eChapters

The research work carried out throughout citrus growing countries of the world including India showed utility of different rootstocks for citrus plants, which varies greatly with scion variety and agro-climatic condition. A wide range of citrus rootstocks are available, each having desirable attributes. The success of a rootstock is determined by its tolerance to prevailing conditions of soil, climate and diseases. Citrus plants are unusual in that many species and cultivars including the commercial rootstocks reproduce true to type from seed. Commercial citrus rootstocks are usually highly polyembryonic but there can be 1-40 zygotic seedlings in the seedbed.

Plant diseases are of paramount importance to humans because they damage plants and plant products on which humans depends for food, clothing, furniture, the environment and in many cases the housing. The kinds and amounts of losses caused by plant diseases vary with the plant or plant products, the pathogen, the locality, the environment, the control measures practiced and combination of these factors (Agrios, 2005). Disease is one of the major biotic constraints to reduce crop yield and also deteriorate the quality of product that ultimately reduce the market price.

Hypothesis: A statement about the value of a population parameter developed for the purpose of testing.

Type I and Type II Errors

•    Type I Error: Rejecting the null hypothesis when it should not be rejected.
    •    Therefore accepting the alternative hypothesis (your theory) when you should not.
    •    Probability of a Type I error is called a.
•    Type II Error: Failing to reject the null hypothesis when it should be rejected.
    •    Therefore not accepting the alternative hypothesis (your theory). Opportunity loss.
    •    Probability of a Type I error is called b.
•    Minimizing Type I errors is the main concern of hypothesis testing

Tropical root and tuber crops are the third important group of food crops after cereals and pulses. Tuber crops hold a premier position among food crops in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. These crops are rich in starch and calories and have great potential in meeting the food and energy needs.  More than 840 million people do not have enough food to meet their basic daily energy needs. Far more - an estimated 3 billion - suffer the insidious effects of micronutrient deficiencies leading to hidden hunger. Apart from its popular use as food, tubers also find an important space in cattle feed and agro industries sector.Tropical tuber crops possess high photosynthetic ability coupled with the capacity to yield under marginal lands, adverse biotic and abiotic stress etc (Ravindran et al., 2008).

India produces 9.2% of world’s vegetables and fruits, nearly 109 million tons of vegetables and 57.69 million tons of fruits. The production of horticultural commodities is expected to grow to 300 million tons in near future (Kaur, 2008). India accounts for 18.2% of global trade in vegetables and 0.5% in fruits. The overall food wastages are very high amounting to around Rs. 10.4 lakh million. India wastes more fruits and vegetables than what U.K consumes. It is estimated that cumulative wastage of fruits and vegetables, on the farm, during procurement, storage and at the retail outlets, is worth about Rs.422250 million. 

(I)  Management of Swine

Since early days, cattle, sheep and goats accompanied human beings where ever they migrated but it is not the same with swine because of its rearing in unhygenic conditions. Some communities started avoiding swine because of the foul smell from pigs and slowly it entered into the religious life of Muslims and Yashdies.

            In China since 4900 BC and in England before 800 BC swine production scripts are found in majority in these two countries and at present these countries are leading in swine production. Swine growth is very much influenced by the method of keeping and rearing them and that is why its managemental practices should always be given high priority.

Reproduction

The female piglet attain maturity in 6-7 months of age and has a weight of 60-80 kgs. Males take more time to attain adolesence. The breedable age of a female is 8-12 months when it has a weight above 100 kgs. Its heat period is for 2-3 days. It may conceive by artificial insemination after 2-3 days of heat. The gestation length is 114 days. Weighing may be done after one month of age. Females generally give birth to 6-10 young ones at a time. If more young ones are born, than there are increased chances of death of the young ones.

1. Introduction

Food is processed for its preservation, hygienization or value addition. To date, the food preservation technologies such as canning, dehydration, freezing, pasteurization and controlled atmosphere and modified atmosphere packaging have been the main processes employed to preserve foods, with the use of antimicrobials and microwaves also being employed more recently. In future, however, technologies such as exposure to ionizing radiation, high pressure processing, ohmic heating and pulsed electric field processing, could potentially be the new alternatives to the above food preservation technologies.

Irradiation of food involves the exposing of food, either in prepacked form or as such to controlled doses of ionizing radiation being generated either by electrically driven machines such as electron beam accelerators, x-rays or gamma rays produced by radioactive isotopes such as CS-137,CO-60, to achieve certain desirable objectives. The process of exposing a range of food stuffs to specific doses of ionizing radiation is being used to extend the shelf life of food stuffs, to improve their overall safety and quality by eliminating pathogenic bacteria, by reducing number of food spoilage organisms, to reduce the bacterial load on herbs and spices and thereby making them safe to incorporate into food stuffs, to inhibit sprouting in stored tuber and bulb crops such as potatoes, onions and garlic, to disinfest grains, grain products and tropical fruits to prevent damage to the commodity and to meet the quarantine regulations(Arun Sharma, 2004, Farkas, 2006).

