eBook Chapters

Introduction

Wastes produced during fish processing operations can be solid or liquid. Solid wastes consist of skin, viscera, fish heads, fish bones, and scraps of f lesh. Liquid wastes are the blood water and brine from drained storage tanks, water discharges from washing and cleaning, blood and soluble substances from entrails, and detergents and other cleaning agents. The effluent from the processing of fatty fish contains very high levels of oil. Overall, the wastewater from fish processing operation contains an undefined mixture of substances, mostly organic in nature.

13.1. Physicochemical Parameters of the Wastewater

13.1.1. pH

The pH is an important parameter that reveals contamination level before biological treatment. The effluents from fish processing plants are usually close to 7 or alkaline, due to decomposition of the proteinaceous matter and emission of ammonia compounds.

13.1.2. Solids Content

Solids may be present either in dissolved or suspended form. Suspended solids are objectionable as they settle in the wastewater ducts reducing their capacity or settle in the waterbody affecting bottom - dwelling flora or sometimes float reducing the light entering from the surface or remain suspended reducing the amount of light that enters the water. The settling solids are measured using an Imhoff cone. If the wastewaters contain solids that settle after 10 min, their discharge is usually not permitted. The suspended solids are measured by passing a sample through a fiberglass filter; and determining the quantity by gravimetry, after evaporation of a known volume of the filtrate.

5.1 Waste Treatment and Disposal

Source reduction and feeding the hungry are significant considerations for decreasing avoidable food waste. However, non-edible wastes like livestock manure, agricultural wastes, and unusable food wastes are also classified as organic wastes. The environment and general public’s health may be seriously endangered by improper treatment of these wastes. Wastes can contaminate surface and ground waterways by runoff or leaching if they contain pathogens, chemicals, antibiotics, and nutrients. The breakdown of organic waste also results in the production of methane. As is well known, methane is a powerful greenhouse gas that captures more heat into the atmosphere than carbon dioxide. It is possible to remove organic waste and turn it into biogas, a sustainable energy source that can be utilised to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and the likelihood of stream pollution. Further emission reductions are made possible by replacing fossil fuels with biogas, sometimes leading to carbon-negative systems.

Integrated Fish Farming (IFF) promotes sustainability through efficient waste recycling by utilizing the waste generated by one component of the system as a resource for another. For example, fish waste can be used as fertilizer for crops, while crops can serve as feed for fish. This closed-loop system reduces reliance on external inputs, minimizes waste, and improves water quality.
Integrated fish farming systems—where aquaculture is combined with livestock, crop production, horticulture, or poultry—rely on efficient waste recycling to drive both productivity and environmental stewardship. By turning “wastes” into resources, these systems achieve a circular economy on the farm, minimizing external inputs, reducing pollution, and enhancing overall sustainability.
CIRCULAR BIO-ECONOMY APPROACH
A circular bio-economy approach in integrated fish farming emphasizes optimal resource use and minimal waste by converting byproducts and waste streams into valuable resources. This model supports sustainability and minimizes environmental impact by transforming waste from one component into inputs for another.
Why Is Waste Management Vital in Aquaculture?
Fish farming generates organic waste that, if unmanaged, can harm ecosystems. Excess nutrients in water bodies can trigger harmful algal blooms, reduce oxygen levels, and upset ecological balance. Additionally, improper waste disposal can degrade water quality, heightening the risk of disease outbreaks and compromising fish health.
Effective waste management enhances both environmental and operational outcomes. By handling waste responsibly, fish farmers boost productivity and ensure long-term sustainability of their farming systems.

3.1 Introduction

A Massive increase in population, urbanization and industrialization have led to an increase in the quantity and composition of waste. The waste is increasing day by day and is estimated to reach up to 2.2 billion tonnes by 2025, according to the reports by World Bank. It becomes a necessity for every nation to fore look upon the waste management system for their respective countries. From the collection, segregation, transportation, disposal all have become an important criterion to deal with. Among the available disposal options; the easiest and environment friendly is “Recycling”. 

Waste is defined as anything that doesn’t add value to their operations. To the average person, waste is simply stuff that’s unwanted or useless. But from a scientific perspective, there’s really no such thing as waste. Nearly all the things we throw away can be transformed or processed in ways that make them useful again.

Waste comes in various forms, ranging from household trash to industrial byproducts. These include domestic waste, factory waste, e-waste, construction waste, agricultural waste, and more. We can categorize waste into different types:

Solid waste: This includes organic materials like vegetable and kitchen waste, as well as general household waste.

E-waste: Discarded electronic devices such as computers, TVs, and music systems fall into this category.

Liquid waste: This comprises water used in various industries, as well as waste from tanneries, distilleries, and thermal power plants.

Plastic waste: Items like plastic bags, bottles, and containers make up this category.

Introduction

More than 380 million urban population living in town and cities generates 62 million tones of municipal waste every year out of which 75% is recyclable but only 30% is recycled and reused whereas less than 15% of municipal solid waste is treated. Generally municipal authorities of the country dump the waste outside the city to keep the urban area clean. According to World Bank report, by the year 2025, waste generation will reach 377,000 tonnes per day in India (CPCB 2020). The waste generated in industrial and urban area of the country is tangible and concerning. This is the high time to address this issue with a great sensitivity and planning. Ragpickers works as the informal waste collection and recycling sector which plays an important role in waste management and leads to lesser waste to the landfills (Gupta et al., 1998).

