fenugreek is a native of south-eastern Europe and Western Asia.  India is also said to be a native of fenugreek (Shanmugavelu et al., 2002) and found growing wild in Kashmir, Punjab and upper Gangetic plains.

1.0 INTRODUCTION
 
Coriander is a native of southern Europe and Asia Minor. In a treatise, Farrell (1999) has described coriander as indigenous to the Near East and Mediterranean region of North Africa and Southern Europe. According to early Sanskrit writings, coriander was known as far back as 5000 BC for its cultivation in India. Persia grew coriander 3000 years ago for adding fragrance to hanging garden of Babylon and seeds were found in Egyptian tombs of 960 BC. It has been used as an ingredient to traditional and folk medicine in the Middle East and Asia for more than 2000 years. There is archaeological evidence of coriander cultivation from Early Bronze Age in Macedonia (Fragiska, 2005)

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Capsicum or chilli including paprika belonging to family Solanaceae, is a native of new world tropics and sub tropics. Within the genus Capsicum, mainly five species have been recognized as domesticated namely, Capsicum annuum, C. baccatum, C. chinense, C. frutescens and C. pubescens. Most of the commercially cultivated chilli cultivars as well as paprika belong to the species C. annuum. The cultivated Capsicum was introduced to India and Southeastern Asia in the 17th century by the Portugese. The name Capsicum is possibly derived from the Greek word ‘Kapso’ meaning ‘to bite’ referring to the dominant pungency stimulated by the spice, while ‘Paprika’ means plants of the genus Capsicum, in the Hungarian language. ‘Paprika’, is defined in the world market as non-pungent (sweet) brilliant red ground Capsicum powder, derived from the thick flesh dried red pods, with most of the seeds and veins removed. Both chilli and paprika are widely consumed as vegetable and spice all over the world. Mostly, the cultivars grown in Asian countries are pungent, while less and non-pungent cultivars are more common in European countries. Chilli of commerce is the dried pod, while it was pericarp (outer skin of the dried fruit) for paprika.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Among tree spices, nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt) belonging to the family Myristicaceae is the most important, providing two spices, i.e. the nutmeg (dried seed) and the mace (dried aril covering the seed). The latter is more important. Nutmeg is cultivated mostly in the tropical areas of Indonesia and West Indies. The world annual production of nutmeg and mace is around 12000 tonnes and 2000 tonnes, respectively (Krishnamoorthy and Rema, 2001). A native of the Moluccas (The Banda Islands of East Indonesia), nutmeg is presently cultivated in several countries such as Grenada, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Sri Lanka, Fiji, some Caribbean Islands, Africa and China including India. Of late, Brazil also started its cultivation. The Indonesian nutmeg known as East Indian nutmeg shares 75% and Grenadian known as West Indian nutmeg shares 25% of world market and they are major suppliers in the world. The East Indian nutmeg is highly aromatic which is preferred by the USA. West Indian type is of mild flavour and is preferred in Europe. The major importers are USA, Canada, Japan and European countries. In USA, the oil is generally preferred whereas the Europeans consume it as whole spice.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Vanilla is one of the most popular and widely used flavour materials in the world and it is the most expensive spice traded in the global market after Saffron (Crocus sativus L). The major consumers of vanilla beans currently are the developed countries with the US, France and Germany absorbing about 80 per cent of the world imports. Among them, the US imports 50-60 per cent while the latter 10-15 per cent each. They are also main re-exporters of both vanilla beans and processed products. The total area under vanilla cultivation in the world during 2002 was 38,066 ha with the production of around 4956 metric tones and increased to 76,440 ha with a production of 10, 360 tons during 2005 (FAO, 2007). The major vanilla producing countries are Madagascar, Comoros, Indonesia, Mexico and Reunion (Table 1). Area under vanilla in India during 2002-03 was 2545 ha with the production of 92 tonnes. (Spices Board, 2003) and increased to 5370 ha with a production of 196 tonnes during 2004-05.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Turmeric (Curcuma domestica Val. (syn. C. longa Koenig non L.) is an important spice, a native of India and South East Asia. Chikarmane et al. (2003) by analyzing historical patterns of movement of South Asian and Southeast Asian people known to have used turmeric suggested that turmeric was introduced into Southeast Asia via Indian colonization in the early Christian centuries. An increase in colonization events from South India during this time was because of discoveries in navigational science and desires to expand civilizations, rather than military conquests. The cultural expansion from South India supports the introduction of turmeric cultivation to Southeast Asia via human means. These human migratory patterns are compared to a phylogenetic analysis of DNA sequence data within Curcuma, and suggested that key locations such as the Isthmus of Kra were important not only to human movement but to species evolution in Curcuma (Chikarmane et al., 2003).

