eChapters

Materials required
Material : Wheat Flour (550 g), Pearl millet Flour (50 g), Ragi Flour (50 g), Finger millet Flour (50 g), Barley Flour (50 g), Sorghum Flour (50 g), Foxtel Millet Flour (50 g), Maize Flour (50 g), Oat Flour (50 g), Besan (50 g) Shortening (350 g), Fine Sugar (400 g), Sodium bicarbonate (10 g), Distilled water (50 ml), salt (8 g). Equipments: Mixer, rolling pin, Tray, cookies cutter, baking oven etc. Principle: Cookies are made from soft wheat are having high sugar and fat content. They contain relatively low moisture content and have fairy high shelf life. Biscuits are similar name used in Europe and UK. Cookies are chemically leavened. Sugar and shortening are creamed to form dough with flour and leavening agents. When cookies dough enters the oven, the fat starts melting and sugar is dissolved which allow the cookies to spread as a function of gravity. The leavening agents expand it in all direction and structure is stabilized with high temperature prevailing in the oven.

Procedure
1. Mix the dough with ingredients I. Keep it for fermentation till breaks easily without stretching.
2. Put the sponge to mixer. Add salt, sugar, flour and optional ingredients and mix. In last, add shortening. The dough should be soft and very smooth.
3. Let the dough relax for about 30 min. cut pieces of dough weighing 100 g/450g.
4. Mould in along oblong shape and place in baking pans.
5. Proof the moulded dough to a desired height.
6. Bake at 210oC to a golden colour.
7. Cool the loaves overnight.
8. Cut the rusk of desired thickness. Arrange on baking sheets and toast at 190oC till these are crisp and golden brown in colour.
9. Cool and packaged.

Objective: Development of Sugarcane Vinegar.
Principle: Sugarcane is one of the main crops worldwide, and it has an important impact on environmental issues. Sugarcane is used in daily routine life in many ways like as vinegar, jiggery, juices etc. In India sugarcane crop is best cultivated in the west U.P. Sugarcane original vinegar drink with high nutritional quality was produced from fresh sugarcane juice using the yeast culture and acetic acid bacteria by fermentation techniques such as submerged alcoholic fermentation followed by acetic fermentation at room temperature. Refined sugarcane is the primary product of sugarcane juice, during its processing; various other valuable products are also obtained in an unrefined form such as brown sugar, molasses, jaggery and vinegar. Sugarcane juice is widely used in the treatment of jaundice, hemorrhage, dysuria, and other urinary disease. Nowadays sugarcane vinegar is also used in Indian kitchens commonly in pickles, salads, etc. Vinegar is extremely useful for human health including antimicrobial activity, blood pressure reduction, antioxidant activity, reduction in the effects of diabetes, and prevention of cardiovascular disease. Vinegar can be made from any carbohydrate source, amylaceous, or sugary substrate through two successive fermentations: alcoholic fermentation, which is carried out by means of yeasts, and acetic fermentation, with acetic bacteria as the protagonist.

Objective: Preparation of Turmeric powder
Turmeric (Curcuma longa L), the ancient and sacred spice of India known as ‘Indian saffron’ is an important commercial spice crop grown in India. It is used in diversified forms as a condiment, flavouring and colouring agent and as a principal ingredient in Indian culinary as curry powder. It has anti-cancer and anti-viral activities and hence finds use in the drug industry and cosmetic industry. 'Kum-kum', popular with every house wife, is also a by-product of turmeric. It finds a place in offerings on religious and ceremonial occasions. A type of starch is also being extracted from a particular type of turmeric. The increasing demand for natural products as food additives makes turmeric as ideal produce as a food colourant. India is the largest producer, consumer and exporter of turmeric in the world.

Objective: Development of Potato chips
Potato is a perishable commodity and cannot be preserved longer in fresh form. Although for some time potatoes can be preserved by low temperature storage but this low temperature storage results in many undesirable biochemical changes in the quality of the potatoes. Another alternative for the preservation of potatoes is to conversion in the shelf stable value-added processed products. Further, value-addition and processing of potato will also ensure the availability of wholesome, safe, nutritious, and acceptable food to consumers throughout the year along with simultaneous reduction in post-harvest losses and profit to the farmers for their produce. Potatoes are processed into a great variety of products, including cooked potatoes, par-fried potato strips, French fries, potato chips, potato starch, potato granules, potato flakes and dehydrated diced potatoes and others. Globally, only two potato-based snack foods i.e., chips/ wafers and French-fried potato are the main value-added products of potato, accounting for more than 42% of the potato based processed products. Such type of fried products is loved for convenience and their premium taste, flavour, and texture. With the technological advancements, now potato processing is highly industrialized and market driven. Like other processed products, the finished product quality of potato based value-added products severely depends upon the quality of raw potatoes used. Therefore, the major challenge in potato processing is to fulfil the tuber quality requirements specifically, tuber morphology, reducing sugar (=0.1%) and dry matter content (=20%). Alternatively, we can infer that all type of potato is not suitable for processing. The crispy texture of potato chips is one of the most important quality indicators of the finished product, apart from colour, odour and flavour. Potato chips texture is often described in terms of crispness, hardness and crunchiness. This crispy/crunchy character is an important sensory characteristic on which consumers base their appreciation.

Objective: Development of Salted Banana chips.
Banana is the second most significant natural product harvest of India close to mango. It is accessible round the year and due as it would prefer, nutritive and the rape tic worth. It is most loved product of all classes of individuals. It is a rich wellspring of sugar and nutrients especially nutrient B. Banana assists with diminishing the danger of heart illnesses. Banana is a famous organic product because of its low cost and high nutritive worth. Banana contains about 20% sugar and sensible measure of Vitamins A, B and C. This is considered to be a rich source producing food. It is consumed in several forms and among many worth added arrangements, Banana Chips is viewed as the main thing. Seared banana chips are typically delivered from under-ready banana cuts southern style in sunflower oil or coconut oil. These chips are dry (like potato chips), contain about 4% water (table), and can be salted, spiced, glossed over or jaggery covered. Some of the time banana enhancing is added.

Objective: Production of Chocolate.
The major ingredient of chocolate is cocoa mass, which is mixed with sugar, and in case of milk chocolate, also with milk powder. The conching process then follows, which is important for the development of full chocolate flavour. Melted cocoa butter is added, the chocolate mass becomes liquid and is cooled, tempered and poured into moulds to form chocolate products.
Mixing of ingredients
Sugar, cocoa mass and milk powder are intensively mixed forming a dry powder. This powder is pre-ground in various types of mills and then finely ground in a 5-roll refiner. The size of particles in chocolate is between 15- 70 mm (average 25 mm). Small operators use vertical ball mills. Optimum flow properties are required for further processing. The yield value required differs according to the potential use (e.g. hollow moulding or enrobing). The particle size affects both the yield value and the plastic viscosity. In order to reduce recipe costs, the most expensive major constituent (i.e. fat) should be used in the smallest possible proportion which will give correct flow characteristics.

Irrigation: definition and objectives; Importance: Function of water for plant growth, water resources and irrigation development for different crops in India.
Introduction
The effect of supplemental water application as irrigation for crop production at its needs during rainless period is well established throughout the world. The plant has life, so it requires water for growth and development to give us proper quality and good yield. Water is required for metabolic activities including solubilization, absorption and translocation on the way of biochemical processes in photosynthesis, transpiration and respiration. India with 2.4% of the world’s total area has 16% of the world’s population; but has only 4% of the total available fresh water. This clearly indicates the need for water resource development, conservation, and optimum use.
Importance of irrigation water management
The importance of irrigation in the world is well stated “Irrigation in many countries including India is an age-old art–as old as civilization – but for the whole world it is a modern science–science of survival”. The pressure of survival and the need for additional food supplies are necessitating a rapid expansion of irrigation throughout the world including India. Production and productivity of agricultural lands is primarily dependent upon the availability of irrigation water to crops. Expansion of irrigation has paid rich dividends in India. fter independence, production registered nearly 4.52 times increase from around 50.8 million tons in 1950-51 to about 230 million tons in 2007-08. This has been mainly attributed to three factors viz., high yielding cereals, expansion of area under irrigation and fertilizer use. Irrigation may be considered as the major factor of modern intensive agriculture as it aids in efficient use of costly fertilizers and other inputs besides meeting crop water needs.

