eChapters

5.1 INTRODUCTION: THE PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY OF COLLOIDAL SUSPENSIONS

This chapter is concerned with understanding the factors which influence the partition of ions between solid surfaces and aqueous solutions. There are many aspects of soil science such as some of those concerned with soil formation, transfer of nutrient ions from soil particles to plant roots, soil pollutant interaction and soil management which are critically dependent on what happens in the space of the order of 1 nm wide between solid and equilibrium solution. A broad survey of the development of ideas on soil-electrolyte interaction shows that there have been two main avenues of approach. One views the soil as an electrically charged surface with its adsorbed hydrated ions as one phase in equilibrium with solution, which is seen as the second phase. The other approach focuses on the electrical double layer extending from the charged solid surface out into the solution. In the latter approach the solid surface, the outer equilibrium solution and the make up of the transition zone between these two phases must all be involved in any detailed consideration of the micro structure of the system. For a full and proper understanding of soil-electrolyte interaction anything less than a detailed analysis of the micro-structure is likely to be inadequate and in this it must be remembered that the interaction between electrical double layers which overlap with one another is likely to be important.

Introduction

Castor plant (Ricinus communis L) is an age old crop of India which has been in use in Ayurvedic medicine since 2000 BC, when the oil was used in lamps and also in local medicine particularly as a laxative and also to cure arthritis. The seeds of the crop yield non-edible viscous oil which has a number of applications in industry apart from its medicinal properties, which are well documented in Ayurvedic, Siddha and Unani medicine. The word Ricinus in the scientific name of the castor plant has cropped due to the appearance of its seed resembling dog’s tick!

Castor is cultivated on commercial scale in an area of 1,296,855 ha in 30 countries with global castor seed production at 1,396,104 MT (FAO STAT, 2019). India is the world’s single largest producer of castor seed accounting for more than 85% followed by China with about 7% and Brazil with about 5% of world castor seed output. There has been a consistent increase in output primarily on account of rise in yield levels in India. In recent years, however, Brazil and China have experienced stagnation in castor crop. Castor is widely grown in Ethiopia too. Among oilseed crops of India, castor crop has registered positive and high growth rate along with soybean (Mohapatra 2017).

INTRODUCTION

Anatomy is the branch of biological science which deals with the form and structure of organisms. The word “Anatomy” is derived from Greek, means cutting apart (Ana –separate, tomy-cut).

The study with unaided eye is Gross Anatomy / Macroscopic anatomy while the study of finer details of structure with the aid of a Microscope is Histology / Microscopic Anatomy.

1. The protein is derived from Greek word “Proteins” which means
   1. Principal
   2. Prime
   3. Holding the first place
   4. All of the above
2. The name protein to the group of organic compounds that are utmost important to life is suggested by
   1. Mulder
   2. Berzelius
   3. Kulim
   4. Sanger

Soil Chemistry is the study of chemical composition of soil in relation to crop needs. It deals with the chemical constitution of the soil, the chemical properties and the chemical reactions in soils. Traditional soil chemistry focuses on chemical and biochemical reactions in soils that influence nutrient availability for plant growth, and potential environmental consequences associated with inorganic and organic fertilization. Soil chemistry has increasingly focused on soil genesis and the environment over the past few decades.

Mango is considered to be the king of fruit. India is the largest producer and exporter of mango in the world. Mango possess unique nutritional and medicinal qualities apart from being a rich source of vitamins A & C, besides its attractive form and appearance, delicious taste and appetizing flavor, the ripe mango fruit according to nutritional experts is also highly invigorating, fattening, laxative and diuretic.

Popularly the term management is used to refer to the group of managerial personnel of an enterprise. But the use of the term management in this sense is not correct, because the managerial personnel of an enterprise are usually designated as ‘managers’, ‘executives’ or administrators. Strictly speaking the term management refers to functional concept of management.

1. DISEASES OF MANGO

Mango is considered to be the king of fruit. India is the largest producer and exporter of mango in the world. Mango possess unique nutritional and medicinal qualities apart from being a rich source of vitamins A & C, besides its attractive form and appearance, delicious taste and appetizing flavor, the ripe mango fruit according to nutritional experts is also highly invigorating, fattening, laxative and diuretic. Every part of mango from root to tip is used in a variety of ways. This crop is affected by many fungal, bacterial and other non parasitic diseases.

1. Mango Malformation Disease (MMD)

Mango Malformation Disease is a fungal disease of mango caused by several species of Fusarium, some yet to be described. Mango is the only known host of the disease. The disease spreads on a tree very slowly, but if left unchecked, can severely reduce yields. The main method of spreading MMD to new areas is through infected vegetative planting material. There is no evidence that the disease can spread on fruit or the seeds, or that it affects human health. It usually associated with the bud mite, Aceria mangiferae but the mites have been shown to spread the disease within a tree and not between the trees. Mango malformation, also known as bunchy top, is a very serious threat to the mango industry, particularly in northern India. The Etiology of the disease still remains obscure and diverse claims have been made about its causes, e.g., physiological, viral, fungal, acarological and nutritional.

Heart failure in canine is being recognized with an increasing frequency throughout the world. It is the end stage pathological event progressively occurring in heart diseases. Heart failure is the condition in which heart is unable to meet the metabolic and nutritional demands of the tissues of the body due to insufficient cardiac output. Heart failure has also been observed with normal cardiac output in conditions like hyperthyroidism or anemia where tissue metabolic needs are increased.

Five major oilseeds are groundnut, sesamum, Rapseseed and Mustard, linseed and castor seed. India has the largest area and production of oilseeds in the world. Indian vegetable oil economy is the fourth largest in the world next to USA, China and Brazil.