1. INTRODUCTION

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) is a perennial herb and the economic part is underground stem (rhizome), which is used as a spice. It is native to tropical South-East Asia, introduced into the West Indies, African countries and other tropical belt of the world. The ginger rhizome is harvested between 6 and 12 months after planting and used as spice in the fresh condition,  peeled and split dried or powedered forms. Ginger is utilized widely as a spice, for pickles, candies and as a medicinal herb. The anti-inflammatory and anti-nausea qualities of ginger have applications in the pharmaceutical industry. Ginger and supplements derived from ginger have received attention for the treatment of chronic inflammation. Administration of ginger has resulted in decreased symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis (Srivastava and Mustafa, 1992) and gingerol (a component of ginger) has been reported to have anti-inflammatory actions (Kiuchi et al., 1992; Tjendraputra et al., 2001).

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton.) acclaimed as the ‘Queen of Spices’ is the true cardamom belonging to the family Zingiberaceae. The cardamom of commerce is the dried ripe fruit and is one of the most important valued spices next only to saffron. It is native of evergreen forests of Western Ghats of South India. Cardamom is a shade loving plant (Pseophyte) thriving well in elevations up to 600-1200 m above MSL under an average annual rainfall of 1500-4000 mm and temperature range of 10-350C. India has been the world’s largest producer of cardamom until 1979-80. Later, Guatemala emerged as world’s premier producer and the exporter of cardamom accounting for about 90 per cent of the global trade. Cardamom is also grown lesser extent in Sri Lanka, Papua New Guinea and Tanzania.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Black pepper popularly known as ‘King of spices’ or ‘Black gold’ is one of the important and earliest known spices produced and exported from India. Its original home is the dense evergreen forests of Western Ghats in south India. The flavour and fragrance of this oriental spice had a magic spell in human civilization and culture since very ancient days. Expeditions in search of pepper led to the discovery of new trade routes.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Plant parasitic nematodes are among the major soil-borne crop pests that cause significant economic losses to a wide variety of crops. They cause an estimated annual crop-yield loss of US$78 billion worldwide which warrants for effective control strategies (Sasser and Freckman, 1987). Nematodes have the greatest impact on crop productivity when they attack the roots of seedlings or young plantlets (Ploeg, 2001). Nematode feeding also creates open wounds that provide entry to a wide variety of plant-pathogenic fungi and bacteria. These microbial infections are often more economically damaging than the direct effects of nematode feeding.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The bacteria in the genus Ralstonia, Xanthomonas, Agrobacterium, Xylella, Pantoea, Leifsonia, Curtobacterium, Enterobactor, Pseudomonas, Corynebacterium, Erwinia cause the most important bacterial diseases of crop plants. Few of them are directly responsible for post harvests losses during storage or transit and many of them are known to cause disease in the field. These diseases are economically important due their potential to cause crop failure in crops including spice crops. Among the bacteria genus Ralstonia is very important owing to its broad host range across the plant kingdom. Traditionally bacterial diseases of crops are prevented by the principle of ‘Disease Avoidance’ rather than disease control in the field. Their fast rate of multiplication, selective host and rapid spread in the field makes the disease control one of the challenges in the production system. The organic strategies are very well fit in the disease avoidance in the field. The preemptive strategies works exceedingly well for management of bacterial disease in any crop. Few genus such as Ralstonia, Enterobacter and Xanthomonas have been frequented in spice crops.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

“Biological control is the reduction of the amount of inoculum or disease producing activity of a pathogen  or parasite  in its active or dormant state, by one or more organisms, accomplished naturally or through manipulation of the environment, host or antagonist or by mass introduction of one or more antagonists ” (Baker & Cook 1974). The biological world is a vast interacting network of living organisms in a state of dynamic equilibrium, reflecting changes in their physical environment and their relations to each other. Organisms exhibit many type of interactions in the process of achieving biological balance.  An organism may exert no effect on another or it may stimulate or inhibit the growth or development of the associate, it may stimulate or inhibit the formation of resting spores of the associate or it may enforce dormancy or cause lysis of the associate (Cooke & Baker, 1983).