1. Introduction

Mushrooms represent a highly specialized group of fungi, mostly basidiomycetes, with production of fruiting bodies bearing the spores for continued propogation. The fruiting bodies vary greatly in shape, size, color, texture, structure and aroma (Rajarathnam et al., 1998). They are endowed with the unique ability to biodegrade cellulosic wastes, including lignin, and biotransform into edible fruiting bodies (Rajarathnam et al., 1992, 1998, Rajarathnam and Zakia Bano, 1990). Their chemistry is also varied comprising characteristic polysaccharides, phenolics, proteins, amino acids, peptides, lectins, fatty acids, minerals, and so on (Rajarathnam et al., 1998). The wide spectrum of compounds have endowed the mushroom species with a spectrum of biofunctional activities of medicinal importance and accordingly their role in human health are implicated through studies on chemical, cell culture and animal feeding experiments. Vast literature available on this subject is condensed for presentation here.
Fifty nine medicinal species are reported from Diaoluoshan Nature Reserve in Hainan Province, China (Li et al., 2003). A health food made from luminescent mushrooms (Mycena chlorophos) is described. The luminescent parts that emit light in the carpophore of the mushrooms are dried without thermal decomposition and pulverized (Sugimoto, 2006). Consideration is given to the health promoting properties of 3 types of Asian fungi, namely, shiitake (Lentinus edodes), reishi (Ganoderma lucidum) and maitake (Grifola frondosa). Properties considered include beneficial components (e.g polysaccharides, vitamins, amino acids) and effects on the immune system (Anon, 1997). Auricularia auricula (kikurage or tree-ear) and Tremella fuciformis (shirokikurage or white jelly-leaf) are widely used in Chinese cuisine. Chemical structures of some of the polysaccharides from A. auricula and T. fuciformis, in relation to their medicinal and nutritional effects are described (Misaki and Kakuta, 1995).

Abstract: This chapter reports variations in organic C, total N and P, mineral N and P, and exchangeable K, Ca and Mg, and microbial biomass C in soils in relation to leaf litter and root biomass (0 to 10, 10 to 20 and 20 to 30cm) at two canopy positions viz. under canopy and between canopy of homegarden trees i.e. coconut palm (Cocos nucifera L.), and clove (Eugenia cariophyllata Thunb) and nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt. Nees) spice trees. It also deals with seasonal variations in pool sizes of mineral N (NH4+-N and NO₃--N), and net N mineralization rate (0-15 cm) in relation to rainfall and temperature under the homegarden trees, and examines how high rainfall (incessant rainfall) influences water filled pore space (WFPS), net nitrification and net ammonification rates, pool sizes of NH4+-N and NO₃--N and microbial biomass C in the soils and conserves nutrients in humid tropical climate. The chapter also describes how high rainfall makes phosphorus available in high regime of iron in the soils; and perennial cover crop like Pueraria separately and together with phosphorus increases soil N mineralization. Organic C, total N, total P, exchangeable NH₄+, NO_3- , exchangeable K, Ca and Mg are higher in the under canopy and between canopy positions of all the homegarden trees than that in open. Rate of mineralization is the highest during the post-wet season and the lowest during the dry season (February to April) under all homegarden trees. High rainfall during the wet season, however, reduces the rate of nitrification under all the trees.

Introduction
Genetic research has been transformed by technological developments, and has by necessity become extremely quantitative, as massive quantities of varying complex data types can now be generated very rapidly. High-throughput data are being used in a variety of basic science investigations that have implications in the diagnosis and treatment of human disease: identification and characterization of genetic variants associated with a particular disease within and across populations; discovery of gene expression signatures associated with disease phenotypes; identification and testing of potential disease biomarkers. Methodological advances in the statistical treatment and interpretation of these data are needed in order to meet the pressing need for powerful, efficient and robust analysis.

4.1. INTRODUCTION

Rice (Oryza sativa) is the major food crop in the world. Nearly 40% of the world population consumes rice as the major staple food. Most of the people, who depend on rice as primary food, live in the less developed countries.  Archeological evidence on rice in India dates back to 1500-1000 B.C. Since the dawn of civilization, rice has served humans as a life-giving cereal in the humid regions of Asia and, to a lesser extent, in West Africa. Introduction of rice into Europe and the America has led to its increased use in human diets. There are 42 rice producing countries throughout the world but China and India are major rice production centers. Rice is grown in wide range of agro-climatic conditions ranging from mountainous (Jammu) lands to low land delta areas (Sundarban), spanning an area from 53° latitude north to 35° south of the world but about 90% of the crop is grown and consumed in Asia. Rice provides fully 60% of the food intake in Southeast Asia and about 35% in East Asia and South Asia. The highest level of per capita rice consumption (130-180 kg per year, 55-80% of total caloric source) takes place in Bangladesh, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, and Vietnam (Kenneth and Kriemhild, 2000). In many cultures of the world rice is the central part of people’s life and culture. Rice is an excellent food and is an excellent source of carbohydrates and energy.

16.1. INTRODUCTION

Millets are a large part of the basic diet for farm households in the world's poorest people in the poorest countries. The production of millets on average for the 5 years have been given in Table 16.1. Top consuming countries are India, Nigeria, Niger and China. However, just because a country is a top global consumer does not mean that millet is a significant source of calories for them. India and China are rank as the 1st and 4th consumers of millet, but due to their population size they rank 11th and 38th in per-capita consumption, accordingly.

Millet particularly the finger millet) is an excellent dietary source of calcium, iron, manganese, and methionine-  an amino acid lacking in the diets of hundred of millions of the poor who live on starchy foods such as cassava, plantain, polished rice, and maize meal. Millet use is diverse, including in cereals (including porridge and kasha), soups, breads and stuffings, fermented beverages, and baby food.