Importance

• Oilseeds are sources of oil, protein, carbohydrates, vitamins like Vitamin A, D, E and K and also contain 18 essential aminoacids and trace elements.
• Edible oils are next to food grains in Indian diet.
• Vegetable oils are mainly (95-98%) triacylgycerols which are made up of one glycerol molecule and three fatty acid molecules. Quality of oil depends upon the nature and proportion of the fatty acids present in three triacylglycerols.
• Vegetable oils have a number of industrial uses such as soaps, detergents, plastic films, metallic foils, Condiments, Cosmetics, Plastic, Polymers, Organic coatings, Printing ink, Oiled cloth

9.1 Introduction

Water is a precious commodity. Necessity of conservation of water supply is increasingly felt all over the world as the demand of it continues to increase when the sources of supply are increasingly scarce. The conveyance and proportional distribution of water is one of the most important part of any irrigation project. Water available in the stream, reservoirs or wells is carried to the field of use through canals. The economy of any irrigation project largely depends on how efficiently the water is being transported and distributed in respect to water losses and cost.

Water losses in irrigation channels are mainly due to evaporation from the water surface and seepage from the bed and side of the channels. Seepage losses some time become the single important factor which causes unavailability of water particularly in downstream of the channel in canal irrigation system and excess pumping of water in tube wells and river lift irrigation system.

Pest resurgence is defined as the rapid reappearance of a pest population in injurious numbers following pesticide application. Use of persistent and broad spectrum pesticides that kills the beneficial natural enemies is thought to be the leading cause of pest resurgence. However, resurgence is known to occur due to several reasons, for instance, increase in feeding and reproductive rates of insect pests, due to application of sub lethal doses of pesticides and sometimes elimination of a primary pest provides favorable conditions for the secondary pest to become primary pests (Harsh Garg, 2014). There are several pesticide induced pest outbreaks reported in walnut, hemlock, cotton and soybean. Among these, brown plant hopper in rice cultivation has gained a major importance in Asian countries. In general, natural BPH populations were kept under check by natural enemies including mired bugs, ladybird beetles, spiders and other pathogens. Pesticides, however, not only have destroyed the natural enemies, but have influenced the fecun

1.1 Background

The whole world is characterized by diverse cultures, different approaches to life, divergent outlooks and world views and dissimilar living conditions and environments. The people in it live with cultural, social, economic and educational dissimilarities, differences, inequalities, and goals. Despite the disparities in everything, the whole world is unified by Information, Communication and Technology through the global media culture, technocapitalism, and information revolution. Gone are the days when people confined themselves to their hearths, farms, educational institutions and places of work, managing their lives with basic minimum requirements and needs! 

The family Solanaceae consists of 85 genera, which include both tuberiferous and non-tuberiferous ones. Brinjal (Solanum sp.), chilli (Capsicum sp.) and tomato (Lycopersicon sp.) are the major fruit vegetables under the family. In all genera, fruit is an indehiscent berry.

A key for the identification of the above three genera are furnished below:

A. Anthers connivant in a cone, longer than filaments

B. Anthers dehisce by apical pores or short slits, leaves entire, lobed or pinnatifid - Solanum

BB. Anthers dehisce introsely by longitudinal slits, the tips empty, leaves pinnatiset - Lycopersicon

AA. Anthers not connivant in a cone, not larger than the filaments, dehisce by lateral slits - Capsicum

Plant propagation is one of the important fundamental aspects since the time of Rigveda (1400 B.C.) in the horticulture industry. It refers to the multiplication or perpetuation of individual or group of plants having specific value. Agriculture began, when ancient people started domestication of certain plants by growing around them and now these are cultivated in much improved form due to continuous selection and maintenance of better plant types. During the process of civilization; many plant types were selected for food and other purposes and are classified as food crops, fodder crops, fruit crops, vegetable crops, spices and condiments, aromatic and medicinal plants, etc. Now due modern plant sciences; newer and better plant types came into commercialization for cultivation. However, to maintain their qualities; it needs their propagation to keep their original form. Thus, it indicates that plant propagation has paramount importance in the horticulture industry to supply true-to-type sapling to farmers.

Oilseed crops have been grown all over the world and are considered important crops due to their economic value. Oilseed crops are primarily grown for edible oil. Recently, oilseeds attracted more attention due to an increasing demand for their healthy vegetable oils, livestock feeds, pharmaceuticals, biofuels, and other oleochemical industrial uses. The increased interest resulted in an 82% expansion of oilseed crop cultivation areas and about a 240% increase in total world production over the last 30 years.

Water is absolute necessary constituents for the survival and growth of all the living substances on earth. It is the most essential ingredients for many of the physiological and metabolic process in plants, like photosynthesis to form sugars, translocation of cell constituents and maintenance of cell turgidity. Soil, being an adsorbent of water received from precipitation or rainfall acts as reservoir to meet requirement by plant during growing season. Water retained in the soil serves as solvent to dissolve salts and nutrients and as a carrier to translocate them for absorption by plants. It plays significant role in weathering reaction, soil forming processes and profile development. Water is also important for growth and activities of microorganisms influencing decomposition of organic matter, transformation of mineral nutrients and other physical, chemical and biological properties in soil. This chapter deals with the retention and movement of water in soils to obtain better understanding of soil-water-plant-atmosphere relationships.