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Infestation by insect pests is a major factor responsible for the low productivity of spice crops in India. Spice crops such as black pepper (Piper nigrum L.), cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton), ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) and turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) are infested by many species of insect pests, some of which cause severe crop losses. Adoption of integrated pest management (IPM) schedules in which biological control forms a major component is more relevant in these crops since excessive use of insecticides could lead to pesticide residues in the produce and other ecological hazards. Spices are high-value and export-oriented in nature and pesticide residues are the most important non-tariff barriers on trade in these produces. There has been a renewed interest during the past decade in developing environment–friendly crop management schedules in sustainable agriculture including spice crops, reflecting the increasing concern over pesticide misuse.

1.0. INTRODUCTION

The plant nutrient cycling depends on micro organisms that constitute major components of the biosphere. Although less than one per cent is cultured, a tremendous diversity exists in their populations. Transformation of nutrients from soil to plants is brought about by soil microorganisms. Latest molecular techniques enable scientists to understand and appreciate the diversity and help to utilize the beneficial effects of microbial diversity for increased productivity. Among soil organisms intense activity is found in and around rhizosphere of plants because of the presence of the secreted nutrients such as carbohydrates, amino acids and other cellular components present at the growing tip of roots. These root colonizing micro organism form symbiotic, associative, or parasitic relationship with the plants. These organisms have evolved mechanisms to occupy and reside in the specialized niche. These mechanisms are often utilized both for growth enhancement and disease suppression. The host also plays an important role in selecting its own microflora for the rhizosphere similar to the probiotic microflora of human gastrointestinal tract (Haas and Keel 2003).

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Soil fertility can be considered to be a measure of the soil’s ability to sustain satisfactory crop growth, both in the short and longer-term. Organic farming recognizes the soil as being central to a sustainable farming system. It could be argued that organically managed soils require a higher level of baseline fertility because shortfalls cannot be made up by applications of soluble fertilizers. Soil fertility is determined by a set of interactions between the physical and chemical environments of the system and by biological activity. Organic matter is linked intrinsically to soil fertility, because it is important in maintaining good soil physical conditions (e.g. soil structure, aeration and water holding capacity) and is an important nutrient reserve. Organic matter contains most of the soil reserve of N and large proportions of other nutrients such as phosphorus and sulphur.

1.1 Spice – definition and uses

Spice is defined as “a strongly flavoured or aromatic substance of vegetable origin, obtained from tropical plants, commonly used as a condiment”. A spice is a dried seed, fruit, root, rhizome, bark or vegetative substance or flower bud used in nutritionally insignificant quantities as a food additive for the purpose of flavoring. Spices are distinguished from herbs, which are leafy, green plant parts used for flavoring purposes. Herbs, such as basil or oregano, may be used fresh, and are commonly chopped into smaller pieces; spices, however, are dried and usually ground into a powder (http://www.reference.com/browse/wiki/Spice). American Spice Trade Association (ASTA) defines spices as “any dried plant product used primarily for seasoning purposes”. Included are tropical aromatics (pepper, cinnamon, cloves, etc.), leafy herbs (basil, oregano, marjoram, etc.), spice seeds (sesame, poppy, mustard, etc.) and dehydrated vegetables (onions, garlic, etc.) (http://www.astaspice.org/spice/frame_spice.htm). Many spices have other uses like food preservation, medicine, religious rituals, cosmetics, and perfumery or as vegetables.