Water Resources: Classifications of water: Groundwater, surface water and Virtual Water; Conjunctive use of water in agriculture; Water resources in different states and Stakeholders of water use.
Introduction
Despite fact that more than two-third of the earth’s surface is covered with water, currently, near about 450 million people in 29 countries are facing severe water shortage and at least 20 percent more water would be required to feed additional 3 billion populations by 2025. About 97.5 percent of ocean-sea water is not available due to its salinity and 2.49 percent is locked up in ice and only 0.01 percent is technologically available and economically accessible water either from surface or ground water sources for human uses. So water saving technologies developed so far is very pertinent to propagate amongst the users. Water is an essential natural resource for sustaining the environment and supporting life where the agriculture is the major user of water resource. Water is an indispensable for sustainable agricultural growth and development. Previously, rainfed agriculture was associated primarily with conservational land treatments to check soil erosion and land degradation.But in the areas of medium to heavy rainfall, there is ample scope of tapping excess rain water through suitable water harvesting structures constructed for this purpose for its subsequent uses as irrigation or to apply lifesaving irrigation to the crops which should also come under the purview of water management for crop production. Although there is a difference in the objectives of water management where there is abundant availability of water from continuous flow connected with perennial sources or lakes and rivers and that of from restricted or limited supply from collection of excess rain through water harvesting structures.The former is associated with to obtain as much as yield of crop per unit area under water application and later is associated with increasing productivityof crop per unit of water application even under rainwater recycling and its effective management for the purpose of irrigation. Hence, both the rainwater and irrigation water are considered to be equally important to context of

Soil physical properties
The physical properties of soil, particularly its mechanical behavior, significantly impact its suitability for plant growth. Factors like plant support, root penetration, drainage, aeration, moisture retention, and nutrient availability are all influenced by the soil’s physical condition. These properties also affect the soil’s chemical and biological activities.
A soil’s physical properties are determined by the quantity, size, shape, arrangement, and mineral composition of its particles, as well as its organic matter content and pore spaces.
Important Physical Properties of Soils
1. Soil Texture
2. Soil Structure
3. Surface Area
4. Soil Density
5. Soil Porosity
6. Soil Color
7. Soil Consistence
Soil Texture
Definition
Soil texture refers to the relative proportions of different-sized particles, specifically the percentage by weight of sand, silt, and clay. It’s a fundamental soil property that is difficult to alter. Soil textural determinations typically exclude particles larger than 2 mm in diameter (stones and gravels). While larger particles can affect land management and tillage, they contribute minimally to water-holding capacity (WHC) and nutrient storage/supply.

Different kinds of soil water and soil water movement; Water in relation to plant growth and crop production; Soil texture, structure, infiltration and permeability; Bulk density and particle density of the soil; Concept and theories of water retention in soils; Consumptive use and ET; Soil moisture characteristics curves; Different losses of water (seepage and run off) and Soil moisture measurement, stress and plant growth
Soil-Water-Plant Relationships and Irrigation Scheduling Concepts
A good understanding of soil-water-plant relationships is the foundation for understanding irrigation concepts.
Water reaches the soil through irrigation, precipitation, or from groundwater drawn up into the root zone through “capillary action”. To be available to plants, it must be held by the soil strongly enough so it is not lost to gravity before the plant gets it, but not so strongly that the plant cannot extract it from the soil. At the same time, the roots must have sufficient aeration to function properly.
Roots are responsible for obtaining almost all of the plant’s water and nutrients. These substances move through the soil during and after irrigation/fertigation and rainfall. In addition, root systems are continually growing and branching to seek out water and nutrients. Root hairs are very fine structures that extend at right angles to the roots. Water and nutrients predominantly enter the root system via specialized cells near the tips of root hairs.
The xylem is the cellular pathway through the plant that transports water from the roots to the leaves for use in photosynthesis and to cool the plant by evaporation. The process by which water vapour is released to the atmosphere by the leaves and other parts of a living plant, resulting in evaporative cooling, is called transpiration. The xylem also transports water and nutrients to other parts of the plant. In a living plant, the xylem is completely filled with water, just as the veins and arteries of the human circulatory system are filled with blood. The plant needs a continual replacement of water lost through transpiration to keep the xylem full of water, and of course, this has to be accomplished without an organ analogous to a human heart. Tomato plants

Water budgeting and its importance, methods of soil moisture estimation, evapo-transpiration and crop water requirement and effective rainfall Water budgeting and its importance, irrigation scheduling approaches
Water budgeting
Allocation of the water receipt including anticipated within the crop period and its detailed account of expenditure for efficient and profitable farm management is called as water budgeting.
Water budgeting may be for an irrigation system planned by irrigation engineers; may be for a canal or for an area (block) or may be for a farm according to the need and plan by responsible persons who plan the irrigation efficiency.
Importance of water budgeting
Efficient utilization of available recourse (water) for bringing more area under irrigation:
1. To increase the productivity of a region / farm.
2. To increase cropping intensity of a region / farm
3. To tide over some dry-spells
4. To reduce excess irrigation and losses caused thereby
5. To avoid run off losses
Irrigation scheduling
Irrigation scheduling is defined as frequency with which water is to be applied based on needs of the crop and nature of the soil.
Irrigation scheduling is nothing but number of irrigations & their frequency required to meet the crop water requirement.

Introduction
India is the seventh largest having 329.73 million ha of geographical area and second most populous country having more than a billion population in the world. There is no other substitute other than to use every square inch of land and every drop of water effectively and efficiently. Though there was markedly increase in annual food grain production from 51 (1950-51) million tones t0 206 million tones (2000-01), still the death on hunger is visualized.
The demand for food is increasing with ever-increasing population growth rate. So there is no option other than to increase food production. There is very little or no scope of horizontal expansion due to land limitation, the question of vertical expansion is the only way to fit with the situation. Genetically improved crop variety, hybrids, mechanized agriculture, higher rate of fertilizers and chemicals application may give one or two more green revolution, but the question lies how far it can sustain greenness?
Adoption of improved crop cultivars, cropping system, increasing cropping intensities, precision farming can hold good to get out of this situation where whole system is to be considered.
The cropping intensities in the states like Assam, Bihar, MP, Orissa, UP and West Bengal are 137.7, 137.8, 125.6, 154.6, 148.6 and 159.6 percent, respectively (FAI,1994-95). This indicated that a vast majority of lands remain fallow during dry season due to lack of proper technologies, which are under rainfed conditions, neglected. Except West Bengal, more than half of the arable land remains fallow during rainless period. Increasing cropping intensities in rainfed uplands is not easily achievable but there is great potential of intensification of cropping in rainfed lowland by utilizing natural resources and conserved residual moisture. Pulses like black gram, green gram, lentil, lathyrus, chick pea and oilseeds like linseed, groundnut, rapeseed could not only increase the cropping intensities but also come forward to increase national productivity.