In this chapter, a comprehensive list of all plants and trees mentioned in epic Ramayana has been furnished with salient details in order to establish their botanical identity and references of Sholka where it had been mentioned. Some of the plants and trees had been mentioned in multiple sholokas but the plant has been taken into account as a single reference to avoid repetition and to get correct count of the trees and plants in whole of the Epic (Amirthalingam, 2013, Arun Kumar, 2019; Balapure et al., 1987; Bast, 2022; Ghimire et.al, 2021; Mao and Dash, 2010; Prasad and Mishra, 1976).

The plant species mentioned in Ramayana were of different types having various usages. Considering their morphological characteristics, usages and other importance, they have been categorized broadly into the following heads.

1. Economically important plants (Timber value, product yielding etc. having commercial importance).

2. Edible (major and minor fruits etc.).

3. Culturally important plants (Plants used for plantation for shade, greening etc.).

4. Non-Edible Plants (Ornamental importance and other usages)

5. Medicinal Plants (having therapeutic uses).

6. Sacred Plants (having religious importance).

7. Others (having multipurpose uses).

The provided table displays the distribution characteristics of seven dependent variables (y1-y6 ) and 18 independent variables (x1-x18 ). It includes their minimum, maximum, mean, variance, standard deviation, and coefficient of variation.

In terms of the respondents' average age (x1 ), the graph indicates a value of 48.17, which suggests a highly consistent distribution with a coefficient of variation (C.V.) of 19.24.

Similarly, the table reveals that the respondents' average level of education (x2 ) is 7.02, indicating an average education duration of around seven years per respondent. The variable demonstrates a fairly consistent distribution with a C.V. of 41.72.

Examining the respondents' average years of business experience (x3 ), the table indicates a mean value of 21.05. This implies a similar level of business experience across most respondents, with a fairly consistent distribution and a C.V. of 47.54.

Regarding the typical family size (x4 ), the table shows an average value of 3.92, indicating an approximate average family size of four. The distribution of this variable is also fairly consistent, with a C.V. of 37.21. The mean family education (x5 ) of the respondents is reported as 2.58, which corresponds to an average education level of 3 for the families. The variable exhibits a fairly consistent distribution, with a C.V. of 38.14.

In India, goats are known as “poor man's cow” because they are an important source of income for poor and landless people. They can be reared on cheaper resources easily than other livestock.

Goats come under the genus Capra have evolved from five wild species, including Capra hircus (which includes Bezoar), Capra ibex, Capra caucasica, Capra pyrenaica, and Capra falconeri. This evolutionary pattern contributes to their phenotypic diversity and adaptability to various environments. The chromosome profile of goats (specifically the Capra hircus species) reveals some interesting features which are as follows:

Chromosome Number
The modal chromosome number for goats is 60.
These chromosomes can be categorized into different types based on their centromere position:
Autosomes: These are either acrocentric or telocentric.
X Chromosome: It is acrocentric.
Y Chromosome: It is submetacentric.

Identification

Quinacrine-mustard staining and fluorescence microscopy allow us to identify 28 out of 30 chromosome pairs in goats.

Popularly the term management is used to refer to the group of managerial personnel of an enterprise. But the use of the term management in this sense is not correct, because the managerial personnel of an enterprise are usually designated as ‘managers’, ‘executives’ or administrators. Strictly speaking the term management refers to functional concept of management. Management refers to the sum total of all those functions or activities, which relate to the laying down of policies, plans and purposes, securing men, money, machinery needed for the achievement of the organisational objectives, putting all of them into operation and supervising and checking their performances in order to ensure the productive use of human and material resources for the maximum benefit or profit of the organisation, its employees and society in general.

Management is the sum total of five principal functions namely planning, organising, staffing, directing and controlling. The functional areas of management include: a) Financial management, b) Personnel management, c) material management, d) Production management, e) marketing management and f) Office management.

Constantly emerging and reemerging vaccine-preventable infectious diseases recently around the globe challenged the health infrastructure and has been a critical concern for the medical fraternity. There are 21 other neglected tropical diseases, as classified and recently updated by the World Health Organisation, many of which are seemingly vaccine-preventable. The unprecedented scenario that the world encountered during the recent COVID-19 pandemic was also a ‘silver lining in the dark cloud’ for primarily the vaccinologists. The scientific world witnessed stupendous developments in vaccine development. One such instance was the cutting-edge mRNA vaccine development platform. Once a vaccine is successfully designed, the next step is scaling it up in a milieu that is conducive for its mass production. There are numerous ways to achieve it, from biological system (animal models like the chick embryo, mouse cell-lines, suspension-cultured tobacco cells) to the non-biological (bioreactor) settings. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the intricacies in vaccine development, from designing to large-scale manufacturing (mass production). It delves into key scientific guiding principles behind developing and formulating vaccines, adopting both the traditional and emerging bioprocessing and bioseparation engineering and technology. It also explores the technical and management challenges faced before and during scaling up, including maintaining product efficacy, ensuring high quality for human administration, and navigating regulatory landscapes, among others. The chapter offers a holistic understanding of bioprocessing continuum, to educate and inform the research (academia) and development (bioindustry) community for more promising and effective strategies in the future to optimise vaccine production, thus contributing to the global public healthcare initiatives.

Soil is a loose surface material that provides water, nutrients, and structural support to agricultural plants. It is made up of 45% minerals, 5% organic components, 25% air, and 25% water. Our soils are said to be the source of 95% of the food we eat, either directly or indirectly.

The basis of the food chain is healthy soil. Our soils are the foundation of agriculture and the growing media for almost all plants that provide food. Good crops come from good soils, and healthy crops feed people and other animals. Food quantity and quality are, in fact, closely related to soil quality.