Waste management is the process of treatment and disposal of solid, organic and hazardous waste. It can be categorized based on the source sector i) urban waste; ii) electrical waste iii) medical waste; iv) waste produced by disasters; v) agricultural waste vi) industrial waste etc. The type of waste has variable potential harms for human health, social implications, policies and the environment (FICCI, 2011). Agriculture itself is a big source of waste generated at different paths of food supply chain that occurs as follows:

Introduction

The Indian arid zone covers nearly 31.8 million ha of the country’s geographical area. It mainly spreads over parts of Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Punjab and Rajasthan states of India. Six of the eleven districts in Western Rajasthan i.e. Barmer, Bikaner, Churu, ShriGanganagar, Jaisalmer and Jodhpur lie wholly in the arid zone. High temperature, low precipitation and high velocity winds are some of the main culprits of Arid zone which limit the scope for higher crop productivity in these areas. Under this situation, arid horticulture based farming practices has ample scope to raise the productivity and living standard of peoples of the hot arid and semi-arid regions. Arid horticulture based farming practices greatly favour the development of high quality produce in many fruit and vegetable crops. Horticulture based farming practices are now considered to be the most ideal strategy to provide food,nutrition and income security to the people especially in arid and semi-arid region of the country (Chundawat 1993; Chadha 2002).

Today India is the world largest producer of many fruits and vegetables. Wastes and by-products generated from fruits and vegetables are organic in nature and contribute a major share in soil and water pollution. Also, accumulated fruit and vegetable wastes (FVWs) cause greenhouse gas emission which is a matter of serious environmental concern. Proper disposal and handling of these wastes can help reduce pollution risks, at the same time be a source of several useful and commercially valuable by-products. Organized processing of wastes can help farmers achieve higher incomes.

4.1 Biomass Energy Resource

Among the various methods for producing electricity, biomass is one of the most common. This method uses animal waste, wood pellets, etc. to produce electricity. The use of biomass energy has proven beneficial over time and has the potential to be both reliable and consistent as an alternative energy source.

Organic matter is simply referred to as biomass. Or, to put it another way, biomass is anything living or ever living, including animal waste, crop waste, garden trash, etc. As a result, biomass renewable energy is the energy produced during the use of biomass. Biomass derives and stores its energy from the sun, which is absorbed by plants through a process known as photosynthesis. Plants contain chemical energy that is passed to animals and then eaten by people. Various plant and animal products, including sugarcane, corn crops, wood chips, and even dung, can be utilised. These substances, also referred to as feedstocks, are converted into a biomass fuel.

Introduction

Over 250 million people are directly affected by land degradation worldwide. Each year 12 million hectares are lost to deserts. Only 11 % of the global land surface can be considered as prime or Class-I land.

India contains 2.4 % of world’s total land. Out of the total geographical area of 329 million ha of the country, land use statistics are available for about 93 % of the total area which comes around 306 million ha. The arable land (net area sown plus the current and other fallow lands) was estimated at 166.14 million ha (54.2%) while the area under forest was accounted at 69.02 million ha (22.6%). Land put to non-agricultural uses was estimated at 22.97 million ha (7.5%) and the barren and uncultivable land at 19.44 million ha (6.4%). Permanent pastures and other grazing lands where estimated 11.04 million ha. (3.6%), land under miscellaneous uses at 3.62 million ha. (1.2%) and the cultivable waste land at 13.08 million ha (4.5%). By summing up these figures, the reporting area comes out 306 million ha.

2.1. Definition

Land which is presently lying unused or which is not being used to its optimum potential due to some constraints

The productivity of waste lands is extremely low, and the individuals who own them are impoverished and compelled to work for pay. Wastelands are therefore seen as a potent weapon for combating the problems of poverty and backwardness.
Definitions
Water and land are essential for the development of agriculture. Wasteland is eventually created when there is a decrease of vegetation cover, which causes erosion to take place. Waste lands are large areas of land that have been degraded and are rather difficult to plough.
The National Wasteland Development Board (NWDB) and the Planning Commission established a Technical Task Group. According to this group, wastelands are areas of deteriorated land that are currently underutilized due to various constraints, withthe exception of current use  (CSIR 1990). Depending on the random elements, the wastelands could be categorized under
1. I.erosion caused by water
2. Erosion caused by wind and
3. The Alkalinity and Salinity
The arid, stony, steeply sloped, and snow-covered wastelands are examples of the uncultivated wastelands.

I. Definition of wasteland

Wasteland include degraded forest, overgrazed pastures, drought- struck pastures, eroded valley, hill slopes, water logged marshy lands, barren lands etc.

Different authors have defined wastelands as:

Land which is lying unproductive or which is not being utilized to its potential.

Land which is incapable of producing material or services of value (American Society of Soil science).

Land which has been abandoned and for which there is no further use (Mine spoils).

Land which produces less than 20% of economic potential. e) Land where no greenery can be sustained.

Land which is neither under forest cover or agricultural cover or assigned for specific purposes such as National park or National hydro power projects.

The Technical Task Group Report of the National Wasteland Board defines the wasteland due to different constraints.