Tea is the most important non-alcoholic beverage worldwide gaining further popularity as an important ‘health drink’. It is consumed as a morning drink by 2/3^rd of world population. Tea was used initially as a medicine and subsequently as beverage and now has proven to be a potential raw material for pharmaceutical industry. Tea is mainly consumed in the form of ‘fermented tea’ or ‘black tea’, ‘non-fermented’ or ‘green tea’ and semi-fermented or ‘oolong tea’ are also popular in Japan and China. Green leaves are also used as vegetables such as ‘leppet tea’ in Burma and ‘meing tea’ in Thailand.

Natural rubber, cis-l,4 polyisoprene, produced in the milky cytoplasm (latex) of specialized cells called laticifers in certain plants is one of most important biological macromolecules, which is used as an industrial raw material for the manufacture of a variety of products. Natural rubber is found in the latex of over 2000 species of plants belonging to 311 genera under 79 families. However, Hevea brasiliensis, also known as Para rubber tree after the Brazilian port of Para, is the only commercial source of natural rubber mainly because of its abundance in latex, quality and convenience of harvesting. Hevea was first used as a source of rubber by the French.

Palmyra (Borassus flabellifer L.) is a tropical dioecious palm adapted to arid zone tracts. Though it is a versatile plant which yields many edible and non-edible products it is a less exploited species. It is used for sap, fruit, seed, leaf and fiber and timber products. From nutritional point of view, fruit pulp and seed shoot flour are the most important.Successful promotion of these as foods for general consumption depends on subjecting the fruit pulp to a debittering process, and the seed shoot flour, to initial detoxification processes (Thabrew and Jansz, 2004). Palmyra palms are the most numerous palms in the world after coconut palm (Fox, 1977). Despite this, they are the least studied of all the palms.

The oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) is recognised as the cheapest edible oil-yielding crop and has become one of the major oil crops in the world. The most productive oil-bearing crop, oil palm yields about three times the oil yield of coconut, seven times that of rapeseed, and ten times that of soybean. In terms of world production, palm oil maintains second place after soybean as a source of vegetable oil and has overtaken other crops such as rapeseed, sunflower, groundnut, and cottonseed. Under good agricultural management, a hectare of oil palm yields 5 to 7 tonnes of oil / year (Henson, 1991). The crop is unique in producing 2 distinct types of oil- palm oil and palm kernel oil- used for culinary and industrial purposes. Being rich in b-carotene, palm oil contributes substantially to nutritional and energy requirements of masses.

Coffee (Coffea species) occupies a pride of place, in the international trade of commodities, next to petroleum in trade volume and money value. Coffee is also the second important popular beverage for its aroma and mild stimulant action. Its dried beans are roasted, ground and brewed to make a stimulating & refreshing beverage. Its production forms the backbone of more than 60 developing nations. Use of coffee has evolved from original chewing of leaves and beans of the plant to relieve pain, hunger and fatigue to the present more sophisticated uses, like espresso and decaffeinated coffees. Its use was first discovered in Arabia around mid-15th century.

Coconut is the most beautiful and useful of palms known to mankind. Coconut is unique, producing a host of products and by products with distinctive applications at home and in industry. It is essentially an oil seed crop providing all amenities for human life, which include food, energetic beverage, medicine, fibre, wood, shell and a variety of raw materials for production of array of products of commercial importance. In view of its versatile uses and affinity to Indian culture, it is rightly called the “tree of heaven” or “Kalpavriksha”.

Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) is the third important beverage crop grown for its seeds known as beans, used mainly in chocolate industry. It is the source of cocoa butter and cocoa mass.

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is an export-oriented crop grown for its nuts, a true drupe. Often referred as ‘wonder nut’, it is highly delicious and nutritive. Its nutritional composition compares well with almond, hazel nut and walnut. It is a zero-cholesterol nut with high content of unsaturated fatty acids, proteins and carbohydrates with a right combination of amino acids, vitamins and minerals. Kernels extracted from nuts are often consumed as such or used in confectionery items and various kinds of dishes. Kernel oil of pale yellow colour is used in pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. Cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) extracted from its shell has many industrial applications - for making paints, resins, flame-retardants, etc. Testa covering the kernel, rich in tannin, can be an acceptable substitute for wattle bark tannin in leather industry. Cashew apple, the pseudo-fruit, is rich in vitamin C. It is used to cure scurvy, diarrhea, uterine complaints and dropsy.