A healthy soil is a dynamic, living ecosystem. It is packed with both microscopic and larger organisms that carry out a multitude of essential tasks, such as nutrient cycling—the process of turning dead and decaying matter and minerals into plant nutrients controlling plant diseases and insect and weed pests, enhancing soil structure, which has a positive impact on the soil's ability to hold water and nutrients, and ultimately increasing crop productivity. Because healthy soil retains or increases its carbon content, it also helps to mitigate climate change.

Definition of Demand
Demand refers to the desire for a commodity that is backed by both purchasing power and willingness to pay at a given price within a specific period. In economics, we consider effective demand—not just absolute desire. A product is in demand only when individuals are willing and able to purchase it.
For example, many farmers may desire to buy cow mats, but if they lack the financial resources or are unwilling to spend on them, it does not count as effective demand.
Demand is formally defined as a “schedule or curve that shows the various quantities of a commodity that consumers are willing and able to purchase at different prices, within a specific time frame and market conditions.”
Law of Demand
The Law of Demand states that, ceteris paribus (all other factors remaining constant), the quantity demanded of a commodity varies inversely with its price. In simpler terms:
When the price of a commodity rises, the quantity demanded decreases. When the price of a commodity falls, the quantity demanded increases. This inverse relationship occurs because consumers tend to buy less of an expensive product and more of a cheaper one, provided other factors like income, preferences, and the price of related goods remain unchanged.

9.1 Introduction
Building upon our foundational understanding of statistical methods in meteorology, Chapter 9, “Advanced Analytic Techniques,” propels us into the forefront of data science applications within the atmospheric sciences. The imperative for these advanced methodologies stems directly from the evolving nature of meteorological data itself. Modern observations, numerical weather prediction (NWP) model outputs, and climate simulations generate an unprecedented volume of information, often arriving with incredible velocity and exhibiting immense variety in format and structure. Traditional statistical approaches, while robust for many tasks, often struggle to efficiently process such vast, high-dimensional datasets, or to fully capture the intricate, often non-linear, relationships inherent in atmospheric processes.
This chapter is dedicated to exploring why and how these sophisticated techniques are not merely supplementary, but increasingly essential. We will delve into how machine learning and deep learning algorithms excel at identifying subtle, complex patterns within massive datasets, enabling breakthroughs in areas like severe weather detection, nowcasting, and the bias correction of model outputs. We will also examine advanced spatial statistics, which provide powerful frameworks for explicitly modeling the intricate geographical dependencies of meteorological variables, crucial for accurate interpolation, downscaling, and understanding regional climate impacts. Furthermore, the chapter will introduce functional data analysis, a method particularly adept at treating continuous meteorological fields (like temperature profiles or pressure maps) as functions, allowing for a more holistic analysis of their evolution and variability. By embracing these advanced analytical techniques, meteorologists and climate scientists can unlock deeper insights, enhance predictive skill, more rigorously quantify uncertainties, and ultimately contribute to a more resilient society in the face of a changing climate. Prepare to expand your analytical toolkit and discover new frontiers in meteorological understanding.

Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) are obligate parasites that infect and kill insects. Their short life cycles, simple rearing requirements, and straightforward molecular manipulations render them ideal to study host– parasite interactions. Additionally, their efficacy in reducing herbivore damage in the field contributed to their use as biological control agents in agriculture (Xi Zhang et al., 2021). EPNs comprise three genera, Heterorhabditis, Steinernema, and Oscheius. Infective juveniles (IJs) are third-stage free-living nematode larvae (iL3) that locate, select, and infect a host by entering through
a natural orifice or by penetrating through the cuticle. Upon infection, IJs release venom proteins and regurgitate an endosymbiotic entomopathogenic bacterium, leading to a fatal toxemia and septicemia of the host. Juveniles then undergo a transition from free-living to parasitic lifestyle and resume growth and development by feeding on the infected flesh. Adult nematodes reproduce inside the host generating several new generations of nematodes. Resource depletion and elevated nematode densities induce the production of ascaroside C11 ethanolamine, an ascaroside triggering the production of next generation IJs, often through Endotokia matricida. The newly hatched IJs emerge from the resource-depleted host and search to infect new hosts.
Juvenile host-seeking strategies are typically classified along a gradient ranging from ambushing to cruising (Xi Zhang et al., 2021). Ambusher nematodes are stationary and infect mobile hosts. Attachment to a mobile host can be achieved through nictation, which corresponds to the nematode standing on its tail, curling, and propelling itself in the air. Cruiser nematodes disperse in the soil and locate sedentary hosts. Nematodes with intermediate strategies can ambush or disperse depending on the soil matrix and host presence. Additionally, recent studies highlighted that EPNs can attract insects to infected cadavers just before emergence (Zhang et al., 2019). Being the first step of host–parasite interactions, host-seeking is critical in determining the success of a parasite.