Rice farming under different subsystems of lowland ecology
1. Rainfed lowland with limited water at seeding and excess water at later growth stages: In rainfed lowland areas, the rice is direct seeded in dry soil in April-May before onset of monsoon (June) and seeds germinate with the showers received after sowing. Drought at the seedling stage kills seedlings and results in poor stand establishment. Furthermore, heavy rains in catchment areas of river basins result in water logging and flooding at late growth stages. The water hinders tillering and results in poor panicle number less than 200/m2 as against 350 /m2 of high yielding rice cultivars.
2. Rainfed lowlands with limited/excess water at transplanting and excess water at later stages: When on-set of the monsoon is delayed, transplanting delayed because the farmer has to wait for adequate rains for land preparation. Monsoon rain submerges the transplanted crop, resulting in poor stand. In some areas, the land gets inundated before transplanting and farmers generally transplant aged and tall seedlings to keep the plant parts above the water. Plant survival in deeper water depends on rise in water level and on the elongation ability and submergence tolerance of the plant. Varieties that elongate fast develop weak culms and may lodge when the water level recedes. In this situation tillering is poor and panicle per unit area are less.
3. Assured irrigated areas with excess water during crop growth due to poorly drained condition: Rice grown in the river deltaic areas of Krishna, Godavari and Indo-Gangetic rivers suffer from water stagnation even though some areas are having irrigation facilities. Heavy rains in the catchment cause flooding and stagnation in rice fields because of congested drainage or lack of drainage caused by topographically saucer-shaped land. These conditions develop during peak monsoon (July-September). The late planted crops, being at an early stage of growth, suffersfro water stagnation. In these areas, transplanting early in the season is necessary for plants to grow enough to escape submergence.

Irrigation Scheduling: Approaches and Advantages
Efficient irrigation scheduling aims to optimize crop yields while maximizing water use efficiency and minimizing soil damage. This involves determining the correct timing and amount of water to apply for each irrigation event. Several criteria can be used for scheduling irrigations, broadly classified into climatological, soil water regime, and plant-based approaches. The most suitable criterion depends on specific soil, plant, climate, and management factors.
Climatological Approach
Under conditions where soil water is readily available, the potential rate of water loss from a crop primarily depends on the atmosphere’s evaporative demand. This approach uses potential evapotranspiration (PET) or cumulative pan evaporation (CPE) over short periods as an index for irrigation scheduling.
Penman (1948) defined PET as the water transpired by a short, uniformly green crop completely covering the ground and never lacking water. He also noted that PET is generally a fraction of pan evaporation under the same conditions. PET can be estimated using various techniques, including lysimeters, energy balance calculations, aerodynamic approaches, and empirical formulas. Based on PET or crop water use rates over short periods, irrigation can be conveniently scheduled. Lysimeters isolate the crop root zone, allowing accurate determination of water balance components by controlling and measuring difficult-to-assess processes.
Soil Water Regime Approach
This approach uses the available soil water held between field capacity and the permanent wilting point in the effective crop root zone as a guide for irrigation scheduling. Soil moisture tension, which reflects how tightly water is held by soil particles, can also serve as an indicator.

Surface: border strip, furrow, basin and check basin
Sub-surface
Micro-irrigation: drip, sprinkler; Pichter and bottle
Definition of Irrigation Method
Application of irrigation water to cropped field by different types of layouts is called as irrigation methods. The methods of irrigation initially might have been started to check the over flow of water from one field to another. But today, it has become necessary to save the water by proper methods to arrest run-off loss, percolation loss, evaporation loss etc., and to optimize the crop water need. Hence, irrigation method can be defined as the way in which the water is applied to the cropped field without much application and other losses, with an objective of applying water effectively to facilitate better environment for crop growth.
Factors Influencing Irrigation Methods
Soil type: The soil physical properties such as texture, structure, porosity, infiltration rate, etc. influence the selection of irrigation methods. Heavy texture soil restricts water movement than light texture soil wherein water move freely to deeper sections due to high porosity. Single grain structure soil allows water freely to move downward compared to other structures
Soil depth: If soil is shallow which holds less water, leveling and forming bunds etc. to hold? Maximum water is to increase the irrigation interval. Similarly if the soil is deep, it holds more water and needs longer irrigation interval. Accordingly, the irrigation methods can be selected.
Topography of land: In undulating topography, it is very difficult to adopt normal methods of irrigation. The slope of the land also decides the methods to be adopted. If the land is more sloppy, basin method cannot be used. In this condition strip method can be used. For undulating topography instead of strip or basin method, sprinkler or drip methods can be used.

Irrigation Efficiency
Irrigation water is an expansive input and has to be used very efficiently. The main losses that occur during irrigation of fields as conveyance, run off, seepage and deep percolation; Irrigation efficiency can be increased by reducing these losses. Uneven spreading and inadequate filling of root zone are the other causes for low irrigation efficiency. Irrigation efficiency at the field level can be increased by selecting suitable method of irrigation, adequate land preparation and engaging an efficient irrigator. At the project level, it can be increased by proper conveyance and distribution system. Irrigation efficiency is the ratio usually expressed as percent of the volume of irrigation water transpired by plants, plus that evaporate from the soil, plus that necessary to regulate the salt concentration in the soil solution and that used by plants in building plant tissue to total volume of water diverted, stored or pumped for irrigation.
Wt+Ws-RsEi=×100Wi
Where,
Ei = Irrigation efficiency (percent)
Wt = the volume of irrigation water / unit area of land transpired by plants, evaporation from the soil during the crop period.
Ws = the volume of irrigation water per unit area of land to regulate the salt Content of soil solution.

Water Quantity and Measurement: The amount of water to be applied and its measurement are crucial aspects of irrigation management. There are various methods and tools used to measure and control the flow of water, including:
1. Parshall flume
2. Orifice
3. Weirs
4. Water meter
5. Float method
6. V-Notch
Methods of Soil Moisture Measurement
The measurement of soil moisture is essential to determine when to irrigate, the amount of water needed, to evaluate evapotranspiration, and to monitor soil matric potential. Soil moisture is measured in two ways: direct and indirect methods.
Direct Methods
1. Gravimetric method: The gravimetric method is a standard method for measuring soil water content directly. It involves collecting soil samples from the field and determining their moist and dry weights. The mass water content is then calculated as the ratio of the weight loss in drying to the dry weight of the soil sample. This method is accurate but time-consuming and requires laboratory equipment.
2. Spirit burning method: The spirit burning method is a direct method for measuring soil moisture in the field. Soil moisture is evaporated by adding alcohol and igniting it. The time taken for the soil to dry is then used to calculate the soil moisture content. This method is quick and easy but can be affected by soil temperature and organic matter content.

Soil moisture stress in relation to crop and development of crop
Agronomic methods are supported with mechanical measures where land slope exceeds permissible limits and runoff gains erosive velocities. The following boxes explain the nature of agronomic measures which are essential in inter-bunded or terraced areas. These practices enhance the utility value of all kinds of mechanical structures.
1. Contour Tillage: All agricultural operations such as ridging, ploughing, harrowing, sowing, trenching, etc., are recommended to be done on the contour wherever possible or at least generally across the direction of the slope where holdings are very small. Even though the operation is very simple, it plays a major role in retarding the process of soil erosion through runoff. It also conserves soil, and due to increased time of concentration, more rainwater seeps through the soil profile to recharge ground water. Summer ploughing leaves the soil highly absorbent of initial rains.
2. Dead furrows: When all tillage operations are complete, it is advisable to leave a deep dead furrow at every 10 m interval. This should remain in position until the crop is harvested. Dead furrows aid in reducing the runoff velocity and they also conserve water.
3. Organic Matter: Indian soils are very poor in organic matter, especially in drought-prone areas: This can be improved by leaving the crop residue in situ (on the fields). Adding organic manures such as farmyard manure and compost every year as basal application to the soil improves the physical condition of the soil considerably.
Soil-Air, Soil-Temperature, and Soil-Moisture relationships are well balanced with the presence of organic matter. Organic matter improves the activities of soil microorganisms and also provides the much needed micro plant nutrients of all kinds, besides nitrogen, phosphorus and potash. Addition of large amounts of chemical fertilizers to dryland crops should be discouraged as it damages the soil due to:

Water Quality Parameters
Irrigation water contains impurities in varying concentration. The suitability of irrigation water mainly depends up on the amount and type of salts present in the water. The main soluble constituents are calcium, magnesium, sodium as cations and chloride, sulphate, bicarbonates as anions. The other ions present in minute quantities are boron, selenium, molybdenum and fluorine which are harmful to animals fed on plants grown with excess of these ions.
Quality of irrigation water is judged with three parameters
1. Total salt concentration
2. Sodium absorption
3. Bicarbonate and boron content.
Total Salt Concentration
Salt content of irrigation water is measured as electrical conductivity (EC). Conventionally, water containing total dissolved salts to the extent of more than 1.5m mhos /cm has been classified as saline. Saline waters are those which have sodium chloride as predominant salt. Brackish water is one that is contaminated with acid, bases, salts or organic matter, whereas saline water contains mainly dissolved salts, Based on EC irrigation water is classified as below.