Arecanut palm (Areca catechu L.) is the source of common masticatory nut, popularly known as arecanut, betelnut, or supari. It is used extensively in India by all sections of people as masticatory, and is an essential requisite for several religious and social ceremonies.

Commercial crops include a variety of high value plantation crops, which play a vital role in the agricultural economy and export trade of many developing and developed countries (Table 1). Tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, coconut, arecanut, oil palm, cashew, palmyra and cardamom are the major crops grown on a plantation scale. These crops are perennial in nature and the cultivation is labour intensive, generating considerable employment opportunity during on farm operations and off farm processing activities. The most obvious characteristic is that plantations are monocultures; the same species occupying large contiguous area usually in even aged stands. Exceptions are coconut, arecanut, cocoa and coffee, which are grown either as mono crop or as multiple crops. These crops are grown in humid tropics, mainly between 20°N and 20°S of equator in an area of 35.7 million ha yielding about 74.4 million tonnes of produce and contributing US $ 11 billion to global trade during 2002.

Food prices have risen 6% in the last six months. But it is expected to rise further as expensive energy, squeezed supplies and volatile weather take a combined toll. The biggest factor pushing prices is the cost of producing and marketing crops. Several factors will make farming more expensive in the coming months. The first variable is weather. Preliminary forecasts by a few foreign and private Indian meteorologists say India could have a below-normal monsoon because a weather phenomenon called El Nino is warming the Pacific Ocean. El Nino usually affects monsoon winds headed for India. Forecasters say monsoon might arrive on time but could falter during August-September, especially in the north.

All over the world, when people get richer their life style change and they consume more animal protein, especially meat. We may add value by good genetics and know how in farm and feed management. There would be huge demand for poultry products and meat in coming years in India as per capita income of middle class people is gradually increasing and for that production of meat and meat products is required to be increased to meet the demand. Meat of goat, buffalo chicken are generally sold in India. Marketing of meat and meat products, chicken and poultry products such as eggs are the main challenges for the new farmers as there is no ready market in India. Recently there is huge demand of Chicken in Northern India. The initial problem faced by farmers is getting the special chicken feed for the different age groups. There is no well equipped dedicated slaughter house available in every city. New technology for animal slaughter is required so that all parts of animal are used properly without losing valuable protein. The idea should be to use innovated technology to optimize the profits in the chain.

Liquid milk is the cheapest form of milk whereas value added products like yoghurt and paneer, already popular in India are ways to earn a higher income with some raw materials. Farms should focus on dairy herd improvement, herd management etc. Milk and dairy products are always very helpful to farmers for a constant source of income besides their regular farm products. They do not required to expend extra for their feeding if the number of cattle are less. With slight extra care they can earn enough to meet their daily expenses. Cows, buffalo, all the milk giving animals are easy to care.

The first use of rubber was by the Olmecs, who centuries later passed on the knowledge of natural latex from the Hevea tree in 1600 BC to the ancient Mayans. They boiled the harvested latex to make a ball for a Mesoamerican ballgame.

Fats and oils are one of the five essential ingredients of human diet. The four others are protein, carbohydrates, minerals, and vitamins. In balanced diet, the requirement of oils and fats per person per day is around 35 gm. In India, the major source of oils and fats is of vegetable origin; butter from animal milk also serves as a fat, though. In the nine major oilseeds, which are groundnut, rapseed /mustered seed, soya been, seasam seeds, sun flower seed niger seed, castor seed and linseed, out of these   seven are essentially edible. Among these seven, by far the most important are groundnut,  rapeseed/mustard seed, and soya bean. These three edible oilseeds account for a little over 80% of-the-total production of nine oilseeds, which include even two non-edible oilseeds, namely castor seed and linseed. As a matter of fact, edible oilseeds as such contribute nearly 95% to the total production of all cultivated oilseeds together.