Background and Technology Intervention

Andhra Pradesh is India’s fourth largest state in terms of area and fifth in terms of population. Its capital Hyderabad is one of the largest and fastest growing cities in Southern India occupying 650 square kilometers along the bank of Musi River. History says that, the fifth sultan, Muhammad Quli Qutab Shah established Hyderabad on the banks of Musi River in 1591 to avoid the acute water shortages experienced at Golconda during his rule. Today, due to rapid urbanization and increased economic activities, the river has become a receptacle of untreated domestic and industrial waste dumping out of Hyderabad. It is estimated that nearly 350 MLD (Million Liters a Day) of polluted water and sewage originating from the twin cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad flow into the river. Though this river water which is at the downstream of the city remains highly polluted and considered a major disaster in Hyderabad, it is a significant resource for semi-arid and peri-urban population where the cultivation of fodder grass, paddy and vegetables have contributed largely to the household food security.

Diverse categories of Food Products such as canning, preservation of fruits and vegetables, processing of poultry products, dairy goods and many more present different challenges for wastewater disposal and regular use of water. A significant source of environmental pollution is the dissipated water generated from food product development and other agricultural tasks. This waste is being considered the most strenuous and requires a high amount of capital to convert this waste into reusable waste and the main reason behind this is different nutritional components such as inorganic and organic carbon compounds, nitrogenous elements, suspended and dissolved solids, high amount of biochemical and chemical oxygen demands (BOD & COD).

Plants and any from of living organisms cannot live without water, since water is the most important constituent about 80 to 90% of most plant cell.

2.1 Role of water in crop and crop production

(A) Physiological importance

•The plant system itself contains about 90% of water

•Amount of water varies in different parts of plant as follows

•Apical portion of root and shoot >90%

•Stem, leaves and fruits - 70 - 90%

•Woods - 50 - 60%

•Matured parts - 15 - 20%

•Freshly harvested grains - 15 - 20%

Water is precious, but it is a finite natural resource. Although it accounts for about three-fourth of the earthís surface yet very small fraction of it i.e., only 2.7 per cent of the global water is available as fresh water. Around 2.8 billion people live in areas of high water scarcity (Anonymous, 2014d). Out of the total amount of the fresh available water merely 30 per cent is withdrawn to meet the water requirements of the human and livestock population while the remaining 70 per cent is required to produce food crops that fuel human activities.

Abstract

Pulses being nutritionally vital, is an important constituent of diet for a very large number of peoples. A part from being a relatively cheaper source of dietary protein, it is also an important source of calories, certain essential amino acid, minerals and vitamins. Post harvest scenario of pulse shows that 75 per cent of production was milled in pulses with as dehusked split i.e. dal. Traditionally green gram and black gram dal is dehulled manually after soaking in water. Present investigation was carried out to develop the wet type dehuller and study was carried out on water absorption characteristics of green gram and black gram. The result reveals that the dehulling efficiency of abrasion type mechanism was about 95 per cent and 92 per cent in case of shearing type mechanism. It has been observed that rate of water absorption was initially high and then gradually decreases i.e. 0.54 to 0.18 and 0.48 to 0.18 for black and green gram, respectively. 

    1.    Water activity (a_w) affects food chemistry and can be controlled by removal (dehydration or drying) or by chemically binding the water, reducing its activity. Water activity in foods ranges from 0.95 to 1.00 in fresh meats and vegetables to 0.20 in dried milk.

    2.    Water activity (a_w) may be defined in a number of ways, qualitatively, aw is a measure of unbound, free water in a system available to support biological and chemical reactions.

    3.    Water activity, not absolute water content, is what bacteria, enzymes, and chemical reactants encounter and is affected by at the micro environmental level in food materials.

    4.    Two foods with the same water content can have very different aw values depending upon the degree to which the water is free or otherwise bound to food constituents.

    5.    The term “water activity” is related to relative humidity. Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapour in the air to the vapour pressure of pure water at the same temperature.

    6.    Water activity or aw is a property of solutions and is the ratio of vapour pressure of the solution compared with the vapour pressure of pure water at the same temperature. Under equilibrium conditions water activity equals:

In agricultural systems, water quality is usually determined to  assess its suitability for irrigation and/or its use for aquaculture. Analysis of irrigation water is carried out, to know their nutrient load, suitability for irrigation purposes in general and to salt sensitive crops in particular, and their significance as nutrient suppliers as in practical crop production (Tandon,1993). For aquaculture, on the other hand, maintenance of pond environment for survival and growth of aquatic lives, forms the major purpose of such exercises. While both the assessments are mostly governed by some common variables, a few additional attributes are also used for identifying the water quality for these two different purposes. The most important characteristics, that determine the quality of irrigation water are:

5.1 Sampling

There are different sources of water such as rain, streams, canals, lakes, tanks, ponds, large reservoirs, shallow and deep wells, shallow and deep tube wells, as well as sewage effluents and sea water. The composition of the different sources of water vary with the season, rate of flow, the extent of effluents from the industrial units and sewage effluents from the municipal area during rainy season, the river tank and pond water becomes salty and muddy due to soil erosion. The depth of ground water also varies with the seasons. The sources of water available to the farmer for irrigation of crops are generally few such as canal, shallow and deep wells, pumping sets, tube wells and runoff water collected in excavations along roads, natural drains and adjoining areas under impeded drainage. The composition of water also varies with the season. Whatever may be sources of water, the water sample is taken along with the soil sample to soil testing laboratory for its analysis by way of assessing the suitability of water for irrigation.

For drawing maximum benefit the samples taken be representative of the water in bulk and it should be collected in a clean vessel. One to three litres capacity plastic bottles duly washed with a detergent are satisfactory. However, before filling with water samples the bottles must be rinsed with water samples three times. The information such as farmers name, owner of pumping sets, date and month of sampling depth of ground water, crops and soils being irrigated, any specific agricultural or human problems encountered to be briefly recorded along with the name of village, block, tehsil and district. The water sample should be properly labeled and submitted to soil testing laboratory for its analysis.

