eBook Chapters

Introduction

Welding is a fabrication process in which two or more materials or metal pieces are joined or fused with the application of heat, pressure, or both allowing them to cool and this causes fusion. Besides the work piece, a filler material is also sometimes added to the joint to form a pool of molten material that cools to form a joint based on welding and that will be stronger than the parent metal.

Arc Welding and its Types

It is a process of joining two metals using an electric current generated by the power supply, which gives the required amount of heat to metal pieces through which the metals melt and when the metal cools, which results in the binding of the two metals. In the case of this type of welding, the power supply is given, which creates an electric arc between the electrode and the metal rod. Both A.C. or D.C. power supplies can be used in arc welding and both consumable and non-consumable rods can be used.

All farmed animals are transported at some stage in their lives, sometimes to places where food is more readily available, sometimes to a different owner or a different place of keeping and sometimes to slaughter. The handling, loading, transporting and unloading of animals can have very substantial effects on their welfare. Wherever   poor welfare associated with the transport of animals is prevented, there is an immediate financial advantage because mortality rates and carcass downgrading are reduced. The attitude towards animals has major consequences on animal welfare during transportation. Therefore, laws and codes of practice can also have significant effects on animal welfare during transport. In order to produce guidelines that can be used to prevent or minimise poor welfare in animals during transport, it is necessary to be aware of the biological functioning of the animals concerned and the attitudes and actions of the people involved in the handling and transport procedures.

Fish are Sentient Animals

There is strong increasing evidence that finfish, like other vertebrates are sentient animals. This means that fish are self-aware, they can feel pain and distress, they have long term and short-term memory and to some extent, they can experience emotions.

Fish are intelligent, sensitive creatures and like many other animals, they explore, travel, socialise, hunt and play. Some species care for their young and use tools as humans do. Fish are sentient animals capable of suffering and feeling pain. Most fish have highly developed senses with excellent taste, smell, hearing and colour vision. Until fairly recently, many people didn’t realise that fish were sentient or feel pain, and the mental abilities of fish were given limited attention by the scientific community. Now, recent discoveries open up a new world of understanding. Far more complex than we ever realised, f ish live rich social lives: communicating; hunting cooperatively; and, in some cases, developing cultural traits. Consensus arrived in the mid-2000s around science demonstrating high-level pain perception in fish, and examinations of fish behaviour are beginning to reveal a picture of fish as complex, social and emotional beings. Appreciation of these facts are not widespread in civil society, but identified in time for the principle of fish welfare to be recognised by legislation by the European Union.

In India, the cow is a worshipped as symbol of wealth, strength, abundance, altruistic giving and full of earthly life. Cows are traditionally treated as a sacred animal. Dairy products are extensively used in India and are one of the most essential nutritional components of meals.
 
The laws governing cattle slaughter is shown in entry 15 of the State List of the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution, meaning that State legislatures have exclusive powers to legislate the prevention of slaughter and preservation of cattle. Some States allow the slaughter of cattle with restrictions like a “fit-for-slaughter” certificate which may be issued depending on factors like age and gender of cattle, continued economic viability etc. Others completely ban cattle slaughter, while there is no restriction in a few states. Prohibition of cow slaughter is a Directive Principles of State Policy contained in Article 48 of the Constitution.

15.1 Introduction

The laws governing the flow of water in wells are referred to as the hydraulics of wells. Just like surface water flows from a higher elevation to a lower elevation by gravity, groundwater also flows from a region of higher water table to a region of lower water table. This difference of water table measured by any two piezometers divided by the longitudinal distance between them is called as hydraulic gradient. Hydraulic gradient plays a dominant role in deciding the flow of groundwater. This hydraulic gradient together with the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer material forms the main law of well hydraulics called as Darcy’s law. An understanding of Darcy’s law together with some other laws as discussed subsequently in this chapter is essential in order to know the discharge of a well in a particular formation. Darcy’s law is valid for studying groundwater flow in alluvial formations. However, it is not valid for aquifers having hard rock areas.

11.1 Introduction

The laws governing the flow of water in wells are referred to as the hydraulics of wells. Just like surface water flows from a higher elevation to a lower elevation by gravity, groundwater also flows from a region of higher water table to a region of lower water table. This difference of water table measured by any two piezometers divided by the longitudinal distance between them is called as hydraulic gradient. Hydraulic gradient plays a dominant role in deciding the flow of groundwater. This hydraulic gradient together with the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer material forms the main law of well hydraulics called as Darcy’s law. An understanding of Darcy’s law together with some other laws as discussed subsequently in this chapter is essential in order to know the discharge of a well in a particular formation. Darcy’s law is valid for studying groundwater flow in alluvial formations. However, it is not valid for aquifers having hard rock areas.