Cotton, the traditional and important commercial crop has been in cultivation in India for more than five thousand years. Though synthetic / man-made fibre has made inroads, cotton deserves the prime position not only in India but also in the world. The Northern hemisphere accounts for more than 90% of the total world production. Whereas countries like China, US and India together account for 50% of the production in the world. In India, cotton farming provides livelihood for over 4 million farm families. Various allied activities like ginning, spinning, weaving, textile processing, garment manufacturing, marketing etc., provide employment to several million people.

Prices of major spices such as chillies, jeera, turmeric and cardamom are being driven to the ground by higher production, poor export earnings and a lack of working capital with traders to hold the stocks. Last December, all these spices were at record highs. With the prices ruling high last year, the acreage of most of the spices has increased this year, indicating excess production. The chilli acreage has increased by 15% to 20% while the land under jeera crop is estimated to have gone up by over 26%. The turmeric production is heading for a historic high of 82 lakh bags (each bag of 70 kg) and cardamom is having a bumper harvest.

Random workplace surveys in the UK have proven that the staff can get pretty steamed up over hot drinks. Nine years ago, London Underground staff, in fact, threatened to go on strike when kettles were introduced to replace tea urns. Their grouse: it will make them late for shifts. When the credit crunch dried up the free watering holes in many companies, a survey by uSwitchforbusiness.com in 2010 claimed that trouble was brewing. It warned: "Cutting out the free cuppas may add to the bottom line, but there may be a far greater price to be paid in staff morale." Tea or coffee - free or not - is the preferred poison at work.

Pulses are important food crops due to their high protein and essential amino acid content. Pulses are used as food and animal feed. India is the world’s largest producer, importer and consumer of pulses. Many exporting countries are dependent on India for marketing their pulses. Even though India is the world’s largest producer and consumer of pulses still there is a gap of 2-3 million tonnes between the production and consumption of pulses in the country and the gap is met through imports.

Basmati Rice

Basmati Rice is a simple grain, yet throughout history it has been on royal menus of various cultures as the main dish. From the pilav of Turkey, polou of Persia, pilafs of the Steppes, the isotos and paellas of the Mediterranean, to the pulau of India it has been served to great sultans, maharajahs, shahs and emperors. Spices, nuts, dried fruits, vegetables and herbs are a natural for Basmati rice. Basmati rice transforms rice dishes into extraordinary meals. Also known as the “Queen of Rice”, this highly aromatic grain that is long and elegantly thin, has originated from Vasumati which means earth recognized by its fragrance. The full exposition of the word is from Hindi. Bas originating from Prakrit Vas which has a sanskrit root- Vasay connoting aroma; and mati from mayup meaning ingrained from the origin. Common usage has changed Vas to Bas while joining bas and mayup the latter changed to mati.. Thus the word Basmati originated.

Setting price is a critical component of successful marketing. Vegetable growers have a greater level of control than most other growers over marketable yields, input costs and price. The closer a grower is to the consumer, the more control over price the grower has. Buyers perceive price to represent value of the product. Underpricing, or pricing too low, gives the perception that the product is inferior, while setting the price too high often drives customers away. Many growers make the mistake of setting the price too low at the beginning of the marketing season when competition is less and demand is strong and then find it difficult to increase price later in the season. Before setting price, gauge the level of competition and the consumer demand for your product. For example, organic produce may have a stronger demand in urban areas, so prices can be set at a higher level. Also, early-season produce, such as tomatoes, has high demand with little competition in most markets, resulting in a higher price range.

Potato is a major food crop, grown in more than 100 countries in the world and it is one of the major commercial crops grown in India. India ranks third by contributing around 7.5% to the world’s production. During 2006-07, 27 million tonnes was produced in an area of about 1.5 million ha. However, potato consumption per capita in India (14.8 kg/head/year) is one of the lowest in the world and hardly one per cent of the potato is processed.

Among fresh vegetables, onion, tomato and mushroom are reported to be highly export competitive. India ranks first in the world accounting for around 21 per cent of the world area, planted to onion. Globally, the country occupies the second position, after China, in onion production with a production share of around 14 per cent. Productivity of onion is low at around 11.4 metric ton/ha, which is significantly lower than the world average of 17.3 metric ton/ha. Besides India and China, the other major onion-producing countries are Turkey, Pakistan, Iran, Japan, Brazil, United States of America and Spain. It is produced for both domestic consumption as well as exports. India produces all varieties of onion - pink, red, yellow and white, big or small.