1. Natural Mineral Water- Food Safety & Standard Regulations - 2011 and IS 13428:2005 Reaff. 2009 requirements
2. Packaged Drinking Water other than Natural Mineral Water- Food Safety & Standard Regulations - 2011 and IS 14543:2004 Reaff. 2009 requirements
3. Water for processed Food Industry- IS 4251 : 1967 Reaff. 1992 requirements
4. Drinking water- IS 10500 : 2012

Agriculture is biggest user of water, accounting 70% of all withdrawals. It is major water-consuming sector due to intensification of agriculture (CWC, 2021). With changing climatic condition, demand of water will increase. Hence, conservation and efficient management of limited water has become the need of the hour for sustainable fruit production. Since per unit returns from horticultural crops are higher, their production system improves the net return of farmers and would impart resilience to aberrant weather (Meghwal et al., 2018). Therefore, immense opportunities for quality production of water-economizing horticultural crops. In arid and semi-arid regions, uncertain, erratic and scanty’ rains coupled with meagre irrigation facilities leads to low and unstable yields.

Introduction

Despite fact that more than two-third of the earth’s surface is covered with water, currently, near about 450 million people in 29 countries are facing severe water shortage and at least 20 percent more water would be required to feed additional 3 billion populations by 2025. About 97.5 percent of ocean-sea water is not available due to its salinity and 2.49 percent is locked up in ice and only 0.01 percent is technologically available and economically accessible water either from surface or ground water sources for human uses. So water saving technologies developed so far is very pertinent to propagate amongst the users. Water is an essential natural resource for sustaining the environment and supporting life where the agriculture is the major user of water resource. Water is an indispensable for sustainable agricultural growth and development. Previously, rainfed agriculturewas associated primarily with conservational land treatments to check soil erosion and land degradation.But in the areas of medium to heavy rainfall, there is ample scope of tapping excess rain water through suitable water harvesting structures constructed for this purpose for its subsequent uses as irrigation or to apply lifesaving irrigation to the crops which should also come under the purview of water management for crop production. Although there is a difference in the objectives of water management where there is abundant availability of water from continuous flow connected with perennial sources or lakes and rivers and that of from restricted or limited supply from collection of excess rain through water harvesting structures.The former is associated with to obtain as much as yield of crop per unit area under water application and later is associated with increasing productivityof crop per unit of water application even under rainwater recycling and its effective management for the purpose of irrigation. Hence, both the rainwater and irrigation water are considered to be equally important to context of agricultural development of the country to get higher water use efficiency and proper utilization of water resources (Zaman,et.al., 2017).

Water is one of the most important and critical input for agricultural production system. The demand for food grains is increasing day by day due to increasing population. The irrigated agriculture provides the crop water productivity of about 2.5 tonnes per hectare and the overall irrigation efficiency is only about 30%, which is below the world average level. In the above scenario it is necessary to have the irrigation system in which both the crop water productivity and irrigation efficiency increases considerably. Micro irrigation has become the most viable and efficient technology in such a situation. It provides several advantages in the context of crop agronomy, water and energy conservation. Micro irrigation has the potential to achieve the crop water productivity to a desired level of 4 tonnes per hectare and simultaneously maintain the irrigation efficiency above 80%. The total coverage of micro irrigation in the tenth plan is only about 2 million hectare. The task force on micro irrigation (2004) has indicated a potential of 69 million hectare for our country. So there is a tremendous potential available and the coverage of micro irrigation has to be increased to cover more crop and more new areas.

Water is fundamental to every agricultural setup, and its continuous availability is especially vital for Rice–Aquaculture Farming (RAF). Before establishing an integrated system, the water source—whether a river, pond, well, or borehole— must be carefully selected. For optimal rice production, maintaining a consistent water depth of 15–20 cm is ideal. In the case of aquatic organisms, pond or trench water should be 65–70 cm deep, which ensures favorable conditions for growth in both warm and cool climates. Typically, crustaceans inhabit the bottom, while fish occupy the middle and upper water layers. Effective water and nutrient management form the foundation of a productive integrated farming system—whether it includes fish, livestock, poultry, crops, or horticulture. Water in these systems serves not just one component but is shared across units, making its quality, quantity, and timing critical. Likewise, nutrients from animal waste, pond sludge, crop residues, and wastewater must be efficiently reused to nourish plants, sustain aquatic life, and maintain soil health, all while limiting environmental losses. In fish–crop or fish–livestock integrations, nutrient-rich water from fish ponds—containing nitrogen and phosphorus from fish waste and feed—can be directed to vegetable plots or rice fields. Plants absorb these nutrients, effectively purifying the water before it recirculates to the fish units. Precise timing is essential: fish ponds should be fertilized 5–7 days before stocking to foster plankton growth, while irrigating crops with pond water must match plant nutrient needs and avoid salt accumulation. In crop–livestock systems, placing poultry or cattle sheds uphill allows gravity-fed runoff to be channeled into compost pits or directly onto fields, enriching the soil naturally. Soil moisture and nutrient levels should be monitored regularly to guide the balanced application of manures and fertilizers, minimizing leaching and preventing plant stress.