1.    The word “economics” has been derived from the Greek word_______ which means household management?

(a) OIKONOMICAS

(b) OIKOS

(c) NOMOS

(d) OICONOMICAS

2.    The term “microeconomics” has been derived from a Greek word ____________.

(a) MICROS

(b) MIKROS

(c) MACROS

(d) MACROS

Livestock farming is an integral part of Indian agriculture system and vital source of livelihood particularly in the rural areas of the country. This sector has been the primary source of energy for agricultural operations (for land preparation, sowing, pulling bullock carts etc.) and major source of animal protein (mutton, chevon, chicken, pork, beef, eggs etc.) for majority of population. India has been habitate of major draught, milch and dual-purpose breeds of cattle as well as buffaloes. Besides their potential our indigenous as well as crossbred animals are unable to produce maximum output due to unavailability of adequate and nutritious feed and fodder throughout the year. The quantity and quality of forage production is directly proportional to the livestock health, production and productivity. There is colossal gap between demand and supply of good quality nutritious fodder. Besides, the availability of lesser area under cultivated fodder crops, the grazing lands also becoming smaller due to the degradation of the land, urbanization, industrial development and increased area under food production to fulfil the demand of increasing human population. To meet the nutritional requirement of such a huge population of indigenous, crossbreds as well as genetically upgraded animals, proper management and conservation of fodder and grasslands is necessary.

1.    Pasteurization can be used to destroy

(a) Soamtic cells

(b) Bacteria

(c) Antibiotics

(d) All of these

2.    The higher amount of total solids in milk will result in

(a) Increased heat stability

(b) Decreased heat stability

(c) Both (a) and (b)

(d) Decreased or increased heat stability depending upon temperature

Plants are most important of all elements of the garden that influence design. Therefore, selection of variety of plants is required to exhibit different forms of growth, leaf texture, flowers and flower colour. Trees, shrubs, climbers, annuals, roses, bulbous and rhizomatous plants usually find place in the gardens along with other secondary groups. Every type of garden has enough scope to accommodate various groups of plants as per design.

Plants infuse life in the gradens and make the place living. Every feature of the garden has a separate requirement of plants. The right choice, therefore, complements the design and helps to create desired effects. Every plant species selected for planting should have sufficient reasons for its inclusion. May be, it has been selected considering particular flower colour, fragrance, curious structure, colour of the leaves, attractive fruits etc. Over and above, selection should be considering requirement of individual feature and its suitability. None other than plants influence the general apperance of the gardens besides giving them three dimensional look, enabling your plan into reality.

There are several approaches for selecting plants for the gardens. Preference should be given to the plants suitable for growing in local agro-climatic conditions for better performance. However, inclusion of new and novel type for creating special effects is always desirable. Selecting perennials and seasonals are, therefore, very much justfied in order to create desirable effects round the year. While using trees, emphasis should be given for selecting both foliage and flowering type, blooming in different season. Similarly, shrubs, climbers and other plant groups are added attraction of the gardens by their diversity of growth, foliage and flowers.

Selection of plants for the gardens needs careful consideration of vegetative, floral attributes besides growth habit and flowering for best use. Keeping this in view, basic information on various plant groups is provided under different categories.

1. INTRODUCTION

Organic farming systems can deliver agronomic and environmental benefits both through the structural changes and the tactical daily management of the farming system. The benefits of organic farming systems are relevant both to developing and developed nations which helps for environmental protection, biodiversity enhancement, reduced energy use and CO₂ emissions (Thiyagarajan, et al., 2003). The post Green Revolution era has led to environmental pollution due to excessive use of agrochemicals and fertilizers and thus threatened the fragile ecosystem (Selvaraj et al., 2001). Organic farming conserves soil fertility and curtails soil erosion through implementation of appropriate conservation principles (Thampan, 1995). Organic farming leads to live in harmony with nature.

United Nation experts indicate that organic foods have the good opportunities for developing countries to open a space in the global market. This entails the creation of greater awareness of trade opportunities for organic products as well as of the environmental, economic and social benefits to the public.

Today the world is facing a variety of interrelated problems such as food production, energy use, pollution, unemployment and urbanization, mainly because the developmental strategies contravene the basic philosophy of ecology. The world ecosystem is becoming increasingly more unstable through an ever growing dependence on finite resources of fossil fuels. Food production system in developed countries, both terrestrial agriculture and fisheries are energy intensive and are thus, not entirely suitable for developing countries. An alternative strategy to an increasing reliance on fossil for agriculture development should depend on locally available sources of renewable energy and resources. A significant effect could be made through recycling organic wastes into fish. Organic wastes can be recycled in ecologically sound pond based systems fueled by solar energy. The reuse of wastes would safeguard the environment from pollution and lead to a reduction in diseases of insanitation. Recycling of animal wastes is the cheapest way of protein production by reducing cost of production. Fish farming in Europe, Israel and USA is energy intensive, since more farmers use commercially prepared feed formulations which resulted in cost to feed often exceeding 50% of the total operating costs.

In recycling of waste through fish culture, fish is considered to have a great potential to change raw protein into high energetic edible protein. The rationale behind raising fish on organic manure is that about 72.98% of the nitrogen, 62.87% of phosphorus and 82.92% of potassium in the feed rations fed to animals are recovered in their excreta. In most of the world, cereals and legumes account for most of the proteins and calories consumed, but fish produced cheaply by recycling wastes would provide a low energy way to produce an animal product and diversify the diet. Fish, being the cheap source of animal protein is now widely accepted to meet the persistent and widespread malnutrition in developing countries.