Sugar originated from the Arabic word “sharkara” and is derived from the sanskrit world “sharkara”. Sugar is an important part of the daily diet and  forming a class of edible substances which includes  sucrose, lactose, and fructose. It provides the human body with requisite carbohydrates and is basically extracted from sugar cane and sugar beet.  Found in fruits, honey, sorghum, sugar maple and in several other sources, it is the main ingredient of candy which is loved by children the world over. Yet, it has been  blamed for causing tooth decay and excess consumption of sugar has been associated with a host of ailments like diabetes, obesity, weight gain, depression, joint pain, fatigue and insulin resistance and even cancer.

Price mechanism is an economic term that refers to the buyers and sellers who negotiate prices of goods or services depending on demand and supply. A price mechanism or market-based mechanism refers to a wide variety of ways to match up buyers and sellers through price rationing.An example of a price mechanism uses announced bid and ask prices. Generally speaking, when two parties wish to engage in a trade, the purchaser will announce a price he is willing to pay (the bid price) and seller will announce a price he is willing to accept (the ask price).

Agriculture occupies a significant place in the economy of India. It contributes nearly 20% to the Gross Domestic Product [GDP] and provides employment to around two-thirds of nation’s population Agricultural commodity exports account for nearly 20 per cent of the total export earnings of the country. The agricultural produce sector has been one of the most important components of Indian economy. Considerable progress has since been achieved in scaling new heights in the production of foodgrains, commercial crops like cotton, sugarcane, tea etc., fruits, vegetables and milk. The increasing trend of agricultural production has brought, in its wake, new challenges in terms of finding market for the marketed surplus. There is also pressure from all segments of agricultural economy to respond to the challenges and opportunities that the global markets offer in the liberalized trade regime. To benefit the farming community from the new global market access opportunities, the internal agricultural marketing system in the country also needs to be integrated and strengthened. In particular the market system has to be revitalized to a) provide incentives to farmer to produce more; b) convey the changing needs of the consumers to the producers to enable production r burning; c) foster true competition among the market players and d) to enhance the share of farmers in the ultimate price of his agricultural produce.

Since time immemorial, women have played and continued to play a key role in conservation of basic life support system, such as, land, water, flora and fauna. Women power at present constitutes nearly half of the global population and account one third of the total work force. They contribute more than half of duties and responsibilities but are not given proper rights. In India till now rural women continue to struggle with dual responsibilities of economic production and domestic labour, and most are confronted by poverty, illiteracy, high health risks, inadequate access to productive resources, and lack of credit/market access. The empowerment and autonomy of women and the improvement of women’s social, political, legal and economic status is essential for sustainable rural development

Both women and men play critical roles in agriculture throughout the world, producing, processing and providing the food we eat. Rural women in particular are responsible for half of the world’s food production and produce between 60 and 80 percent of the food in most developing countries. Yet, despite their contribution to global food security, women farmers are frequently underestimated and overlooked in development strategies.

Rural women are the main producers of the world’s staple crops – rice, wheat, maize – which provide up to 120 percent of the rural poor’s food intake. Women sow, weed, apply fertilizer and pesticides, harvest and thresh the crops. In the livestock sector, women feed and milk animals, while raising poultry and small animals such as sheep, goat, etc. Also, once the harvest is in, rural women provide most of the labour for post-harvest activities, taking responsibility for storage, handling, processing and marketing.

1. Feminization of Agriculture

Almost all active women in rural India can be considered as ‘farmers’, in some sense – working as agricultural labourer, unpaid workers in the family farm enterprise, or combination of the two. Moreover, several farm activities traditionally carried out by men are also being undertaken by women as men are pulled away into higher paying employment. Thus rural India is witnessing a process which could be described as ‘feminization of agriculture’. The significantly high and growing population of female headed households has also highlighted women’s contribution to agriculture.