Introduction

Origin of Water Bodies and Hot Arid Regions (Thar Desert) 

The origin of the hot arid regions (Thar Desert) is a controversial subject. Some consider it to be 4000 to 10,000 years old, whereas others state that aridity started in this region much earlier. Another theory states that area turned to hot arid zones (desert) relatively recently: perhaps around 2000 - 1500 BC. Around this time the Ghaggar-Hakra ceased to be a major river. It now terminates in the desert but at one time was a water source for the Indus Valley Civilization centre of Mohenjodaro. It has been observed through remote sensing techniques that Late Quaternary climatic changes and neotectonics have played a significant role in modifying the drainage courses in this part and a large number of palaeochannels exist.

14.1. Water Source Identification

• In places where Ficus religiosa tree is found, underground water will be more.
• Underground water will be more in places where the neem tree with more knots is found.
• In places where termite hills are found, underground water will be more.
• Farmers are practicing traditional method of using neem stick, metals etc. for finding the water resource in underground for digging wells. While they are walking with this stick on hand it will be rottate automatically at the place where underground water is surplus.
• Some farmers are using the magnetic stones for identifying water sources. Magnet is tied with a thread and held like a pendulum while walking over the fields. The magnet will rotate automatically at the place where underground water is more and this is taken as the indication for digging wells.

Water budgeting and its importance, methods of soil moisture estimation, evapo-transpiration and crop water requirement and effective rainfall Water budgeting and its importance, irrigation scheduling approaches
Water budgeting
Allocation of the water receipt including anticipated within the crop period and its detailed account of expenditure for efficient and profitable farm management is called as water budgeting.
Water budgeting may be for an irrigation system planned by irrigation engineers; may be for a canal or for an area (block) or may be for a farm according to the need and plan by responsible persons who plan the irrigation efficiency.
Importance of water budgeting
Efficient utilization of available recourse (water) for bringing more area under irrigation:
1. To increase the productivity of a region / farm.
2. To increase cropping intensity of a region / farm
3. To tide over some dry-spells
4. To reduce excess irrigation and losses caused thereby
5. To avoid run off losses
Irrigation scheduling
Irrigation scheduling is defined as frequency with which water is to be applied based on needs of the crop and nature of the soil.
Irrigation scheduling is nothing but number of irrigations & their frequency required to meet the crop water requirement.

Why Water Budget?

The reliability of water supply in desert regions is at risk due to a multitude of issues including low rainfall, low snow runoff, court-ordered water transfer restrictions and hence higher price of wholesale water. Agencies in desert regions understand the importance of improving water supply reliability, facilitating better water storage, adapting to changing climate patterns and reduced precipitation, improving Environment and Water Quality.

The Desert regions have always fought back the perpetual water scarcity with infrastructure designed around saving water and utilizing alternative water resources. Off late, not only new construction but also new policies and programs have added to their water conservation activities.

One such program attends to the fair distribution of water by tending to consumers who are price sensitive and hence use water without wasting it and by extra-charging those who do not know where to put a stop to their wasteful water use.

Allocation of the water receipt including anticipated within the crop period and its detailed account of expenditure for efficient and profitable farm management is called as water budgeting.

Water budgeting may be for an irrigation system planned by irrigation engineers; may be for a canal or for an area (block) or may be for a farm according to the need and plan by responsible persons who plan the irrigation efficiency.

Water conservation and efficient irrigation are key components of natural farming in India, especially in light of challenges like erratic rainfall, declining groundwater, and unsustainable water practices. Natural farming minimizes the use of external inputs, including water, and promotes ecological balance. Traditional knowledge, combined with sustainable farming principles, helps farmers use water wisely while preserving soil moisture and improving its waterholding capacity.
A primary focus in natural farming is maintaining soil health, which directly influences its ability to retain water. Organic matter from cow-based inputs such as Jeevamrutha and compost enhances soil texture and porosity, enabling better
water absorption. This results in less frequent irrigation needs, allowing crops to grow even with limited water. Mulching is widely used in this approach. Covering the soil with organic materials like straw or crop residue helps reduce evaporation, moderate soil temperature, prevent weeds, and preserve moisture. This is particularly effective in dry areas or seasons with low rainfall.
Rainwater harvesting is another vital aspect. Farmers are encouraged to build farm ponds, bunds, and trenches to capture and store rainwater. These methods help recharge groundwater and provide a backup during dry periods, reducing drought vulnerability. Natural farming discourages water-intensive methods like flood irrigation. Instead, it promotes efficient techniques like drip irrigation, which targets water delivery to plant roots, and pitcher irrigation, where buried clay pots gradually release water—both minimizing waste.

Introduction

Water is a prominent element in the daily life of human beings as well as in agriculture. In better crop production, the quantity of water, but the quality of water is also important. With respect to the current scenario of water harvesting or water conservation there are some techniques adopted in Indian agricultural practices, such as the use of drip irrigation to minimise water surplus, rain fed agricultural practices, storing rain water in different storage components, using mulching (either natural or plastic), proper tillage practices, selecting crops which need less amount of water, using laser leveller for better water uses to encounter surplus water flow to the lower elevated portion of the field etc. Water conservation techniques and measures are directly related to the type of meteorological factors of specific watershed. For the arid and semi arid regions proper method of tillage practice improves water use while in conventional practices of farming consumes more than required water quantity. Some crops are water-intensive where the quantity of the available water is crucial. Sources of water can be ground water, rain water and irrigation water. In sustainable crop production, the right amount of water is necessary for the optimal physiological growth of specific crops. Although the availability of water depends upon the geographical location, for example in the Gangetic plains of India there is less need for water conservation agricultural purposes. On the other, in the region of Deccan Plateau of India, availability of water is comparatively lower than in the Gangetic plains. It is also important that water conservation techniques can be adopted irrespective of the geographical locations. Water is conserved in nature itself but the availability of water depends on the hydrological cycle. Therefore, conservation has become a trending topic. Water conservation can be improved through sustainable agricultural practices such as proper scheduling of irrigation, selection of crops based on sustainability, monitoring soil moisture content, maintaining records of crop growth and physio-chemical data, implementing effective drainage systems, intercropping operations and utilising recycled water for other purposes.