The transition from an agrarian society to a more advanced and diversified economy represents a profound shift in how societies function and evolve. Initially, agrarian societies are primarily centered around agriculture, with the majority of the population engaged in farming and related activities. As agricultural productivity improves through technological innovations, such as advanced machinery and crop varieties, these societies begin to experience economic growth. This growth often spurs industrialization, leading to the establishment of manufacturing sectors that create new job opportunities and drive urbanization. Cities expand as people migrate from rural areas in search of better employment prospects, leading to significant social changes. Education and skill development become crucial, as improved literacy rates and vocational training prepare individuals for diverse professions beyond agriculture. The transition from an agrarian society to a more advanced and diversified economy marks a profound shift in societal functioning and evolution, encompassing multiple dimensions that can be examined through various disciplinary lenses. Economically, this transformation begins with improvements in agricultural productivity, driven by technological innovations such as advanced machinery and high-yield crop varieties. These enhancements not only increase agricultural output but also reduce the labour required for farming, thereby freeing up labour for other sectors. This shift often triggers economic growth, which spurs industrialization. As manufacturing sectors develop, they create new job opportunities, driving urbanization as individuals migrate from rural areas to cities in search of better employment prospects. This economic expansion is central to understanding the broader changes that occur as societies evolve from agrarian to industrial and post-industrial economies.
From a sociological perspective, the transition to a diversified economy leads to significant social changes. Urbanization alters family structures, social networks, and community dynamics. As people move to urban areas, traditional agrarian values give way to new social norms and practices associated with city life. Education and skill development become critical, as improved literacy rates and vocational training prepare individuals for diverse

4.1. Data Set Generation for Modelling
We have generated 54 transfomed spectra by applying different combination of parameter. Now this spectrum is to be tagged with respective soil sample and desired soil properties for which spectral modeling has to be done. Here we are generaring data tagged with CaCO3.
For that we have to use cbind() fuction. Here we are keeping soil properties in first column and spectra after that column. We are storing data in R memeory and naming data in such way that we can identify properties and transfoemed spectra attached with that data. After generating data for modeling, data is divided into calibration and validation data set by using random sampling method or Kedard-
Stone method
# Data set for CaCO3 with raw spectra ####
Data.CaCO3.pc.113=cbind(data10nm_$CaCO3_equivalent_per, First_ derivative10nm113) #case 1st
Here in case 1st, CaCO3 indicating properties and 113 indcating without smoothed 1st derivative, 1st order polynomial 3rd point spectra is tagged with these soil samples. Same was followed with other cases also

6.1. Introduction
The best way to combat malnutrition globally among women and children have changed over the last few years keeping pace with the advancement of technology. Information and communication technologies (ICT) have become very important for solving the contemporary nutrition related issues because they provide a vast array of new communication capabilities. In addition to meeting society’s actual needs for ongoing health and nutrition care, ICTs are crucial for facilitating interactive, personalized nutrition communication. People can interact or communicate with others in different countries in real-time through instant messaging, video conferencing or voice over IP (internet protocol). Through social networking platforms like Facebook, Instagram, and others, people from all over the world can regularly converse and stay in touch. In the context of health communication, ICT is referred to as Interactive Health Communication (IHC), which is the exchange of health information and advice and support regarding health-related matters between a consumer, patient, caregiver, or professional using an electronic device or communication technology. Nutrition treatments are less expensive when face-to-face interaction is facilitated by electronic means. These are complementary factors that encourage nutrition communication in an information-age healthcare system, especially when combined with consumers’ growing desire to take charge of their own health. Customers can advantageously use information technology in this system to connect with health professionals and support groups, obtain absolutely relevant information, and take charge of their own health. The “global village,” which has been made possible by modern information and communication technology, allows people to interact with each other virtually as if they were neighbours. Because of this, ICT is frequently examined in relation to the ways that contemporary communication technologies influence society.

7.1. Introduction
Entrepreneurs serve as the catalysts for the introduction of innovative technologies and systems that ultimately lead to societal advancements. These innovations are linked to enhanced lifestyles, progressive thinking, morale, and bravery, along with an improved standard of living. National and global changes are greatly influenced by such kinds of social change. Joseph Schumpeter, an Australian famous economist, is referred to as the father of entrepreneurship. Dhirubhai Ambani was the most enterprising Indian entrepreneur. Jamsetji Tata set a bar for entrepreneurship development in India with the foundation of the Tata group. The father of entrepreneurship in India is Ratan Tata. In public health, nutrition-based entrepreneurship and self-employment are also another emerging topic nowadays. Several entrepreneurs are found in this field mostly due to the challenge of building a business and craving to control their destiny. Not only that, financial independence, personal satisfaction, relief from the frustration of working for someone else, and the opportunity to create the desired lifestyle. Nutrition entrepreneurship offers numerous business-related resources and provides services for social well-being. As for example, the transformation of raw food ingredients into consumable food products, entrepreneurship plays a key role in diversifying and commercializing agricultural products. It adds value of food, prolongs its shelf life, promotes the export of processed items, generates employment opportunities, boosts farmers’ earnings, and makes a significant contribution to the general development of rural areas. Health entrepreneurs like nutritionists, dietitians, physicians, and health counsellors run their practice and make it available for the client to listen to their problems and solve their problems through mental support, motivation, diet therapy, medication, and so on. As a result, the health burdens due to noncommunicable and communicable diseases are reduced.