Principle of field drainage and methods of drainage, Benefits of drainage
Biological drainage
Importance of bio-drainage in water logged conditions
Bio-drainage and soil salinity
Agricultural Drainage
Excess water in the crop root zone soil is injurious to plant growth. Artificial drainage is essential on poorly drained agricultural fields to provide optimum air and salt environments in the root zone. Crop yields are drastically reduced on poorly drained soils, and, in cases of prolonged waterlogging, plants eventually die due to a lack of oxygen in the root zone. Waterlogging in irrigated regions may result in excess soil salinity, i.e., the accumulation of salts in the plant root zone.
Sources of excess soil water that result in high water tables include: high precipitation in humid regions; surplus irrigation water and canal seepage in the irrigated lands; and artesian pressure. Agricultural drainage is the removal of excess water from the soil surface and/or soil profile of cropland, by either gravity or artificial means. In some soils, the natural drainage processes are sufficient for growth and production of agricultural crops, but in many other soils, artificial drainage is needed for efficient agricultural production.
Agricultural drainage improvement can help reduce the year-to-year variability in crop yield, which helps reduce the risks associated with the production of abundant, high quality, affordable food. Improved access of farm equipment to the field provides more time for field activities, can help extend the crop production season, and helps reduce crop damage at harvest.
Agricultural drainage conditions around the world can be grouped according to three agro-climatic zones: the temperate zone, the arid and semi-arid zone and the humid and sub-humid zone.
In the temperate agro-climatic zone the major role of drainage is to prevent waterlogging, i.e., excess water in the root zone of crops from surplus rainfall.

Introduction
Surface irrigation is the distribution of water using open canals in which water flows by gravity. This type of irrigation, which includes flood irrigation, requires relatively flat fields and deep soils.
A good irrigation will ensure a uniform and homogenous distribution of water in small and regular doses. The status of moisture in the soil also aims at maintaining the relative humidity in a plot at a stable level, to limit the development of weeds and pathogens. Irrigation is also used to avoid the transmission of phyto-sanitary problems or the leaching of pesticides.
The volumes of water to apply depend on the climatic conditions, the frequencies of the applications, the soil type and the irrigation method. The choice must take into account the efficiency of each method, the water availability, the installation and running costs, the maintenance needs, the spatial requirements and whether it’s possible to work while the field is irrigated.
Water Management Practices of Different Crops Rice
Total water requirement is 1100-1250
The daily consumptive use of rice varies from 6-10 mm and total water is ranges from 1100 to 1250 mm depending upon the agro climatic situation. Of

Participatory water management, principles of sustainable farming and crop water productivity and strategic water management practices
Participatory irrigation management
Farmers’ participation in management of water resources is one of the prime requirements to improve the irrigation efficiency and enhance food production to meet the future requirement. The objectives participatory irrigation management (PIM) are to achieve equity in water distribution, make best use of rain, surface and ground water conjunctively, develop community responsibility to collect water charges and create a sense of ownership of water resources and the irrigation system among the users so as to promote economy in water use and preservation of system, improve service deliveries through better operation and maintenance and achieve optimum utilization of available resources.
Participation of farmers in the realm or irrigation water management implies an active role of beneficiaries in all the facets of irrigation water management and its attendant linkages with the main system of management in agricultural/agronomic activities. This role is very different from the traditional passive role of farmers to look to the department for irrigation, for water supply and its distribution. The timing of farmers’ involvement is crucial. Farmers’ participation is most effective, when it takes place from initial stages of project planning, including the stage of project formulation. Such involvement forms part of ideal conditions for a partnership between farmers and government. The present theme “more crops per drop” is feasible provided the farmers are encouraged and supported to play an active role in the operation and management of the irrigation system. However, to operationalize this concept, there is a need to involve all the farmers within the command area, so that collective and collaborative action becomes possible.
Importance of Participatory Water Management
The per-capita availability of cultivable land as well as water is going to be stagnated, wherein irrigation is the only key factor leading to increased

Importance of virtual water in agriculture
Virtual water is with the meaning of the concept when water embedded in goods and services and is exchangeable from one country to a different. The country is under water-scarce; the water that’s ‘saved’ is often used towards other ends. Water-scarce countries (like Israel) discourage the export of relatively water-intensive crops (like orange, water melon) precisely to stop large quantities of water from being exported to different parts of the earth. In recent years, the concept of virtual water on trade has gained weight both within the scientific also as restricted by the political debate. The notion of the concept is ambiguous. It changes between an analytical, descriptive concept and a political induced strategy. As an analytical concept, virtual water trade represents an instrument that permits the identification and assessment of policy options not only within the scientific but also within the political discourse. As a politically induced strategy, the question of virtual water trade are often implemented during a sustainable way, whether the implementation are often managed during a social, economical, and ecological fashion, and that countries the concept offers a meaningful option. the info that underlie the concept of virtual water can readily be wont to construct water satellite accounts and brought into economic models of international trade like the Computable General Equilibrium of Global Trade Analysis Project such a model are frequently wont to study the economic implications of changes within the water system or water policy, also because the water resource implications of economic development and trade liberalization. The data pertaining to virtual water is product of GTAP.
Keywords: Virtual water; foodstuff and food; water content in different food materials; water deficit areas;

Climate-based/smart (digital) irrigation practices and its management, irrigation automation, sensors based irrigation, robotic application in irrigation and artificial intelligence
Climate-smart (digital) irrigation: Aims and Objectives
Climate-smart irrigation (CSI) is a vital part of climate-smart agriculture,
aiming to
• Boost the productivity of irrigated farming and farmer incomes while minimizing negative social, political, and environmental consequences.
• Bridge the gap between potential and actual crop yields across different climates.
• Enhance the resilience of irrigated farming and related supply chains to current and future climate change impacts and other risks.
• Adapt irrigated farming to climate change by capitalizing on new opportunities and mitigating adverse effects.
• Reduce greenhouse gas emissions per unit of food, fiber, or fuel produced in irrigated systems, from farm to market.
• Identify and prioritize ways to cut GHG emissions from irrigated systems at various stages, from water sourcing to post-harvest processes.
• Improve the environmental sustainability of irrigated farming and supply chains while safeguarding water access for communities, protecting vulnerable groups’ livelihoods, and preserving aquatic ecosystems.
• Improve the sustainability and reducing the GHG emissions of existing crop production systems.
Irrigation is key to stable agricultural production, especially in dry conditions. CSI aims to improve existing and new irrigation systems by incorporating climate-smart principles. While good irrigation infrastructure is essential, it’s not enough. Effective CSI also requires supportive policies, strong institutions, good water governance, secure land and water tenure, farmer knowledge, market access, and credit availability.