5.1 Introduction

A farm pond that collects and harvests in-situ rainfall as well as runoff from the catchment area can be used for many purposes: the most important of which is the supply of water to crops as supplemental irrigation. It is no doubt a viable source for integrated farming system. In addition, the water of the pond can be used for domestic and to some extent for the industrial uses. It is also a good source for recreational use. Total water demand of the pond including irrigation to different crops in different seasons, domestic and other non agricultural uses are to be assessed. While estimating the crop water requirement and irrigation requirement, various crops to be grown in the service area of the pond, their water requirements, crop duration, extent of coverage and water management practices followed are to be taken into consideration. Multiplying the irrigation requirement with crop coverage area, volumetric irrigation water requirement of crop can be found out. Summation of irrigation requirement of all crops grown in service area of the pond, gives total irrigation demand of the pond.

Farm ponds are normally used for irrigation to crops as well as to meet the live stock water demand. Normally the large live stocks like horse, cattle require 20 thousand litres of water per head per year whereas the small live stocks like sheep, goat, pigs require 2 thousand litres of water per head per year. Adding the irrigation demand to the livestock demand, total water requirement of the pond is calculated. In addition to this, if the pond water is used for industrial, domestic and other sectoral purposes, then water used in all such sectors are to be added to irrigation and livestock demand to estimate the total water demand of the pond.

Introduction

Water resource is imperative for the survival of all life-forms on planet earth and defines the limits of sustainable development, without any substitute. Only 2.5% of all water on the earth is freshwater, and of that, around 0.5% is accessible through ground or surface water supplies. The increasing world population, industrialization and climate change is putting additional pressure on water resources. This is also true for livestock sector. As per prediction equations, the requirement of water for livestock will rise from 2.3 billion m³ in 2000 to 2.8 billion m³in 2025 and 3.2 billion m³ in 2050 (Hedge, 2012).

The balance between humanity's demands and the quantity available is already precarious (Karin et al, 2002). Additionally, climate change poses a serious threat to water resources as the climate system and the hydrological cycles are intimately linked, and any variability in climate affects the hydrological cycle. The World Bank report on the water and climate change inter-linkages also reiterated that climate change could profoundly alter future patterns of both water availability and use, thereby increasing levels of water stress and insecurity, both at the global scale and in sectors that depend on water (Alavian et al., 2009).

I. General information

1. Lotus stem is referred as naval cord of Lord Vishnu
2. Lotus flower is described as the throne of Brahma
3. Vishnu, Brahma and Laxshmi are associated with lotus
4. Poet Asvaghosa reported that Lord Buddha saw lotuses and flowering trees in Nandavana
5. Surface flowering plants of water garden are

Introduction

Normally, water is a liquid substance made of molecules containing one atom of oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen (H₂O). Pure water has no colour, no taste, no smell, turns to a solid at 0°C and a vapour at 100°C. Its density is 1 gram per cubic centimetre (1 g/cm₃), and it is an extremely good solvent.

An extraordinary property of water is its ability to dissolve other substances. There is hardly a substance known which has not been identified in solution in the earth's waters. Were it not for the solvent property of water, life could not exist because water transfers nutrients vital to life in animals and plants.

A drop of rain water falling through the air dissolves atmospheric gases. When rain reaches the earth, it affects the quality of the land, lakes and rivers.

10.1. Introduction

Irrigation facilities are created by the Government at huge cost for supplying water to the farmers for raising crops to increase agricultural production. The major and medium irrigation projects are planned, constructed, managed, operated and maintained by the Irrigation Departments, wherein certain procedures and rules are evolved and followed to the delivery schedule of canals, frequency of supply and distribution of water to the farmers, and closing of canals. The creation of such facilities resulted in ushering the green revolution in the sixties and seventies in the production of food grains and also employment generation in the country, thereby improving the socio-economic condition of Indian farmers. However, optimized management of irrigation water is the key to the sustainable development of agriculture and livestock. Since management of water for irrigation is highly location-specific, depending upon agro-ecological and socio-economic conditions, type of irrigation project and land use pattern, it differs from project to project and region to region in the country.

Natural resources conservation and their management hold key to sustainable agriculture and livestock production. It is all the more crucial for countries with predominant agrarian economies where development of sustainable agriculture is essential for overall growth, redressal of poverty and security. Conservation of both soil and rain water as very crucial and basic resources have been practiced since ancient times in India. However, there has been renewed emphasis on conservation and efficient utilization of these resources in the recent past. The fact that 70% of the arable area of India is rainfed with precarious supply of water and that rainfed agriculture supports 44% of India’s human population and contributes 90 per cent of coarse cereals and pulses, 80 per cent of oilseeds and 65 per cent of cotton and growing realization that further gains in productivity of crops and livestock will emanate from rainfed regions, leave no room for complacency in this regard.