9.1. Introduction
The three basic need for human survival are- food, clothing and shelter. The requirement of food comes first. Human are omnivorous. They eat mainly natural foods. Before 5000 years ago, cereals were the main food for all civilization and then the complexity of life began to make appearing with the advent of industrialization, flourishing of industry and commerce. Unpolished grains were utilised at first, but in contemporary civilisation, we have begun to prepare them, which results in the loss of essential nutrients. The intake of meats, processed meals, and sugary goods has grown while the general intake of cereals has decreased. People now lack vital nutrients as a result of the departure from natural diets. People began to realise a few years ago that health is a significant concern in addition to flavour, convenience, and quality value. They have thus begun taking nutritional vitamin supplements to make up for the nutrients lost from processed meals. People are increasingly opting for natural nutraceuticals in capsules and tablets, a trend known as medicalization in nutrition, instead of relying on natural food items. Hippocrates emphasized the connection between food and medicine, stating that healthy foods has a strong therapeutic advantages. The ancient Indian medical system known as Ayurveda places a strong focus on the functioning of diet and nutraceuticals in both health and illness.
9.2. What are Nutraceuticals
Stephen De Felice, the founder and chief executive of the Foundation for Innovation in Medicine (FIM), first used the term “nutraceuticals” in 1989 to refer to the broad category of medicines and nutrition. Nutraceuticals are foods or dietary components that not only offer nourishment and energy but also significantly contribute to regulating and preserving the regular physiological processes that keep people healthy. Nutraceuticals included processed meals such as cereal-grains, soups or stews, genetically engineered foodstuffs, herbal items, nutritional supplements, and extracted nutrients. People are increasingly concerned about their healthy wellbeing these days. However, these include a hectic, sedentary lifestyle, unhealthy eating patterns, body image issues, and being afflicted by a number of illnesses. These are the factors driving the global nutraceutical market’s expansion and generating a lot of interest. Numerous health issues of the century, including cancer, type 2 diabetes, heart disease, inflammation, oxidative stress, constipation, and more, can be fought off with the use of these nutraceuticals. Overall, nutraceuticals bring an entirely novel phase in medical science and assist the food companies to promote more creative research strategies. (Dudeja and Gupta, 2017)).

Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) are obligate parasites that infect and kill insects. Their short life cycles, simple rearing requirements, and straightforward molecular manipulations render them ideal to study host– parasite interactions. Additionally, their efficacy in reducing herbivore damage in the field contributed to their use as biological control agents in agriculture (Xi Zhang et al., 2021). EPNs comprise three genera, Heterorhabditis, Steinernema, and Oscheius. Infective juveniles (IJs) are third-stage free-living nematode larvae (iL3) that locate, select, and infect a host by entering through a natural orifice or by penetrating through the cuticle. Upon infection, IJs release venom proteins and regurgitate an endosymbiotic entomopathogenic bacterium, leading to a fatal toxemia and septicemia of the host. Juveniles then undergo a transition from free-living to parasitic lifestyle and resume growth and development by feeding on the infected flesh. Adult nematodes reproduce inside the host generating several new generations of nematodes. Resource depletion and elevated nematode densities induce the production of ascaroside C11 ethanolamine, an ascaroside triggering the production of next generation IJs, often through Endotokia matricida. The newly hatched IJs emerge from the resource-depleted host and search to infect new hosts.
Juvenile host-seeking strategies are typically classified along a gradient ranging from ambushing to cruising (Xi Zhang et al., 2021). Ambusher nematodes are stationary and infect mobile hosts. Attachment to a mobile host can be achieved through nictation, which corresponds to the nematode standing on its tail, curling, and propelling itself in the air. Cruiser nematodes disperse in the soil and locate sedentary hosts. Nematodes with intermediate strategies can ambush or disperse depending on the soil matrix and host

Gullies convey runoff and sediment from upstream catchments, but uncontrolled flow enlarges their beds and banks, removes productive land, and may ultimately create ravines. Their development depends on rainfall intensity, runoff volume, catchment size, land use, soil properties, topography, and channel characteristics. Effective treatment requires reducing runoff generation, diverting excess water where appropriate, stabilizing the gully, and restoring vegetation. This chapter presents the principles of gully control and classifies interventions into upstream and downstream measures. It discusses agronomic practices, diversion structures, check dams, drop structures, chute spillways, bank protection, revegetation, and maintenance requirements for safely controlling water velocity, erosion, and sediment transport.

Soil

Soil is a natural body of mineral and organic constituents differentiated into horizons usually unconsolidated, of variable depth which differs among themselves as well as from the underlying parent material in morphology, physical makeup, chemical properties and composition and biological characteristics (Whitney, 1982; Hilgard, 1892; Dokuchaiev, 1900 and Joffe, 1936).

According to Soil Science Society of America (SSSA, 1970) soil is the unconsolidated mineral matter on the surface of the earth that has been subjected to and influenced by genetic and environmental factors of parent material, climate (including moisture and temperature effects), macro and microorganisms and topography, all affecting over a period of time and producing a product, that is “SOIL” that differs from the material from which it is derived in physical, chemical, biological and morphological properties and characteristics. The unconsolidated mineral material on the immediate surface of the earth, that serves as a natural medium for the growth of plants.

Approaches of Soil Study

Pedological Approach : The origin of the soil, its classification and description are examined in Pedology. (From Greek word pedon means soil or earth). It is the study of soil as a natural body and does not focus on the soil’s immediate practical use.

Edaphological Approach: Edaphology (from Greek word edaphos means soil or ground) is the study of soil from the stand point of higher plants. Edaphologists consider the various properties of soil in relation to plant production.

Soil Science : The science dealing with soil as a natural resource on the surface of the earth, including pedology (soil genesis, classification and mapping) and the physical, chemical and biological and fertility properties of soil and these properties in relation to their management for crop production.

The functioning of the Women Dairy Cooperative Societies depends upon the variations in managerial capacity leading to profit and loss of different WDCS. To make an in-depth analysis, the study was undertaken in undivided Cuttack and Dhenkanal district of Odisha covering 22 randomized WDCS with a sample of 110 women respondents.

The analysis of the findings after statistical treatment have been presented objective-wise as follows;

Socio-economic profile of the members of WDCS involved in dairy production activities.

Gap between procedures prescribed and followed in formation and functioning of WDCS.

Identification and analysis of key performance areas in the WDCS.

Determination of management practices and milk production profiles of WDCS members.

Extent of participation of women members in dairy activities.