Aquaculture is the fastest growing food production sector in the world with annual growth in excess of 10% over the last two decades. Much of this development has occurred in Asia, which also has the greatest variety of cultured species and systems. Asia is also perceived as the ‘home’ of aquaculture, as aquaculture has a long history in several regions and knowledge of traditional systems and is most widespread.

1. IMPORTANCE

India is bestowed with a varied agro-climate, which is highly favourable for growing a large number of horticultural crops such as fruits, vegetables, root tubers, ornamentals, aromatic plants, medicinal herbs, spices and plantation crops like coconut, arecanut, cashew and cocoa. It has emerged as an indispensable part of agriculture, offering a wide range of choices to the farmers for crop diversification. It also provides ample opportunities for sustaining large number of agro-industries which generate substantial employment opportunities. India has emerged as the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables; with largest producer of coconut, arecanut, cashew, ginger, turmeric, black pepper and tea, among plantation crops.

The changing scenario encourages private investment, to go for Hi-tech Horticulture with micro-propagation, protected cultivation, drip irrigation, fertigation and integrated nutrient and pest management, besides making use of latest post harvest measures particularly in the case of perishable commodities. As a result, horticulture crop production has moved from rural confines to commercial ventures and has attracted youth since it has proved to be intellectually satisfying and economically rewarding. It is essential to appreciate the contribution of horticulture, landscaping and gardening in the hospitality industry. Aesthetic use of horticulture freshens up the atmosphere, enhances the look of the property and creates a lasting impression on guests. It also has a beneficial effect on the health.

12.0. Introduction

The benefits of food laws to the consumers and the processing industries depend upon the efficacy with which the laws are implemented. The implementation of laws requires not only a well organized national infrastructure for inspection and quality control, but also requires reliable methods of analysis, that can be used to check the quality standards for improvement of the food product w.r.t. nutrition, safety and sensory attributes. Early and accurate analysis of food product prior to preservation, during preservation or post preservation is a crucial component for quality evaluation and their quality control. Quality control in food industries depends upon three principles viz. i) raw material control, ii) process control and iii) finished product inspection. Once a product has gone through the manufacturing process, little can be done to alter its quality or to overcome the faults. Examination of the finished product at the most represents analysis with respect to standards – to accept or reject. Effective control over the raw material and process minimizes the rejection of the products. The food spoilage can be managed most effectively, if control measures are introduced at an early stage of food preparation/contamination. Reliance on symptom is often not adequate because spoilage may occur before symptom appears. The spoilage of the food may affect sensory, physical, chemical or microbiological attributes. Therefore, now a day, food processors want to analyze their food samples quickly without any delay in shipment for which they have to depend on the different methods for their quality evaluation. The analysis and quality control of food products involve physical, chemical, microbiological and sensory methods. So, widely used standard procedures / methods for evaluation of quality of food prior to preservation, during preservation or post preservation has been given in this chapter for easy implementation.

2.1. LABORATORY SETUP

The setting up of a tissue culture laboratory needs proper planning. It depends on the nature of research works to be under taken and/or commercialization of tissue culture technology and the availability of space. The ideal tissue culture laboratory should have the following components:

1. Store facility for chemicals
2. Media preparation room
3. Autoclave room
4. Storage facilities for autoclaved laboratory-ware and media
5. Washing facilit
6. Culture room
7. Inoculation room
8. Instrumentation room
9. Hardening facility

Maize occupies an important position in the world economy, and serves as an important source of food and feed (Gupta et al., 2015a). Together with rice and wheat, it provides at least 30% of the food calories to more than 4.5 billion people in 94 developing countries (Shiferaw et al., 2011). In India, maize is an important cereal too, and is grown on an area of 9.2 million hectares with production of 24.2 million tonnes (www.indiastat.com). The demand for cereals will continue to increase as a consequence of the expanding human population. The world will have around 7.7 billion people by 2020, and it will reach up to 9.3 billion by 2050, and the demand for maize between now and 2050 will double in the developing world (Rosegrant et al., 2009). By 2025, India too would require to double the production (50 million tonnes) of maize grain to meet the domestic demand (Yadav et al., 2016).

Malnutrition caused by inadequate consumption of balanced diet has emerged as one of the alarming problems especially in the under-developed and developing world. Mostly the resource-poor suffer from ‘hidden hunger’, a term often used to describe malnutrition caused due to micronutrient deficiencies in staple food diet (Bouis and Welch, 2010).

An estimated two billion people suffer from micronutrient deficiency, while 795 million people are undernourished (IFPRI, 2016a). Of the 667 million children under the age of five worldwide, 159 million are stunted, while 50 million do not weigh enough for their height (IFPRI, 2016b). An estimated 45% of deaths of children under age five are linked to malnutrition (Black et al., 2013). Malnutrition contributes to global burden of disease, and loss in annual gross domestic product (GDP) in Asia and Africa to extent of 11%. South Asia is home to more than 35% of the world’s poor, and 21.9% of the population of India lives in poverty, and thus vulnerable to various health problems (IFPRI, 2016a). 15.2% of the people in India are undernourished, and more than one third of the world’s underweight malnourished children live in India, posing severe socio-economic loss to the country.