Year after year, the fate of a vast majority of Indian farmers hangs in balance, as success with rainfed agriculture continues to be a gamble. It is evident that crop yields in semi-arid areas depended more on rainfall distribution than on total rainfall and lack of serious efforts to create the water supply for crops through scientific management of rainwater is a factor favoring this avoidable uncertainty. In rainfed agriculture no other input can perhaps enhance the yield without effectively tackling of the rainfall aberration related sub-optimal moisture availability. Therefore a prerequisite for substantial improvement in the agriculture production in the semi-arid region is to manage runoff water and to use it either at the time of moisture stress even during the monsoon or in next season. It has been reported that only one supplementary irrigation at proper stage can double of rabi crops. But supplemental water is a developed resource and is more expensive than the natural resources. Hence, it is all the more necessary to use this water judiciously and efficiently. Standardization of techniques by which as much of precipitation as possible can be conserved for crop use, either directly in the soil profile through infiltration or through runoff collection and recycling is an area of priority in research.

Land, water and weather are natural resources that are critical for survival. Modern agriculture requires precise information on various agro-climatic parameters like soil, crop, climate and water resources for formulating efficient agricultural planning. Out of these, water is considered most scarce input in agriculture because its availability is reducing drastically for agriculture as well as drinking purposes. Besides, declining water tables and deteriorating quality of water resources caused pollution and sewage and effluents have further multiplied the problems.

In the present scenario of rapidly increasing population and decreasing cultivable land, there is urgent need to increase the agricultural productivity. According to Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), 280 million tones food grain would be required to match the country’s demand by 2020. It will be a difficult task to meet this food requirement in near future from the present productivity levels. It is necessary to increase agricultural productivity, because about 60% of Indian agriculture is rainfed. Proper use of even a single drop of rain water is necessary to ensure the success of rainfed agriculture. In hills, agriculture is main source of livelihood of rural people. However, small and scattered land holding, difficult topography, womendependent agriculture, totally rainfed, typical socio-economic factors and migration of youth towards urban/plain areas are major constraints of hill horticulture.

In the high altitude areas, the river flow in deep valley at the toe of slopes rarely serve any purpose as far as domestic water supply and irrigation are concerned and hence, agriculture in these areas is mostly rainfed. However, these areas received high magnitude of rainfall but this rainwater is not possible to convert into soil moisture due to steep terrain of hills which provided minimum opportunity time for infiltration of rainwater. It has been estimated that only less than 15 per cent of the rainwater is able to percolate down through slopes and recharge the soil moisture. The rainfall pattern hill is erratic i.e. most of rain (approximately 70% of annual rain) received only during the two months of monsoon. Furthermore, the climate of high altitudes comprises several climatic anomalies such as wide variability in temperature (-3 ^oC to 35 ^oC), frequent snowfall, hail, sleet and erratic pattern of rainfall. Under such abrupt conditions crops grown in open conditions could not be sustained.

Natural resources conservation and their management hold key to sustainable agriculture and livestock production. It is all the more crucial for countries with predominant agrarian economies where development of sustainable agriculture is essential for overall growth, redressal of poverty and security. Conservation of both soil and rain water as very crucial and basic resources have been practiced since ancient times in India. However, there has been renewed emphasis on conservation and efficient utilization of these resources in the recent past. The fact that 70% of the arable area of India is rainfed with precarious supply of water and that rainfed agriculture supports 44% of India’ s human population and contributes 90 per cent of coarse cereals and pulses, 80 per cent of oilseeds and 65 per cent of cotton and growing realization that further gains i n productivity of crops and livestock will emanate from rainfed regions, leave no room for complacency in this regard.

Year after year, the fate of a vast ‘majority of Indian farmers hangs in balance, as success with rainfed agriculture continues to be a gamble. It is evident that crop yields in semi-arid areas depended more on rainfall distribution than on total rainfall and lack of serious efforts to create d water supply for crops through scientific management of rainwater is a factor favouring this avoidable uncertainty. In rainfed agriculture no other input can perhaps enhance the yield without effectively tackling of the rainfall aberration related sub-optimal moisture availability. Therefore a prerequisite for substantial improvement in the agriculture production in the semi-arid region is to manage runoff water and to use it either at the time of moisture stress even during the monsoon or in next season. It has been reported that only one supplementary irrigation at proper stage can double of Rabi crops. But supplemental water is a developed resource and is more expensive than the natural resources. Hence, it is all the more necessary to use this water judiciously and efficiently. Standardization of techniques by which as much of precipitation as possible can be conserved for crop use, either directly in the soil profile through infiltration or through runoff collection and recycling is an area of priority in research.

Introduction

Water is not only a vital environmental factor to all forms of life, but it has also a great role to play in socio-economic development of human population. Since antiquity humans have valued the importance of clean water and have used various techniques to improve its quality. In modern times, the safe drinking water became first a public health issue and then a human rights issue. The access to safe drinkin gwater now considered as a basic human right which is an essential component of effective policy for health protection. Improving access to safe drinking-water can result in tangible as well as intangible benefits to health. It has been shown that investments in water supply and sanitation can yield a net economic benefit, because the reductions in adverse health effects and healthcare costs outweigh the costs of undertaking the interventions (WHO, 2017). Past experiences have also proved that interventions in improving access to safe water favour the poor in particular, whether in rural or urban areas, and can be an effective part of poverty alleviation strategies. The disparity in water availability, reliability, and quality between the developed world and developing countries is enormous. Unfortunately, in many developing countries people lack access to safe water and therefore waterborne diseases are still a major cause of death, especially among children under age of 5. According to a joint report by World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) (WHO/UNICEF report 2017), around 2.1 billion people worldwide lack access to safe and readily available water at home, and around 4.5 billion, lack safely managed sanitation facilities. Moreover, many of these countries that have set drinking water standards often lack the resources to implement or enforce them.