Introduction

Wells are vertical shafts excavated or holes drilled in earth to the level of water table for extraction. Digging of wells is an age old practice. Shallow dug wells supported communities in the past. Well water is drawn to the ground manually or mechanically using variety of containers made of metal, leather, canvass and wood or a combination of them. Draught animals or electrical power are used to draw water for irrigation.

Water table (Fig.6.1) wells extend below the groundwater table and extract free water. Pumping water from these wells lowers the water level. The well first gains water from the water bearing material in its immediate proximity. Subsequently a cone of depression is formed in the immediate vicinity of the well. Water outside the cone of depression but with in the area of influence is diverted to replace the body of groundwater finding its way in to pumping well.

Pulses are recognized as an integral part of Bengali as well as Indian diet and the ideal supplement of cereals by virtue of their high protein and essential amino acid content.  Pulses are inseparable ingredients of vegetarian diet and one of the cheapest sources of dietary nutrition protein in the state. The present emphasis on soil health, environmental quality and economic consideration, has stimulated a paradigm shift in cropping patterns leading to pulse based cropping systems. Any cropping system can become compatible and complete only when a pulse crop is included in it. Pulses won a strategic position in intensive as well as subsistence agriculture, as they are excellent source of dietary protein for millions of people, nutritional feed for livestock and having profound ameliorative effect on soil.

West Indian Cherry is a nutritive fruit mainly grown in semi dry and tropical parts of the country. It is native to West Indies and Central and South America and distributed in Southern Florida, Hawaii and other tropical and sub tropical regions of the world. West Indian Cherry received considerable attention in the 1950’s in its area of distribution because of its extremely high vitamin C content (2000-4600 mg / 100 gm of edible matter). It has been considered to be far superior to guava (Psidium guajava L.) as a potential source of vitamin c and it is richer than even the Indian gooseberry (Phyllanthus emblica L.), which is reported to contain roughly 800 mg of ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible matter. One fruit the size of a large cherry can furnish a man’s daily requirement of this vitamin. Thus the fruit of West Indian Cherry can rightly be called as the “pill of nature’s vitamin”. The fruit can be utilized for the production of crystalline vitamin C. The fruit is also rich in vitamin A, iron and can be consumed fresh or can be used in preparation of sherbet, ice cream, jelly and baby foods, fruit nectars and soft drinks. The juice can also be used to fortify ascorbic acid content of various other products and fruit juices to improve their nutritive value. It can withstand mild frost and drought. Fruits are good source of vitamin C and bark yields tannin (Chadha, 2001).

WNV was first identified in the West Nile district of Uganda in 1937. Reported in Western Hemisphere for the first time in 1999, in New York City. The virus had until that time been found only in Africa, Eastern Europe, West Asia and the Middle East.

Principle

Western blot analysis (also called protein immunoblot) is a useful tool for the detection of proteins in biological samples. It uses gel electrophoresis to separate native or denatured proteins by the length of the polypeptide (denaturing conditions) or by the 3-D structure of the protein (native/ non-denaturing conditions). The proteins are then transferred to a membrane (typically nitrocellulose), where they are probed (detected) using antibodies specific to the target protein.  It is a technique for analyzing and identifying protein antigens: the proteins are separated by electrophoresis in polyacrylamide gel, then transferred (“blotted”) onto a nitrocellulose membrane or treated paper, where they bind in the same pattern as they formed in the gel. The antigen is overlaid first with antibody, then with anti-immunoglobulin or protein A labeled with radioisotope, fluorescent dye, or enzyme. 

The method originated from the laboratory of George Stark at Stanford. The name “Western blot” was given to the technique by W. Neal Burnette and is a play on the name “Southern blot”, a technique for DNA detection developed earlier by Edwin Southern. Detection of RNA is termed northern blotting and the detection of posttranslational modification of protein is termed “Eastern blotting”.

Introduction

Western blot analysis can detect one protein in a mixture of any number of proteins while giving you information about the size of the protein. It does not matter whether the protein has been synthesized in vivo or in vitro. This method is, however, dependent on the use of a high-quality antibody directed against a desired protein. So you must be able to produce at least a small portion of the protein from a cloned DNA fragment. You will use this antibody as a probe to detect the protein of interest.

Western blotting tells you how much protein has accumulated in cells. If you are interested in the rate of synthesis of a protein, Radio-Immune Precipitation (RIP) may be the best assay for you. Also, if a protein is degraded quickly, Western blotting won’t detect it well; you’ll need to use (RIP). See the section on RIP for more information, as well as a helpful comparative chart that illustrates the differences between these two techniques.

Introduction

The western blot (alternatively, protein immunoblot) is an analytical technique used to detect specific proteins in a given sample of tissue homogenate or extract. It uses gel electrophoresis to separate native or denatured proteins by the length of the polypeptide (denaturing conditions) or by the 3-D structure of the protein (native/non-denaturing conditions). The proteins are then transferred to a membrane (typically nitrocellulose or PVDF), where they are probed (detected) using antibodies specific to the target protein.