Supervised classification is the technique to classify raster image in which prior information about the classes in the form of training sites is provided by the user. Training site represents a homogeneous area in a particular class. The spectral response pattern of training sites is used to classify the raster image.The pixels of raster imagewhich have spectral response pattern similar to that of training sites of a particular class are grouped in that class. As there is some variability in the spectral response pattern of a particular class, therefore, multiple training sites per class are taken for supervised classification. Supervised classification of raster images can be performed by various methods. Conventional methods include maximum likelihood classifier, minimum distance to mean classifier, and parallelepiped classifier. Now a days, machine learning algorithms are also gaining importance in this context. These classifying algorithms are first trained or calibrated using the data of training sites.This trained model is then validated on the independent datasets for accuracy assessment. If the accuracy of the developed model is of acceptable level, then that model is used for the classification of raster data.

In this chapter, we are going to discuss the execution of maximum likelihood classifier and few machine learning techniques for supervised classification of raster image in R software. The training sites used in this exercise are in the form of points shapefile. The raster image is classified into six classesi.e. built- up, fallow soil, riverine sand, salt-affected soil, vegetation, and water. For performing this exercise, first of all,set the working directory and import the required packages.

I. General information

1. Climbers which climbs up with the help of tendrils are Antigonon leptopus, Bignonia gracilis, Pyrostegia venusta, Clematis paniculata
2. Climbers which climbs up with the help of thorns or prickles are Bougainvillea spp., climbing rose
3. Climbers which climbs up with the help of root and rootlets are Campsis grandiflora, Ficus repens
4. A climber which climbs up with the help of sticky substances from growing points is Ficus repens
5. A Climber which climbs up with the help of hookers is Combretum comosum
6. Climbers which climbs up with the help of clingers are Passiflora caerulea, Passiflora quadrangularis and Hydrangea petiolaris
7. Climbers which grow well under sunny situation are Pyrostegia venusta, Quisqualis indica, Antigonon leptopus, Adenocalymma alliaceum, Bougainvillea spp., Campsis grandiflora and Wisteria sinensis

Data Collection and Report Writing

Many a times you may be asked questions like what is the average milk production of deshi cows of your area? What is the average lactation period of CB cows of your area? or maybe what is the impact of AI programme in your area? etc., by your higher officers. How to answer all these questions? All these questions may be answered scientifically if you possess elementary knowledge on statistics. We have to frame a research design and to collect data to answer these questions.

What is Data ?

Data is a collection of facts, such as numbers, words, measurements, observations or even just descriptions of things. Example: 5, Ram, Kilogram, Good, Male, etc. Independently they do not produce any meaning.

These are special types of information, generally obtained through observation, surveys, enquiries or are generated as a result of human activities.

Once you have decided what to study and how to study, you are faced with the task of systematically collecting reliable and valid evidence upon which you can base your findings. Data (singular datum) are facts which are observed and measurable phenomena. The purpose of gathering and summarizing data is to transform them into information. The data collected in the research study may be quantitative or qualitative in nature. Quantitative data can be counted and can be computed. Such as age of a boy, marks scored by a student, distance, etc. Quantitative data are easier for analysis. We also collect qualitative data like sex of a person as Male or Female or Transgender. The qualitative characteristics can be counted, but as such cannot be computed. For example, we may get “Yes’ or “No” to a question to farmers about vaccination of his animals. For this “Yes” or “No” , we may assign 0 to “Yes” and 1 to “No” in an artificial or nominal way to categorise these qualitative data, and go for computation. So, quantitative data are expressed in the form of numerals and are amenable to statistical analysis readily. Whereas, qualitative data are descriptive in nature and can be statistically analysed only after processing and after having them classified into some appropriate categories. Data is required to make a decision in any business situation. The researcher is faced with one of the most difficult problems of obtaining suitable, accurate and adequate data. Utmost care must be exercised while collecting data because the quality of the research results depends upon the reliability of the data. There are basically two sources from which we obtain data for our research works. They are known as primary data and secondary data.

With increasing food production, availability and accessibility the global agro-industrial food system has improved.However, malnutrition, biodiversity loss and climate change are newer challenges. The best solution to this is the utilization of indigenous and traditional crops which will bring a transformative change in the food system. There is a need to look into the development of smallholder producers. The agro-industrial food system has improved the food supply and has made way for significant trade-offs with agro-biodiversity, dietary diversity, environmental sustainability and socio-economic stability mainly amongst the rural poor. Now is the time to mainstream the underutilized indigenous and traditional crops into the food system. This will provide opportunities to develop a sustainable and healthy food system.It will also help towards the societal goals which include employment creation, wellbeing and environmental sustainability.

The genus Clostridium belongs to the family Clostridiaceae. The genus name was originated from the Greek word ‘klo ster’, which means ‘spindle’ referring to their individual rod shape. Clostridia are gram positive, large, sporulating anaerobic rods (except C. piliforme which is gram negative). At present, there are more than 200 numbers of species under the genus Clostridium. Among them, 15 species can produce potent toxins and are considered as pathogenic for animals and human. The animal pathogenic clostridia can be classified as neurotoxic, histotoxic and enteric.