Principle: To determine water in soluble solids, a known quantity of sample is boiled in water and the insoluble material is collected on a weighed filter paper. The insoluble mass is then washed with hot water and dried in oven.

10.1 Introduction

Irrigation is an age old practice. It has been practiced for thousands of years. It is chiefly used to irrigate rice in wetter areas; especially in Asian countries and dry land crops including vegetables and fruits in dry land areas having low rainfall in all most all countries. Devices for irrigation water lifting range from age old indigenous water lifts to highly efficient pump. Unlike canal irrigation where water is fed to the fields through gravity system, water from the surface and sub-surface sources is lifted either mechanically by pump or manually by any indigenous lifting devices. Irrigation by lifting water from a lower level to a higher level is called as lift irrigation. Several types of indigenous water lifting devices are in vogue in India since ancient times. These are animal or/and manually operated ones, the animal operated ones being more efficient than the manually operated ones. The earliest water lifts were simple man-powered devices, many of which are still being used with modifications in different forms. With gradual improvement, principles of simple machines, like the liver, pulley, screw etc. were employed in smooth lifting of water from surface and sub-surface sources. The selection of a suitable water lifting device for a particular situation depends on the following factors:

(i) Characteristics of source of water and the lifting device

(ii) Amount of water to be lifted

(iii) Depth of water table

(iv) Type and amount of power available and

(v) Economic status of the farmers.

Q. 1 A submersible pump may be
(A) Single stage pump       (B) Multi stage pump
(C) Centrifugal pump         (D) Both (A) and (B)

26.1. What?

These devices are used to lift water to a height that allows access to water. Lifting devices can be used to lift groundwater, rainwater stored in an underground reservoir and river water. For agricultural use, water is lifted either from a borewell or open well to irrigate the crops. According to power sources, lifting of water can be accomplished either manually or by animal or electricity sources of power.

26.2. Human-powered devices

Man has a limited physical power output, which may be in the range of 0.08 to 0.1 hp. This power can be used to lift water from shallow depths for irrigation. These include swing basket, counterpoise lift, don, Archimedean screw and paddle wheel. However, nowadays these are not commonly used.

26.3. Animal-powered devices

Animal power is abundantly available in India. They are used to lift water, besides being put to use for other field operations and processing works. A pair of bullocks may develop approximately 0.80 horsepower. They can lift water from a depth of 30m or more. Of course, the rate of discharge will go down with increase in the lift. These include rope and bucket lift, self emptying bucket, two bucket lift, Persian wheel and chain pump.

Abstract: Water lily, bulbous ornamental, constitute element of aquatic gardens. A variety of flower colour, flower forms, modes of reproduction and leaf sizes exist in Nymphaea. This species is a complex hybrid group. A wide range of polyploidy (including aneuploidy, trisomy, polysomaty), polymorphism and heterozygosity exists within the cultivars of water lily. Genetic information and trait heritability is almost unknown for this crop. Breeders have created synthetic water lily hybrids. Low fecundity, limited fertility, reproductive barriers, low seed set, relatively low elemental (founding) species among elite germplasm often pose significant challenges to flower breeders. Breeding objectives with high priority include tolerance to drought, year round flowering and lower seed tannins. Future breeding and genetic studies are needed to further transform this crop.

Keywords: Nymphaea, correlation, sterility, interspecific hybridization polyploidy.

Submerged soils/Flooded soil

Submerged soils are the type of soils that are saturated with water for a sufficiently long time in a year. This gives the soil the following distinctive gley horizons resulting from oxidation-reduction processes:

The soil is intermittently saturated with water, oxidation of organic matter is slow and it accumulated within the “A” horizon. Fe and Mn are deposited as rusty mottles or streaks if the diffusion of O2 into the soil is slow in the second horizon, whereas if the diffusion is rapid, they are deposited as concretions.

Types of submerged soils

1. Waterlogged soils- Waterlogged soils are saturated with water for a sufficiently long time annually to give the soil the distinctive gley horizons resulting from oxidation-reduction processes. Saturation with water may be due to impermeability of the soil material, or the presence of an impervious layer, or a high water table.

2. Marsh Soils- These types of soils are more or less permanently saturated or submerged. Freshwater marshes can be classified according to their origin into upland, lowland, and transitional. Upland marshes are poor in bases and have pH 3.5-4.5 because they receive mainly rainwater. Lowland marshes are saturated or submerged with water-carrying bases and have pH 5.0-6.0.

16.1 Water logging

For optimum growth and yield of field crops, proper balance between soil air and soil moisture is quite essential. Except rice many of the cultivated plants cannot withstand excess water in the soil. The ideal condition is that moisture and air occupy the pore spaces in equal proportions. When the soil contains excess water than that can be accommodated in the pore spaces it is said the field is water logged.

Causes of water logging

1. Excessive use of water when the water is available in abundance or cheaply due to the belief that more water contributes better yield.

2. Improper selection of irrigation methods

3. Percolation and seepage from lands canals and reservoir located at nearby elevated places

4. Improper lay out and lack of outlets

5. Presence of impervious layer with profile impeding percolation

6. Upward rise of water from shallow ground water table or aquifer.