Entrepreneurial characteristics of members of Women Dairy Cooperative Society.

Impact of WDCS on socio-economic status of the members.

Correlating variables and their interrelationship in predicting smooth functioning of WDCS.

Constraints faced by the WDCS members.

Suggestions of members for improvement in functioning of WDCS

The chapter deals with the Results and discussion of the study, whose purpose is to provide sufficient information so as to arrive at a valid conclusion. Tables and Figures are commonly used in this chapter to support and supplement textual materials. Discussion helps to interpret the Results of the study from a proper perspective and to relate them with other relevant studies.

Table 6.1. Descriptive Statistics of Variable with respect to Minimum, Maximum, Mean, Standard Deviation of Values, Variance, and Coefficient of Variance:

Introduction

A total of 109 elements have been discovered and incorporated into the periodic table. Many of these elements are found in the earth’s mantle, crust, and soil, though their abundance varies. The chemical makeup of plants is, to some degree, influenced by the composition of the soil. However, since plants are active organisms, they exhibit selectivity in absorbing elements from the soil. Plants accumulate elements at different rates, absorbing some in large quantities, others in smaller amounts, and excluding most altogether. Before proceeding, it is important to familiarise with several key terms frequently used in this chapter.

Nutrient: A nutrient element is essential for an organism to complete its life cycle, and a deficiency in this element leads to specific deficiency symptoms. The negative effects can only be corrected by providing that particular element. Nutrient elements essential for plants may not be necessary for other organisms, and vice versa. Depending on availability, the nutrient levels in a plant can be deficient, sufficient, or toxic. A nutrient is considered deficient when its concentration is so low that it significantly limits growth and causes recognisable deficiency symptoms. If nutrient levels cause reduced growth without visible deficiency symptoms, they are termed insufficient. The nutrient content range in plants that supports optimal yield of crops is considered sufficient. When the concentration of a nutrient becomes high enough to significantly reduce growth, it is considered toxic.

Abstract

In recent years there has been a world-wide shift in consumer choice and preferences for herbal drugs. Herbal drugs are crude preparations of various kinds of medicinal plants. It involves dried plant or any part such as leaf, stem, root, flower, or seed. According to WHO survey, about 70-80% of the world population particularly in the developing countries rely on non-conventional medicines mainly of herbal sources for their primary health care.^[1] Herbal medicines are being widely accepted for their safety, efficacy, cultural acceptability, better compatibility with the human body and lesser side effects. With the legal acceptance in many countries of the world as an alternative system of medicine, the growth rate of ayurvedic and herbal industry is estimated to be more than 30% for the last 25 years. 

Introduction

With an ever-increasing global inclination towards the consumption of herbal medicines, there is a growing need of raw materials and to identify the active principles that should be available in optimum quantities at the requisite time. Currently, the herbal medicine sector faces numerous challenges such as narrow genetic base, identification and authentication of species, chemical characterization of active compounds and identification of the target molecules. The pharmacologically active metabolites are produced in very low amounts by the plants and their chemical synthesis is expensive, hence there is a growing pressure of procuring these active metabolites from the wild leading to diminishing the populations, loss of genetic diversity and local extinctions. Domestic cultivation of medicinal plants offers an attractive alternative but not much information is available regarding the cultivation practices for many plants and also, there are issues related to storage practices, quality, safety and stability assessment that need to be addressed. Futher, the study of secondary metabolites and their enhancement is a bottleneck due to lack of knowledge about characterized biosynthetic pathways and enzymes in many plants and how their synthesis is regulated at molecular level. To address these challenges, new molecular tools and biotechnological approaches are much warranted. However, the rapidly changing pace of technology and development of high-throughput research, the field of plant biotechnology is beginning to suffer from data overload. All biotechnological efforts have involved empirical, labor-intensive and time-consuming methods. Bioinformatics is one such approach in which biology and information technology converge. It is an interdisciplinary scientific tool that facilitates both the analysis and integration of information from ‘omics’ technologies including genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics and phenomics. The present chapter highlights some of the important areas in bioinformatics which play a significant role and could also have immense impact in medicinal plants research.

Caecae: Saclike or tubular structures open at only one end (blind), often opening from the mid-intestine (Fig. 41).

Caecum (pl. caeca): A blind-ending tube or sac or pouch sac of the alimentary canal (L. caecus= blind) e.g., haepatic caecae in the alimentary canal of insects (Fig. 41).

Calamistrum: One or two rows of curved spines on the metatarsus of the hind legs (spiders; fig. 608, clm).

Calibration: The adujustment of application equipment so that a defined quantity of chemical or other material is applied per unit time or area.

Calling: A vergin female moth releasing sex pheromones to attract males for the purpose of mating.

Calliphorin: A protein produced in the fat body and stored in the haemolymph of larval Calliphoridae (Diptera).

Soil microorganisms in true sense are one of natural safety valves that regulate biogeochemical transformations in soil ecosystem. They act as natural agents for the disposal of organic matter. The various essential biological elements such as C, N, S and P, apart from H and O, form the primary building blocks of cells and their constituent elements are recycled through tiny microorganisms present in soil. More they are in quality and quantity, better recycling is expected by them. The organically bound materials are converted to simpler inorganic forms to complete biological cycle initiated during photosynthesis and other anabolic processes.