1.1 Introduction
The concept of invention is the fundamental requirement for design thinking. Since the birth of mankind, people started inventing many concepts, which are mainly observations of facts and innovation of ideas for producing products that are useful to the society. The design thinking requires unconventional thinking to design processes for maximal operational efficiency of manufacturing the products, which give maximum satisfaction to customers with more value for money. Hence, the team that is involved in the design thinking projects may gain the required skills by knowing several inventions of the past. Hence, a review of inventions is presented in this chapter.
1.2 Tracing Inventions
The content at https://www.explainthatstuff.com/timeline.html gives a complete account of inventions starting from 4–5 billion years ago up to 2022. The article on solar cell energy gives an account of the sun started producing energy. About 1.2 million years ago, humans invented fire, which has been further innovated for biofuels, candles, IC engines, aviation engines, etc. In the 7th century B.C., ants were killed by burning in the heat produced by concentrated sun rays using magnifying lens. Greeks and Romans utilised burning mirrors to light candles during religious ceremonies in the third century B.C. About 3.5 million years ago, stone, wood, antlers, and bones were used by humans to make first kind of tools. These were further improved to make tools for machines. About 4000 BCE back, iron was used to make decorative ornaments. About 3500 BCE, people invented the concept of wheel, which brought quantum revolution in transportation.

2.1 Introduction
As time passes, the customers are used to the practice of having short life for the products, which they buy and use. This is because of the globalization of business and growing global competition all over the world. The companies engaged in manufacturing and selling the products which are used at large volume by households and partly by industries, introduce new models to attract customers and to have more market share. This in turn has impacts on customer buying and retention decisions of those products. Though the companies introduce new models, they are expected to keep the prices of the products at affordable ranges so that there is always a larger customer segment to buy those products. This is like egg or chicken situation, because companies introduce many new models to out beat competition and in turn customers expect improved versions of those models in shorter time intervals. This forces companies to continuously engage themselves to come out with new models or improved models which have convergence of technologies to give maximal customer satisfaction. So, creativity in product design becomes an essential requirement of the product development teams of the companies.
2.2 Product Design
Product design aims to include the following tasks to solve the problems of the users or address expected needs of customers in a given market. These tasks are human intensive.
i. Understanding end-users’ requirements
ii. Imagining alternate product ideas to address their needs

3.1 Introduction
Since the dawn of humanity, the expansion of invention and technological innovation has made it possible to make a variety of goods to meet its needs. To get a competitive edge in the market, the manufacture of a product has three main goals, viz. efficient product planning, efficient manufacturing, and effective cost control.
These can be achieved through a random thinking, if the designer is fortunate to have the best design of a product of interest, which satisfies the needs of its customers. But it will rarely happen. Design thinking maximizes the possibility of happening of the best design in the journey of design a product in shorter possible time.
Design thinking, an emerging field in this direction, tries to create a product by utilizing the following steps.
i. Empathize
ii. Define
iii. Ideate
iv. Prototype
v. Test
3.2 Definition of Design Thinking
A design methodology called “Design Thinking” offers a problem-based approach to problem solving. By understanding the human needs which changes quickly, re-framing the issue in human-centric ways, generating a lot of ideas during brainstorming sessions, and taking a hands-on approach during prototyping and testing, design thinking is incredibly helpful in handling complicated challenges that are ill-defined or unknown. Anyone can use the Design Thinking approach to tackle complex problems that arise in our society, such as those in our businesses, governments, and other spheres of influence, if they have an understanding of these five steps of the process.

4.1 Introduction
Companies that produce tangible items or offer services must drastically increase their productivity in order to maintain their operations in the face of intensifying global competition. A single quantum jump productivity enhancement technique or multiple concurrent incremental improvement productivity strategies can both be used to achieve this goal. If a business chooses the second choice, integrating various tactics for a significant increase in the total productivity would be quite difficult. The first alternative, a single productivity improvement plan, will make it possible for the business to increase productivity with the same or greater success. The only difficulty with this strategy is locating the probable problem area and then using process improvement techniques to achieve the anticipated dramatic increase in productivity. Business process reengineering refers to any significant adjustment of business processes that results in a dramatic increase in an organization’s productivity. Price, quality, after-sales support, adherence to delivery schedules, technological breakthroughs, etc. are some elements that influence market competition. Therefore, the business should focus its efforts on each of these areas in order to achieve notable improvements in terms of decreased operating costs and higher sales revenue from the sale of its goods and services to clients. Improved pricing for a company’s goods or services can provide it an advantage over competitions. Applying various cost-cutting strategies to lower variable costs and overhead costs will lower the price of the good or service. The other elements, viz. quality, after-sales support, delivery schedule adherence, and technological advancements are all directed in this direction

5.1 Introduction
One of the main methods for cost avoidance and prevention is value engineering/ value analysis. “Society of American Value Engineers (SAVE)” states that value Analysis is the systematic use of known procedures which determine the function of a product or service, define a monetary value for the function, and provide the essential function reliably at the lowest overall cost. If these are applied to a new product, it is called value engineering. By analysing the function of any product, material part, component, system, or service, it is possible to find extraneous expenditures connected with them and effectively remove them without compromising the product’s quality, functional dependability, or ability to provide services. The principles and steps of value analysis/ value engineering will supplement the effort of design thinking.
5.2 Symptoms for Introducing Value Analysis (VA)
If one or more of the following symptoms exist, starting a VA programme is expected to yield very positive effects.
i. Sales of the company’s products are declining.
ii. The prices of the products of the company are greater than those of the products of its rivals.

6.1 Introduction
The success of design thinking depends on its applicability in industries and service organization. The applications of design thinking applied to product development should focus on the needs of users. The design thinking can also be applied to design new processes as well as improve an existing process.
6.2 Case Studies
The section presents several case studies of applying design thinking in realities as listed below.
1. Design thinking in eye care
2. Design thinking in foundry
3. Design thinking in FMG company
4. Design thinking in auto industry
5. Design thinking at retail outlet
6. Design Thinking in Flight Reservation System
7. Design thinking in winding fabric on roller in textile mill
6.2.1 Case study: Design Thinking in Eye Care
Eye care is a crucial part of health care system. There are many factors that are responsible for poor eye vision. Normally in the early stages, viz. children and adults up to 40 or 45 years of age may have eye power issues, which are managed

Introduction
Managing the diverse array of stresses confronting cultivated lands stands as a pressing necessity within the agricultural domain, demanding swift adaptability to navigate shifts and satisfy evolving requisites along the production-consumption continuum. In India, approximately 7.0 million hectares of agricultural terrain grapple with salt-related predicaments, a figure poised for escalation owing to factors like secondary salinization in irrigation networks, amplified dependence on substandard water reservoirs in arid and semi-arid locales, and the complexities posed by phenomena such as sea water encroachment and brackish water aquaculture in coastal regions. Forecasts indicate a potential expansion of salt-affected soil regions in India to encompass roughly 13 million hectares by the year 2025. Within this landscape of challenges, agronomists shoulder a pivotal responsibility, entrusted with the mandate of bolstering productivity via pioneering research endeavors and the formulation of holistic strategies. This undertaking necessitates a nuanced comprehension of salt-affected soils, coupled with the crafting of contingency blueprints predicated upon resourceefficient, economically sound, and ecologically sustainable methodologies. Given the flux in climatic patterns, the adoption of proactive measures assumes heightened significance. Scholarly discourse, exemplified by Singh’s seminal work in 1998, furnishes a retrospective lens on the saga of salt-affected soils. Building upon this historical scaffold, the present exposition endeavors to trace the trajectory of agronomic inquiry spanning epochs ranging from the Vedic era through pre-independence and post-independence epochs. By spotlighting the seminal contributions of researchers in tackling salt-induced soil adversities, the paper endeavors to underscore the profound ramifications of such endeavors on societal wellbeing and environmental equilibrium.
Soil Salinity in Ancient India: Pre- and Post-Vedic Perspectives
Landforms and landscapes emerge from the weathering of rocks and minerals, incorporating salts as essential constituents. These salts have been present