Nanoscience and nanotechnologies are set to transform the global industrial landscape, but the debate on how to regulate environmental, health and safety risks is lagging behind technological innovation. Current regulatory efforts are primarily focused on the national and regional level, while the international dimensions of nanotechnology governance are still poorly understood and rarely feature on the international agenda. With the ongoing globalization of nanosciences and the rapid expansion of international trade in nanomaterials, however, demand for international coordination and harmonization of regulatory approaches is set to increase. However, uncertainty about nanotechnology risk poses a profound dilemma for regulators and policy-makers. Uncertainty both creates demand for and stands in the way of greater international cooperation and harmonization of regulatory approaches. Falkner Robert and Jaspers Nico (2012) reviewed the emerging debate on nanotechnology risk and regulatory approaches, investigates the current state of international cooperation and outlines the critical contribution that a global governance approach can make to the safe development of nanotechnologies. 

1. Carbohydrates are primarily composed of the elements
   1. Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
   2. Hydrogen, oxygen and carbon
   3. Oxygen, carbon and hydrogen
   4. None of these
2. Carbohydrates have an empirical formula
   1. (CH₂O)_n
   2. (CH₂O)_n+₁
   3. (CH₂O)_n-₁
   4. (CH₂O)_n/₂

An atom consists of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The positive nuclear charge is due to the presence of protons which carry a mass of 1 and a charge of +1. Besides protons in the nucleus, there are neutrons which are heavier than protons. They carry no charge. Comparatively electrons have no mass (1836 times lesser than that of a proton) but they carry a charge of –1. Hence, the whole mass of an atom is likely to be concentrated in the nucleus.

Rainfed agriculture occupies about 1.22 billion hectare (Bha) area worldwide, which is about 82% of total area (1.5 Bha) under agriculture (Yadav et al., 2006) and contributes nearly 58% to the global food basket. It is practiced under a wide variety of agro-climatic, edaphic and socio-economic conditions and globally, rainfed agriculture accounts for more than 95% of farmed land in sub-Saharan Africa, 90% in Latin America, 75% in the Near East and North Africa; 65% in East Asia and 60% in South Asia (Singh et al., 2018). 

Important Points to Remember

• The term Biochemistry (biosG = life) was first introduced by a German chemist Carl Neuberg in 1903. Biochemistry may be defined as a science concerned with the chemical nature and chemical behavior of the living matter.
• Major organic molecules present in the living beings are: carbohydrates, proteins (of course, including enzymes), lipids and nucleic acids.
• Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules in nature. They are primarily composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
• The name carbohydrate literally means ‘hydrates of carbon’. The simplest carbohydrates are the monosaccharides that have the general formula (CH2O)n where n is 3 or more.
• Carbohydrates may be defined as polyhydroxyaldehydes or ketones or compounds which produce them on hydrolysis. The term ‘sugar’ is applied to carbohydrates soluble in water and sweet to taste.

5.1 Introduction

This chapter presents analysis of data collected through the questionnaire survey from agriculture libraries in Maharashtra (Constituent including University Libraries i.e. Government and Affiliated i.e. Private colleges). The purpose of the survey was to explore the status of CRS (Cyber Reference Service), various aspects pertaining to the CRS, and the ICT infrastructure used for the CRS in the agriculture universities and college libraries. It also aimed to obtain agriculture library heads’ perceptions about the CRS, and explore issues and problems affecting implementation and management of the CRS in the agriculture libraries in the Maharashtra state.

5.1 Introduction

Considering the richness of floristic diversity of India represented by 47,513 plant species, of which around are 9,500 reported to be of ethnobotanical botanical significance and around 7,500 - 8900 of ethnomedicinal importance (Anonymous, 1994; Pareek et al., 2005). It has been estimated that of these, around 5,000 plant species have been investigated in some detail in search for potential sources of wellness or health or medicinal drugs to cure various human ailments and diseases. As discussed in the previous sections, the Indian literature on medicinal aromatic plants formally documents information on about 2,500 medicinal and aromatic plants under various traditional systems with sufficient details. In addition, indigenous traditional knowledge exists for another 4,000-4,500 medicinal plant species based on long time experience/observations and their use by various tribes and communities and the individual clan or families in cure of specific ailments. However, this knowledge predominantly exists in oral traditions, which are under danger because of the threat to these traditional orthodox societies and loss of the dialect or languages in which they exist.

A current focus of the research community is to advance our understanding of phytonematode biology in sufficient detail to develop novel management methods. Progress in this aim is held back by a lack of functional genetic tools: forward genetics in the sedentary endoparasites is restricted to the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne hapla, and relies on natural variants as the source of mappable polymorphisms (Olaf Kranse et al, 2021) and reverse genetics is entirely reliant on RNA interference and is limited by the variable penetrance and stability of the effect. Despite these restrictions, meaningful progress recently has been made. There is nevertheless an expectation that the development of functional genetic tools would accelerate progress in understanding the biology of plant-parasitic nematodes, and thereby also indirectly the development of novel control solutions.

Introduction

Milk is regarded as the “ideal food” as it contains nutrients necessary for both newborns and adults (Azad & Ahmed, 2016). It is high in protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals. Unfortunately, milk is easily adulterated all over the world for several reasons, including a gap between supply and demand, the inherent nature of milk which can imbibe many adulterants that are difficult to identify, the low purchasing power of consumers, an insufficient share of the organized sector in the dairy business, and, most importantly, a lack of efficient and rapid methods for detecting adulterants (Ellis et al., 2012; Moore et al., 2012).