7.1 Introduction

Sustainable agricultural systems must be adopted to increase the food production keeping in view of increase in human population. In tropical countries, insect pests are major challenges to increase food production by causing significant damage in the crop fields and stored grains and their products. Interventions by implementing timely integrated pest management strategies are necessary to reduce the yield losses. Efforts to control insect pests have predominantly relied on the use of broad-spectrum insecticides.  However, indiscriminate and irrational applications of insecticides have created the problems such as insecticide resistance, resurgence, secondary pest outbreak and the presence of residues in food and environment (Ansari et al., 2013). Globally, to reduce the pesticide dependence, various technologies have been developed using different approaches to monitor and maage insect pests which are discussed in this chapter.

1. INTRODUCTION

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) is a perennial herb and the economic part is underground stem (rhizome), which is used as a spice. It is native to tropical South-East Asia, introduced into the West Indies, African countries and other tropical belt of the world. The ginger rhizome is harvested between 6 and 12 months after planting and used as spice in the fresh condition,  peeled and split dried or powedered forms. Ginger is utilized widely as a spice, for pickles, candies and as a medicinal herb. The anti-inflammatory and anti-nausea qualities of ginger have applications in the pharmaceutical industry. Ginger and supplements derived from ginger have received attention for the treatment of chronic inflammation. Administration of ginger has resulted in decreased symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis (Srivastava and Mustafa, 1992) and gingerol (a component of ginger) has been reported to have anti-inflammatory actions (Kiuchi et al., 1992; Tjendraputra et al., 2001).

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Turmeric (Curcuma domestica Val. (syn. C. longa Koenig non L.) is an important spice, a native of India and South East Asia. Chikarmane et al. (2003) by analyzing historical patterns of movement of South Asian and Southeast Asian people known to have used turmeric suggested that turmeric was introduced into Southeast Asia via Indian colonization in the early Christian centuries. An increase in colonization events from South India during this time was because of discoveries in navigational science and desires to expand civilizations, rather than military conquests. The cultural expansion from South India supports the introduction of turmeric cultivation to Southeast Asia via human means. These human migratory patterns are compared to a phylogenetic analysis of DNA sequence data within Curcuma, and suggested that key locations such as the Isthmus of Kra were important not only to human movement but to species evolution in Curcuma (Chikarmane et al., 2003).

Rose
Rose is a perennial erect shrub, climber or trailing plant  belonging to the genus Rosa within the  family Rosaceae. The plants bear large and showy flowers of white, yellow, red, pink, orange and various shades. Most of the species are native to Asia.

Valuable Genetic Resources

Summary

Water security can be defined as reliable availability of water in sufficient quantity and quality to sustain human health, livelihoods, food (agriculture, fisheries and aquaculture) and the environment (biodiversity and ecosystems). Discharge of chemical and biological pollutants (from agriculture, industry and domestic uses) into rivers and development of engineering infrastructure such as dams and weirs over rivers have modified river ecosystems threatening the global water security, water quality and water dependent biodiversity. Climate change (increase in the intensity and frequency of floods, droughts, bushfire and sea-level rise, ocean acidification, etc.) is an additional stress on water security. There is a need to reduce climate change impacts on water security which can be done via adaptations to climate change. Adaptation is adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities. In other words, the adaptation can be considered as, tackling the effects of climate change. Adaptation to climate change in terms of sustainable use of water may include increasing water availability by developing hydro-basins and transferring water from areas in which it is abundant to areas in which there is scarcity, the reduction of water losses, increasing storage capacity by building reservoirs and dams, rainwater harvesting, improvement of water use efficiency, desalination of seawater, water savings (leakage management, metering, retrofitting existing homes with water efficient products in toilets, showers, baths, using energy efficient dishwashers and washing machines), mandatory rainwater tanks in new and old buildings (for toilet flushing, washing clothes, gardens, car washing), use of recycled or reclaimed water for landscape irrigation or to recharge groundwater aquifers, and to meet commercial and industrial water needs.

All these methods of utilization and the conversion to useful energies depend on the climate, population density of the area and the basic infrastructure. It is important to work out the market for the products which are produced.
 
Bio-waste management: It needs to take from small actions to the ambitious ones. European Commission proposes to use wastes which could make up to 25% of total energy consumption by 2020. They propose to have directives for the promotion of renewable electricity (Directive 2001/77/EC) and biofuels (Directive 2003/30/EC). The waste production in Europe has gone upto 2 kg per capita per day. Recycling rates are also rising (European Commission, 2017). The Member states must develop a national action plan and outline the national policies to develop existing biomass resources and mobilise new biomass resources for different uses. A European project has studied the amount of renewable energy to be used in 2020. According to them it will be around 195 million tons of oil equivalents (Mton) of biomass which is biodegradable part of MSW. This will be 20% of renewable energy target. It has also been estimated that the amount of bio-energy from the MSW will be 20 Mton, which would account for around 7% of all renewable energy in 2020. This may be available after composting and anaerobic digestion (Atanasiu, 2010).

4.1 Composition of Concentrate Mixture
 
The ingredient composition of experimental concentrate mixture is presented in Table 3. Groundnut cake in T1 and T3 were treated with formaldehyde as a tool of protein protection while protected fat at the rate of 10g per liter milk production per animal in T2 and T3 was added in concentrate mixture before feeding every day.

Introduction
 
Soybean (Glycine max L. Merril) is the world’s most important oil yielding legume which contributes 25% of the global edible oil, about two thirds of the world’s protein concentrate feeds for livestock, poultry and fish. India ranks fifth in the area and production in the world after USA, Brazil, Argentina and China. The contribution of India in the world soybean area is 10% but to total world soybean production is only 4% indicating the poor levels of productivity of the crop in India (1.1 t/ha) as compared to other courtiers (World average 2.2 t/ha) which is a major cause of concern.