Introduction
Soil quality is a critical concept in environmental science, agriculture, and land management. It refers to the ability of soil to perform its essential functions, which include supporting plant growth, regulating water flow, cycling nutrients, filtering pollutants, and providing habitat for microorganisms. Healthy, high-quality soil is fundamental for the productivity of ecosystems and the sustainability of agricultural practices. The quality of soil is influenced by a combination of physical, chemical, and biological factors. These include soil texture, structure, organic matter content, pH, nutrient availability, and the presence of beneficial organisms like bacteria and fungi. When these factors are balanced, soil can support healthy crops and ecosystems. However, soil degradation—caused by practices such as overuse of chemical fertilizers, deforestation, erosion, and pollution—can severely reduce its quality, leading to lower agricultural yields, water contamination, and loss of biodiversity. Assessing soil quality involves monitoring several key indicators, such as organic matter levels, soil texture, compaction, water infiltration rates, and the presence of key nutrients. Organic matter is especially important, as it helps to bind soil particles, retain moisture, and provide a food source for beneficial microorganisms. The chemical aspect of soil quality is equally vital, encompassing the availability of nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, as well as the presence of any harmful contaminants like heavy metals. The biological dimension of soil quality relates to the diversity and activity of organisms within the soil. A rich microbial community enhances nutrient cycling, helps decompose organic matter, and promotes plant health. Earthworms, for instance, play a critical role in aerating the soil and facilitating water infiltration. Soil quality is not a static property; it can change over time depending on land management practices. Sustainable practices such as crop rotation, conservation tillage, the use of organic amendments, and maintaining ground cover can improve and maintain soil quality. Conversely, unsustainable practices like excessive tillage, monoculture, and the overuse of agrochemicals can degrade soil, making it less productive and more prone to erosion. In

Introduction
Salt-affected soils (SAS) can be found across different latitudes, exhibiting variations in morphology, biology, and chemical, physical, and physicochemical properties (Gupta and Gupta, 2017). Despite their diversity, SAS share a common characteristic: the dominant role of soil solution electrolytes in the soil formation process, leading to properties that create unfavorable conditions for the normal growth of most plants (Szabolcs, 1989). In cases where SAS develop due to natural geomorphological processes, certain plant species, known as halophytes, have evolved specialized physiological adaptations to survive in these environments. Halophytes are capable of thriving in highly saline habitats by effectively managing the stress caused by excessive salt. Plants growing in such conditions employ various adaptive mechanisms to tolerate and flourish despite the salinity challenge. Salt-affected soils (SAS) require specialized management strategies to mitigate the challenges posed by high salinity levels. Plants and organisms in these ecosystems have evolved various adaptations to manage salt levels, such as developing specialized root structures, eliminating or containing excess salt, and efficiently absorbing water and nutrients (Flowers and Colmer, 2015). Despite their typically low alpha-diversity, SAS ecosystems contribute significantly to beta-diversity due to the specialization of organisms that thrive in such challenging environments. However, many of these high-value ecological systems have been severely degraded worldwide as a result of various political and economic decisions. For example, mangroves in countries like Thailand, Vietnam, Mexico, and Ecuador have been destroyed to make way for shrimp farming (FAO, 2007). Sabkhas around the Mediterranean coast have suffered from overexploitation of the aquifers that sustain them, and the reduction of water flow to closed drainage basins, such as in the case of the Aral Sea, has occurred due to water being diverted for irrigation, especially for cotton farming. Further degradation is seen in the transformation of SAS wetlands into agricultural fields through drainage, a practice observed in many regions (Mitsch and Gosselink, 2007). These ecosystems, once considered wastelands

Introduction
In India acid soils occur in the high rainfall areas covering about 25 million hectares of land with a pH below 5.5 and 23 million hectares of land with a pH between 5.6 and 6.5. In India, acid soils occur in Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Nagaland, NEFA, Manipur, Tripura, West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, MP, Maharashtra, Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat are the only states in India where acid soils do not occur. Soil acidity is a limiting factor affecting the growth and yield of many crops all over the world. The basic problems concerning chemical properties of more acid soils are, besides acidity itself, the presence of toxic compounds and elements, such as soluble forms of Al, Fe and Mn, nitrites and various toxic organic acids. Aluminium (Al) toxicity is one of the major constraints on crop productivity on acid soils, which occur on up to 40% of the arable lands of the world. Al is the third most abundant element in the earth’s crust and is toxic to plants when solubilised into soil solution at acidic pH values. Very few plants can grow well in strong acid soils. Soil acidity below pH value 5.5 is generally injurious to plants. Plant roots are badly affected if the pH value exceeds limits of tolerance for particular crops. High degree of soil acidity (pH 5.0 to 6.5) decreases the availability of plant nutrients particularly phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, molybdenum, iron, manganese, potassium sulphur nitrogen, boron, copper and zinc. It also affects adversely the important microbiological processes, such as nitrogen fixation by Azotobacter, Clostridium and nodule inhabiting bacteria (Rhizobia) of leguminous plants

Introduction
Acid sulphate soils are formed when pyrite within a soil layer is oxidised, generating sulphuric acid. The oxidation of pyrite often results in yellow mottles of jarosite. The pH levels in greatly affected areas are often less than 4.0, and the associated environmental impacts include fish kills, retarded growth of crops and changes in water chemistry. Acid soils are distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, constituting approximately 30% of the ice-free land in the world, which is 50% of the world’s arable land. In China and India, 212 Mha or 12% of the agricultural land is classified as acidic. In India, about 28% of the total geographical area is affected by acidity of different degrees. Acid sulphate soils (ASSs) are a group of these soils having high soil acidity and other soil function limitations. These soils were termed as Kattecleigrondon or Kattakali by the Dutch farmers in the seventeenth century meaning ‘Cat Clays’ in English for soils of some reclaimed areas that became gradually highly acidic and developed prominent yellowish mottles and crusts composed of jarosite and related sulphates; in northern Germany, similar clays were called Maibolt.
Occurrence
They occur in many regions of the world, mostly along coastal areas where the land is inundated by sea water. Countries having extensive area of acid sulphate soils are:

Introduction
The word “calcareous” has been commonly used as the generic description of all materials containing calcium carbonates greater than 10%. In the context of agricultural problem soils, calcareous soils are soils in which a high amount of calcium carbonate dominates the problems related to agricultural land use. They are characterized by the presence of calcium carbonate in the parent material and by a calcic horizon, a layer of secondary accumulation of carbonates (usually Ca or Mg) in excess of 15% calcium carbonate equivalent and at least 5% more carbonate than an underlying layer. Calcareous soils are common in the arid areas of the earth (FAO, 2016) occupying >30% of the earth’s surface. In the world Reference Base (WRB) soil classification system calcareous soils may mainly occur in the Reference soil group of calcisols.
Formation / genesis of calcareous soils
The soil are formed largely by the weathering of calcareous rocks and fossil shell beds like varieties of chalk, marl , lime stone and frequently a large amount of phosphates. Soils also can become calcareous through long term irrigation with water contains small amounts of dissolved CaCO3 that can accumulate with time.
The secondary CaCO3 are formed under arid and semi-arid climatic conditions, when the carbonate concentration in the soil solution remains High Accumulation starts in the fine and medium sized pores at the surface of contact between the soil particles. This accumulation may be rather concentrated in a narrow zone of the solum or more dispersed depending upon the quantity and frequency of rainfall, topography, soil texture and vegetation. In high rainfall area i.e. in highly weathered soils, CaCO3 is dispersed from the surface horizons. While in arid and semi-arid regions due to low rainfall and limited leaching carbonates may be present in relatively high amounts. In medium deep and deep black clay soils carbonates are generally accumulated in subsurface horizons. However in some eroded shallow black soils they may be exposed right at the surface of soils. In some soils CaCO3 deposits are concentrated into layers that may be very hard and impermeable to water also