6.1. Introduction

The growing human population presents a number of issues, including food scarcity, malnutrition, inadequate natural resources (land and water) for agricultural production, and environmental deterioration (MacDonald, 2010). Today, viable intensification of agri-production systems can fulfill rising food, nutrition and environmental demands (Pretty and Bharucha, 2014). Production of rice (Oryza sativa L.), a vital element of food security, which feeds nearly half of the world's population, occupies 143 million hectares of land (FAOSTAT, 2023), and uses up to 90% of all irrigation water in Asia (Liu et al., 2018). For instance, it has been determined that systems for producing rice are one of the main industries that wastes water resources and greatly increases greenhouse gas emissions (FAO, 2013). Therefore, it is necessary to look for ways to manage the rice production system more effectively. In paddy rice systems, co cultivating aquatic animals (fish, shrimp, crab, shellfish, and ducks) and rice has been suggested as a way to reduce the risks of environmental pollution/ contamination linked with rice production while simultaneously optimizing the use of land and water resources to provide humans with both grains and meat (Hu et al., 2016; Ahmed and Garnett, 2011). Co-culture systems have drawn more interest recently due to their potential to reduce the stresses associated with environmental and food insecurity.

In India there are many scattered case reports on the use of homeopathic drugs in the treatment of certain ailments in animals with individual claims but these reports suffer from lack of evidence, repeatability, documentation and scientific fervor. During last 2-3 decades some reports on the evaluation of homeopathic medicines in the management of animal diseases have appeared in the literature as well as in professional seminars and conferences in India. The abstract summary of these works are given in this chapter.

Clinical Studies

Clinical Management of Udder Diseases of Riverine Buffaloes With A Homeopathic Complex

J.P. Varshney and Ram Naresh (2004)

An uncontrolled observational study was undertaken to evaluate the effectiveness of a homeopathic complex in the management of clinical udder health problems of riverine buffaloes. Cases of subclinical mastitis were excluded from the study. A total of 102 mastitic quarters (fibrosed – 40, nonfibrosed – 62) and five cases each of blood in milk and udder oedema in lactating buffaloes were treated with a homeopathic complex consisting of Phytolacca 200C, Calcarea fluorica 200C, Silicia 30C, Belladonna 30C, Bryonia 30C, Arnica 30C, Conium 30C and Ipecacuanha 30C. The diagnosis of udder diseases and recovery criterion was based on physical examination of udder and milk and CMT/WST score. Bacteriological analysis and somatic cell count were not performed.Treatment was 80 and 96.72% effective in cases of fibrotic mastitis and non-fibrosed mastitis respectively. Recovery period was 21-42 days (fibrosed) and 4-15 days (non-fibrosed). Udder oedema and blood in milk responded favourably in 2-5 days. Cost of treatment was US$ 0.07 per day. The homeopathic complex medicine may be effective and economical in the management of udder health problems of buffaloes. Definitive conclusions are premature due to the limited number of observations and lack of control group.

Introduction

Challenges in agriculture and natural resource management in the past have prompted changes in agricultural education, research, and extension globally. The sustainable development of agriculture in a country largely depends on the effectiveness of its agricultural extension strategies, encompassing approaches, service delivery, methodology, and processes. The desired outcome of agricultural development is farmers’ outcomes, achievable through engagement, learning, and participation in research and extension processes. Agricultural extension played a significant role in the green revolution by providing farming communities with appropriate technologies and optimal cropping practices. This helped countries transition from being food deficit to food exporting (Ratnakar, 2016). Additionally, extension services play a crucial role in expanding knowledge, skills, and attitudes about the management of socio-economic-agricultural practices by understanding the existing techno political ecosystem and exploring a basket of technology alternatives for making informed decisions.

According to the karyotyping the domestic sheep (Ovis aries) has 54 chromosomes. The following is a brief summary of their chromosome composition:

Autosomes: There are one pair of sex chromosomes, 52 autosomes and three pairs of these autosomes are submetacentric (having a centromere slightly off centre), while the rest are acrocentric (with the centromere near one end).

Sex Chromosomes: The X chromosome is acrocentric and the Y chromosome varies from submetacentric to metacentric.

Important features

• According to the Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical (FAOSTAT) Database (2019) and database of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, the top three countries by the number of heads of sheep were: China (163.48 million heads), India (74.26 million) and Australia (65.75 million). • India has second largest sheep population in the World.

• Sheep milk is an important product in the Near East and North Africa (9% of total milk production) and sub-Saharan Africa (4%).

• The countries with the most dairy sheep are China, Sudan, Turkey and Algeria (FAO).

• Major sheep milk producers are China, Turkey and Greece.

• More than half of the world’s sheep population is found in developing countries. Sheep are more prevalent than goats in cold climatic conditions. The major produce from Sheep production are milk, meat, skin, fibre and manure. However, most of the small-scale producers in developing countries raise sheep for meat or sale.