The interventions for women empowerment was perhaps started intensively since fourth plan period. Subsequently many more initiatives are taken for the total all round development of women in this country.

A. 4^TH FIVE YEAR PLAN (1969-1974)

Farmers Training and Education Programme

It was for the first time in the 4^th Five Year Plan that an effort was made by Ministry of Agriculture to address the training and extension needs of women farmers with new and improved technology through “Farmers Training and Education Programme”, in which a network of 150 Farmers Training Centers were established to close the visible gap between the recommended package of practices and the farm women’s knowledge and skills about them. In this programme, a linkage of the supply of production inputs with improved technical training, supported by Farm Radio Broadcast and Functional Literacy was provided. The unique feature of this programme was that for the first time, a cognizance of women’s participation in agriculture was taken. The experience of the programme had shown that the states which gave due importance to this programme, especially in terms of curriculum planning and syllabus formulation (based on true status and needs of women farmers), achieved very good results. It was, this programme, which focused many issues that had to be categorically considered while planning and implementing agriculture support programmes for women farmers.

Women are the backbone of rural economy. They play a significant role in domestic and socio-economic life of the society. National development is not possible without developing this important and substantial segment of any society. To achieve anything, women are obliged to surmount host of obstacles. The difficulty in gaining access to land, credit and agricultural inputs hampers their potential as producers who feed the world. Barriers of tradition and discrimination have limited their access towards technology, training and education. Moreover, the extension approaches and strategies usually followed for transfer of technology to women are not keeping match with their specific needs and problems. The World Food Summit convened by FAO in 1996 drew up a plan of action to address the major impediments to universal food security. It also called for the full and equal participation of both the genders so as to ensure gender equality and empowerment of women.

Food, clothing and housing are the three basic needs of a man. After that the additional requirement of a man are personal health and happiness. These can be considered as human factors. The material factors are agriculture, industry, trade, water resources management, insurance.

The continuous increase in population made the planners, researchers and cultivators to increase the food production to feed all the people. So, the second green revolution has to follow. Due to increase in air temperature and climate change, the cultivation practices to change based on the changing climatic condition. The study of climate is not only necessary for food production, but also needed for transportation, storage, value addition and consumption.

The need of the cloth for man is not only for style. The basic need is to protecting the human body from the climatic factors like heat and cold. Clothing must provide to maintain the body heat at about 37^oC. Clothing must be made based on the local climatic condition. So, the traditional fiber for making the cloth is better for health.

Housing provides the internal controlled climate to the human being. It provides comfort to the inhabitants. Like clothing traditional styles, sites and methods of housing have to be followed based on the climatic condition. Though people are living in the multi-storied building, they have to concentrate on comfort in the case of sufficient aeration and ventilation. In India, the Vastu Sastrum is nothing, but it provides the needs of the human livings for their comfort with sufficient light and air.

The climatic factors for a particular day are not similar to previous day. Similarly, definitely the climate of one season is not similar to other season. Man needs some recreation in the comfort climatic areas. So, he/she needs cool climate for stay that necessitate to air conditioner particularly during summer.

Introduction

Survey sampling is a method of drawing inference about the characteristics of a population by securing a sample. Sample survey techniques are extensively used by government bodies throughout the world and researchers for assessing, for planning and for projection future economy.In a sample survey, the final step of the analysis and drawing inferences from a sample to a population is a very vital and fascinating issue. Since the results of the survey are the basis for policy making, it is the most essential part of the sample survey and should be handled carefully.The object of designing a sample survey is to minimize the error in the final estimates. Any survey involving data collection and analysis of the data is subject to a variety of errors. The errors may be classified into two groups viz., (i) non-sampling errors (ii) sampling errors.

Organizations Indebtedness Towards Society

The organizations in the present world operate as an open system by having ongoing interactions with the society for their existence and effective functioning. There is an interdependence between corporations and societies and as such, company’s activities have a direct impact on the communities with which they work.  As a part of such interactions, the organizations use valuable resources of the society, for producing goods and services, which are exchanged with the customers for a profit margin. Due to these exchanges, the business organizations take away the profits reflecting the debt they owe to the society and the world.