Introduction
Waterlogging refers to the accumulation of excessive water in the root zone, leading to anaerobic conditions. This surplus water hampers the exchange of gases with the atmosphere, and biological processes deplete the oxygen supply in both soil and water, resulting in anaerobiosis, anoxia, or oxygen deficiency. In India, approximately 11.6 million hectares, constituting 8.3% of its net sown area, are affected by waterlogging (Planning Commission, 2011). According to Brundtland and Khalid (1987), available estimates indicate an annual global loss of 1.5 million hectares of irrigated land due to salinity and waterlogging. Regrettably, data regarding the occurrence and extent of these issues are inconsistent and incomplete. More recent estimates, provided by Datta and Joshi (1992), range from 5.5 million to 13 million hectares. After conducting a comprehensive global survey, it has been determined that submerged and waterlogged soils cover approximately 5 to 7% of the Earth’s land surface. The total area of waterlogged soil worldwide is estimated to be around 700 to 1000 million hectares. Tropical swamps, rice fields, and floodplains collectively represent nearly 14%, 12%, and 10% of the total waterlogged area, respectively. In India, Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh have the highest concentration of waterlogged soil, with an estimated total area of one million hectares. The eastern region bears a significant portion of this burden, with over 20% of the affected land suffering from surface waterlogging, which severely diminishes productivity. Waterlogging is characterized by the soil becoming unproductive and infertile due to excess moisture, creating anaerobic conditions known as waterlogged soils. Waterlogged soil presents a significant challenge to agricultural productivity and soil health, characterized by excessive water saturation that restricts oxygen availability to plant roots. In this chapter, we delve into the multifaceted aspects of waterlogged soil, exploring its causes, defining characteristics, and far-reaching consequences. The serves as a comprehensive overview, underscoring the detrimental impact of waterlogging on agriculture, ecosystems, and human well-being. It identifies key factors contributing to

Introduction
Soil crusts are surface alterations in the topsoil resulting from natural processes, such as the impact of raindrops followed by drying. These crusts manifest as thin, hardened layers on the soil surface, particularly common in arid and semi-arid regions. Their thickness typically varies from less than 1 mm to 5 cm (Evans and Boul, 1968). Once dry, these layers become denser, harder, and more brittle than the underlying soil, reducing both the number and size of pores and reorganizing the soil’s pore structure. In temperate regions, surface crusts primarily form on unstable loamy soils, particularly in areas under cultivation. In tropical regions, soil crusting affects a broader range of soils and poses a significant problem not only in arid zones but across various climatic conditions. In humid areas, intensive farming exposes the soil surface to high-energy rainfall for extended periods, accelerating the degradation of soil organic matter. As a result, bare soil areas expand, and biomass production declines. From an agronomic perspective, the most critical drawbacks of soil crusting are its negative effects on seedling emergence and water infiltration. Seedling emergence is particularly affected for crops with small seeds or when the timing of emergence is crucial due to climate or market demands. In some instances, costly replanting becomes necessary. The reduction in water infiltration caused by crusted soils creates significant challenges for irrigation, especially in areas where water scarcity limits large-scale use, forcing farmers to adopt more efficient water management strategies. Reduced water infiltration also leads to increased surface runoff, contributing to soil erosion and environmental risks, such as the pollution of surface waters due to nutrient loss. Additionally, restricted gas exchange between the soil and atmosphere further contributes to lower crop yields. Epstein and Grant (1973) observed that soil erodibility is closely linked to the rate and extent of crust formation, with soil loss peaking within the first 10 minutes of rainfall before stabilizing. It is well established that during crustforming rain events, water infiltration declines over time, leading to an increase in runoff volume. This increase in runoff, combined with the intensified energy

Introduction
Soil, the outermost layer of the Earth’s crust, plays a vital role in supporting plant life. It consists of a mixture of mineral and organic materials, with its depth varying from negligible to several meters across different regions. Subjected to continuous atmospheric influences, soil experiences erosion, primarily driven by the movement of wind and water. Erosion, originating from the Latin word “erodere,” meaning “to eat away” or “to excavate,” involves the detachment, transportation, and deposition of soil particles. The erosion process encompasses two main phases: the detachment of individual soil particles from the soil mass and their subsequent transportation by various agents such as water, wind, ice, or gravity, followed by eventual deposition. Finer soil particles are more susceptible to erosion compared to coarser ones, leading to the formation of sediment, the ultimate product of soil erosion. Sediment, which refers to fragmented material transported or deposited by natural agents, illustrates the sedimentation process, reflecting the sequence of the sediment cycle. Detachment involves the dislodgment of soil particles from the soil mass by erosive agents such as impacting raindrops and runoff water. Transportation entails the entrainment and movement of these detached soil particles (sediment) from their original location, often through stream systems, towards eventual deposition sites, which may include the base of slopes, reservoirs, or floodplains. Soil erosion presents a significant threat to human well-being by diminishing the productivity of agricultural land through the removal and washing away of essential plant nutrients and organic matter. The widespread distribution of sediment load globally underscores the pervasive impact of erosion on natural landscapes and ecosystems.

Introduction
Water is one of the most vital natural resources for sustaining life on Earth. However, its availability is not uniform across the planet, and the growing demand for freshwater in the face of climate change, population growth, and industrial development has raised serious concerns about the future of water resources. In 2024, the global water landscape presents both challenges and opportunities, shaped by shifting environmental patterns, technological advances, and policy responses to water scarcity. Water resources refer to the natural sources of water that can be utilized for various purposes, including water supply. Approximately 97% of the Earth’s water is saline, found primarily in oceans, while only about 2.5% is fresh water, but only a small portion of this is accessible. The majority of freshwater is locked in glaciers, ice caps, and deep underground aquifers. Less than 1% of Earth’s freshwater are readily available in rivers, lakes, and accessible groundwater for human use. Of this small fraction, nearly two-thirds is locked in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen fresh water exists predominantly as groundwater, with only a small percentage available as surface water in rivers, lakes, and atmospheric moisture. The primary natural sources of freshwater include surface water, underflow in riverbeds, groundwater, and frozen water in glaciers. In addition to these, artificial sources such as treated wastewater (reclaimed water) and desalinated seawater are increasingly being used to supplement the global freshwater supply, particularly in regions facing water scarcity. As agriculture accounts for approximately 70% of global freshwater withdrawals, the management and quality of irrigation water are vital for sustaining food production and maintaining the health of ecosystems. Water is essential not only for basic plant functions, such as photosynthesis and nutrient absorption, but also for controlling temperature and supporting soil structure. In regions where rainfall is insufficient or irregular, irrigation provides a reliable source of water to meet the needs of crops throughout their growth cycle.

Introduction
Soil is considered as a thin layered living entity over the earth’s surface, poses a profound implication on the solidity of ecosystems. It act as a transient nutrient sink for the plants and plays a crucial role in the crux of biogeochemical cycling of Earth’s elements which is being carried out by distinct microbial assemblages present in the soil profile. Soil is the most diverse niche for the microbial communities in which large proportion of taxa exists at a very low correlative abundance. Despite the extensive importance of this entity it has been snubbed lately with the various undesirable activities done by human kind. Therefore, the scientific understanding of soil origin is critical. Scientifically speaking, formation of one inch of soil almost took 15 years if the parent materials are soft whereas hard parent material might takes hundreds of year for its development. Soil horizon involves the arrangement of mature soil in a series of zones. Each horizon encompasses the distinct texture and composition that varies with different kinds of soils. Soil profile is the cross sectional view of the horizons in a soil. The O horizon is the topmost layer of soil, mainly consists of partially decomposed leaves, animal wastes, fungi and other organic materials. A horizon is looser than other deeper layers of soil, mainly dark in colour and considered as the uppermost layer of the soil consisting of partially decomposed organic matter known as humus. Generally, in the upper layers of soil the roots of most plants exist. As long as these layers are supported by vegetation, it acts as a storehouse of water which gets released in a trickle throughout the year. Plant roots grow in the soil and absorb nutrients and water which are required during the process of photosynthesis that helps in the growth and development of plants. Soil contains essential nutrients which are being adsorbs by the plants and is beneficial to all living organisms such as herbivores and omnivores depends on plants for their food, then these being eaten up by carnivores and omnivores in the food web, so nutrients that are absorbed from the soil is reached to all strata of living entity. Soil is a niche for different organisms as its top layers harbors a large population of bacteria, fungi, earthworms and many other small insects that