In the changing Global scenario, food, nutrition, healthcare and livelihood security are the matter of great concern to human, social and economic development. The global community is increasingly looking towards finding means of sustainable nutrition for the growing population across all countries. The emphasis is on identifying lowresource strategies acceptable to the communities that do not put an unnecessary burden on the environment (FAO, 1993).
Nutritional security denotes the consumption and equitable access to adequate quantities of healthy, safe, affordable and nutritious food by every member of the family essential for optimal health and well-being. Concern for improvement of nutritional quality of vegetables has arisen in the context of providing nutritional security to our everincreasing population because poor nutrition is linked with increased risk of obesity, diabetes, and heart disease as well as broader impacts including higher health care costs and decreased productivity.
More than 1.0 billion people globally are hungry due to food insecurity problem and about 3.0 billion people are malnourished due to poor nutrition causing mainly micronutrient deficiency.

3.1. Introduction
Sports nutrition is one of the areas of nutrition that closely coordinates with human anatomy research and the science of sports. The application of nutrition science to a practical daily eating plan intended to optimise the performance of athletes in competitive events, speed up the healing and reconstruction process following intense physical activity, and supply the energy for physical activity is known as sports nutrition. It also seeks to promote wellness and general health. Nutrition is strongly connected to fitness, specifically whilst sports activities are involved. It is necessary to recognize the physiology of the workout on the way to recognizing the specific metabolic pathways that coexist in the course of sports activities practice (O’Donoghue, 2014). Three things are necessary for athletic success: genetic endowments, level of training, and nutrition. It is impossible to change one’s genetic makeup. The most efficient method for enhancing athletic performance is specialized exercise training, and any kind of workout regimen must include adequate nutrition. The dietary requirements of athletes and workout aficionados are different from those of physically inactive people due to variations in their calorie needs as well as macro- and micro- nutrient needs. To achieve peak athletic performance, it is crucial to investigate and evaluate the dietary requirements of athletes prior to, during, and following the contest (Cotugnae et al., 2005). Exercises that improve one’s heart health involve swimming, jogging, and climbing. Other exercises that improve one’s flexibility, power, and endurance of muscles involve stretching and hard training with resistance. For example, if someone decides to choose to lose excess fat and to do so, they would design a regular exercise routine that incorporates all of the above-mentioned elements, as well as choosing more nutritious foods in the diet to meet the higher demands to endeavors. Athletic performance requires sports-related abilities. These neuromotor skills, such as balancing, pace, power, durability, stamina, agility, and execution, are particular to sports.

The packaging requirements for food products are as varied as the foods themselves, with each category necessitating unique materials and design considerations to ensure product quality, safety, and consumer satisfaction. Packaging serves as the first line of defense against environmental factors like moisture, light, oxygen, and microbial contamination, which can significantly impact food stability and shelf life. The role of packaging extends beyond mere protection; it also contributes to preserving texture, flavor, and nutritional value, making it a crucial factor in the overall success of a food product. Chapter 10 delves into the specialized needs of different food types—such as bread and bakery items, snacks, dairy products, coffee, and carbonated beverages—analyzing the packaging materials, structural designs, and technologies required to maintain product integrity. The food industry faces the complex challenge of balancing protective packaging with considerations for sustainability, consumer convenience, and regulatory compliance. This has led to the evolution of advanced

Productivity automation refers to the use of technology, software, and artificial intelligence to perform tasks automatically with minimal human effort. The main goal of productivity automation is to save time, reduce manual work, increase efficiency, and improve the quality of output. In simple words, productivity automation means using machines and digital tools to do work faster and more accurately. Productivity automation is used in many areas such as business operations, communication, data management, marketing, education, and personal productivity. For example, sending automatic emails, scheduling meetings, generating reports, managing tasks, and analyzing data are all examples of productivity automation. The concept of productivity automation is based on the idea that repetitive and routine tasks should be handled by machines so that humans can focus on creative,

• Botanical name: Lycopersicon esculatum
• Family: Solaceae
• Origin: Peru/Mexico
• CN: 24
• India is the second largest producer of tomato in the world after China followed by Turkey, USA and Italy.
• Highest producing state:Orrisa > Andhra pradesh > KN
• Highest productivity: KN > MH > Assam
• Tomato is universally treated as ‘Protective food’.
• The total sugar content is 2.5% in ripe fruit.
• Vitamin-C: 16–65mg/100g of fruit weight.
• The total amino acid is 100–350mg/100g of fruit weight.
• Processed product of tomato like puree and paste have great demand in export.
• Tomato is a herbaceous, annual to perennial plant.

Flooding and soil erosion are closely connected because concentrated runoff detaches, transports, and deposits soil material throughout a watershed and river system. Raindrop impact initiates splash erosion, while surface flow produces sheet, rill, and eventually gully erosion. Sediment generated from fields and channels reduces reservoir capacity, raises riverbeds, obstructs drainage, and lowers channel conveyance, thereby increasing flood risk. This chapter explains erosion mechanisms, classifications, influencing factors, gully development, sediment yield, sediment-delivery ratio, suspended and bed loads, and sediment-transport models. It also examines soil-loss estimation and agronomic or structural conservation measures that can reduce erosion, control sediment movement, and improve watershed-level flood management

Coffee (Coffea species) occupies a pride of place, in the international trade of commodities, next to petroleum in trade volume and money value. Coffee is also the second important popular beverage for its aroma and mild stimulant action. Its dried beans are roasted, ground and brewed to make a stimulating & refreshing beverage. Its production forms the backbone of more than 60 developing nations. Use of coffee has evolved from original chewing of leaves and beans of the plant to relieve pain, hunger and fatigue to the present more sophisticated uses, like espresso and decaffeinated coffees. Its use was first discovered in Arabia around mid-15th century.