Introduction
Water is chemical substance which important for all living organism to survive on this planet. Water is necessary for all cell of the living organism’s body to performance any normal work. Water covers 71% of the Earth’s surface, most like in oceans and other more water bodies, with 1.6% of water below ground in aquifers and 0.001% in the air as vapors, clouds and precipitation. Some observation have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the world population will be facing water-based vulnerability, a situation which has been called a ‘water crisis’ by the United Nations. A recent report suggests that by 2030, in some developing regions of the world, water desire will be exceed supply by 50%. The total volume of water 1,385 million Km3 on the planet earth, 96.5% is salt water (oceans and seas), the fresh water is mostly ice (24 million Km3). The fresh water available as annual stream flow is 46,768 Km3, that is 0.00034% of the total global water. If there is no intake of water into the body, death can ensue in 7-10 days. Water is also essential to man for maintaining personal hygienic and freedom from disease. Today there are many cities worldwide facing actual shortage of water and nearly 40 percent of the world’s food supply is grown under irrigation and a wide variety of industrial processes depends on water. Water is the most vital element among the natural resources, and is critical for the survival of all living any organisms including human, food production, and economic development. The environment, economic growth and developments are highly affected by water is regional and seasonal availability and the quality of surface and groundwater. The quality of water is affected by any human activities and is declining due to the rise of urbanization, population growth, industrial production, climate change and other factors. The resulting water pollution is a serious surrounding to the well-being of both the Earth and its population. The pressures is increasing population, growth of industries, urbanization, energy intensive life style, loss of forest cover, lack of environmental awareness, lack of implements of environmental rule, regulations and environment improvement plans, untreated effluent discharge from industries and municipalities, use of non

Any undesirable change in physical, chemical and biological properties of air is called air pollution. Air pollution interferes with wellbeing of living livelihood. Various human made and anthropogenic sources which deteriorate the air quality are called air pollutant. Some of the common air pollutant are dust, smoke, smog, fog, aerosol, SO2, CO2, O3 and NOx etc.
Sources of Air Pollution
The sources of air pollution are classified into two categories:
1. Natural source
2. Man-made source
1. Natural sources
• Ash from burning volcanoes, dust from storm, forest fires
• Pollen grains from flowers in air are natural sources of pollution
2. Anthropogenic (man-made) sources
They are population explosion, deforestation, urbanization and industrialization whose effect can be explained as fallow:
a) Power stations using coal or crude oil release CO2 in air
b) Also furnaces using coal, cattle dung cakes, firewood, kerosene, etc.
c) Steam engines used in railways, steamers, motor vehicles, etc. give out CO2.
d) So do Motors and internal combustion engines which run on petrol, diesel and kerosene. etc.
e) Vegetable oils, kerosene, and coal as household fuels
f) Sewers and domestic drains emanating foul gases
g) Pesticide residues in air
h) Carbon monoxide and Nicotine from smoking
i) Thermal power plants pollute air by emitted sulphur dioxide and fly ash
j) Fertilizers and pesticides

Introduction
Land is one of the most valuable natural resources on Earth. However, its significance varies across professions. Engineers view land as a foundation for constructing roads, buildings, and flyovers, whereas agriculturists consider it a medium for cultivating crops. For business professionals, land represents a space for establishing offices and industries. Although “land” and “soil” are sometimes used interchangeably, they are distinct. Land is typically regarded as a two-dimensional surface, while soil is three-dimensional, extending in depth. Another key difference is that land refers to any portion of the Earth’s surface, whereas soil consists of weathered rock materials enriched with essential nutrients, making it capable of supporting plant growth. The utilization of land should be aligned with its potential and limitations. Being a finite resource, land use is not solely determined by human needs but also by its capability. Over the past two decades, land degradation has become a growing concern globally, particularly in India. Land serves multiple purposes, primarily supporting agriculture, pastures, and forestry. A standard soil survey map illustrates the various types of soil that are important and their distribution in relation to other landscape features. These maps are designed to cater to users with diverse needs and, therefore, contain detailed information to highlight essential soil distinctions. For a soil map to be useful, the information it presents must be clearly explained to the user. These explanations are referred to as interpretations. Soil maps can be understood in two ways: (1) by examining the individual soil types showed on the map and (2) by grouping soils that exhibit similar responses to management and treatment. Since there are numerous types of soil, there are also many specific soil interpretations. These interpretations provide users with all the relevant information that a soil map can offer. However, many users require more generalized information than that of individual soil-mapping units. To address this, soils are classified in different ways based on the specific needs of the map users. The composition of these soil groups and the allowable variation

Introduction
Accurate and detailed information on the geographical location, aerial extent, and spatial distribution of wastelands is crucial for their efficient management and sustainable rehabilitation. Among modern resource assessment tools, Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographical Information Systems (GIS) have emerged as powerful technologies for detecting, evaluating, mapping, and monitoring degraded lands. Space-borne multispectral imagery, with its ability to provide large-scale, repetitive coverage, has proven particularly effective in identifying salt-affected soils and waterlogged areas in a timely and cost-efficient manner. In visual interpretation of satellite data, regions with high soil moisture and surface waterlogging appear as dark grey to black, indicating areas prone to water stagnation. To analyze the spatial dynamics of wastelands and assess the effectiveness of high-resolution satellite imagery, IRS P6 satellite data (23.5 m resolution) alongside topographical maps (1:50,000 scale) are commonly used. Given the dynamic nature of wastelands, multi-temporal satellite data is essential for precise delineation. These images must be geo-referenced within a unified coordinate system for consistency. The Planning Commission of India has endorsed GIS as an indispensable tool for land-use planning and wasteland development, facilitating treatment area identification, landuse trade-off analysis, and impact assessment simulations. Recognizing the importance of wasteland management in national development, the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) initiated a GIS-based wasteland mapping project in 1991, building upon earlier efforts by the Department of Science (1986) under the National Wasteland Identification Project, which mapped 147 districts at a 1:50,000 scale. A Task Force was established to develop a standardized classification system, later approved by the Planning Commission, categorizing wastelands into:

Introduction
Agroforestry, social forestry, community forestry, village forestry, and farm forestry are all practices that involve tree cultivation primarily outside designated forest reserves. Agroforestry, in particular, is a land-use approach that integrates trees with agricultural crops, shrubs, pastures, or livestock. This combination of trees and shrubs within land management systems can be structured in a spatial arrangement or occur in a sequential manner over time. The term ‘woody perennials’ is sometimes used to describe these trees and shrubs, referring to all long-lived plants that persist for more than a year, including bamboos and palms. In agroforestry systems, trees may not always be deliberately planted; natural regeneration may be encouraged by protecting emerging seedlings, or mature trees may be intentionally retained in fields and pastures. These woody perennials are often categorized as “multipurpose trees” (MPTs) or “multipurpose trees and shrubs” (MPTS) due to their diverse uses. While most trees can be considered multipurpose, this distinction highlights the varied benefits trees offer in agroforestry systems, as opposed to singlepurpose timber plantations focused solely on wood production.
Conversely, tree cultivation in designated forest areas is often directed toward industrial needs, commonly referred to as industrial forestry. The promotion of MPTs in agroforestry holds great promise for addressing land-use challenges and improving livelihoods by enhancing environmental sustainability and economic opportunities for local communities. Agroforestry research has now advanced to a stage where suitable tree-crop combinations, their management practices, and genetically improved planting materials can be recommended for specific conditions. Furthermore, continuous advancements in research by international and national agroforestry organizations are contributing to the benefit of farmers. The availability of information on multipurpose tree species (MPTs) for many species has facilitated the adoption of agroforestry as a viable land-use system. However, for certain MPTs, a lack of fundamental data on growth rates, breeding patterns, resilience to environmental stress,