There are now many reagent companies that specialize in providing antibodies (both monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies) against tens of thousands of different proteins. Commercial antibodies can be expensive, although the unbound antibody can be reused between experiments. This method is used in the fields of molecular biology, biochemistry, immunogenetics and other molecular biology disciplines.

Other related techniques include using antibodies to detect proteins in tissues and cells by immunostaining and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

The method originated from the laboratory of George Stark at Stanford. The name western blot was given to the technique by W. Neal Burnette and is a play on the name Southern blot, a technique for DNA detection developed earlier by Edwin Southern. Detection of RNA is termed northern blotting and the detection of post-translational modification of protein is termed Eastern blotting.

Introduction

Wet ashing is suitable for the determination of Ca, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, K, Na, Se and Zn in biological samples and may be applicable to the determination of other elements as well.

The organic matter of the sample is oxidized with concentrated nitric acid and perchloric acids. The acids are partially removed by volatilization and the solube mineral constituents remain dissolved in nitric acid. Any silica present is dehydrated and made insoluble.

Introduction

Wet ashing is suitable for the determination of Ca, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, K, Na, Se and Zn in biological samples and may be applicable to the determination of other elements as well.

The organic matter of the sample is oxidized with concentrated nitric acid and perchloric acids. The acids are partially removed by volatilization and the solube mineral constituents remain dissolved in nitric acid. Any silica present is dehydrated and made insoluble.

Thisprocedure estimates aggregatestabilitytoimpact ofraindropsand water erosion. Wet sieving procedure was originally proposed by Yoder, 1936. Later, the procedure was modified byKemper and Rosenau, 1986.

Equipment

1. Yoder type sieve shaking electrically operated machine (3/4 inch stroke at 30 strokes per minute)
2. Concentric sieves of various sizes of pores to fit properly into the machine.
3. Weighing balance

When certain disease-causing bacteria or pathogens contaminate food, they can cause foodborne illness, often called “food poisoning”. Foods that are contaminated may not look, taste or smell any different from foods that are safe to eat. Salmonella, Campylobacter, Listeria and Escherichia coli are common bacteria causing foodborne illness. Some foodborne illnesses are mild where most people get better within a few days, but illness can sometimes be more severe and fatal. Bacillus cereus can form heat resistant spores. On cooking the food with these spores the heat resistant toxin is left at room temperature. Reheating or lightly cooking the food does not destroy these toxins. Most types of foodborne illnesses cause symptoms like nausea, vomiting, watery diarrhea, abdominal pain and cramps. Fever and/or the presence of blood or mucus in the stool are signs of bacterial infection that may require a medical consultation. Proper food handling is vital to prevent most foodborne illnesses and diseases. WHO has given keys towards safer food which should be followed. Unsafe food containing harmful bacteria, viruses, parasites or chemical substances, causes more than 200 diseases which range from diarrhoea to cancers. Foodborne and waterborne diarrhoeal diseases kill around 2 million people worldwide annually, including many children. A single foodborne bacterium can grow into more than two million bacteria in just seven hours under the right conditions. Foodborne pathogen called Listeria sp. can survive and sometimes grow on foods being stored in the refrigerator. Hepatitis A virus can cause long-lasting liver disease and spreads typically through raw or undercooked seafood or contaminated raw produce. It is estimated that more than 250 million people worldwide suffer food allergies. The boiling temperature (smoke point) of cooking oil is above 200 °C. The boiling point of water is 100 °C.

According to the World Health Day (WHO,2015) food contamination happens when food are corrupted with another substance. It can happen during the process of production, transportation, packaging, storage, sales and cooking process. The contamination can be physical, chemical and biological. Faulde et al., (2013) studied the infection caused to patients by mothfly

Productivity growth in agriculture is anticipated to drive successful structural transformation and industrialization in pre-industrial developing countries that possess untapped agricultural potential. Historical precedent shows that agricultural revolutions often precede industrial revolutions in countries with predominantly rural populations. Recent industrialization experiences in countries like China, India, and Brazil reinforce this perspective. Achieving productivity growth in agriculture necessitates the availability and adoption of technological innovations within the farming community. In recent years, attention has increasingly focused on understanding the delay between the emergence of promising innovations and their adoption.

Numerous factors contribute to the lack of technology adoption, including credit constraints, limited insurance coverage, high transaction costs, and behavioral biases. Moreover, the availability of information about new technologies is a critical, albeit not sufficient, condition for adoption. Consequently, addressing potential information failures that hinder farmers' adoption of available technologies is essential. This underscores the importance of extension services, as well as the transfer of information through social networks, agro dealers, and commercial partners in the agricultural value chain.

After the agricultural activities a number of by-products are obtained and these are known as agricultural waste. These include residues of different crops like stalks, straws, leaves, roots, husks and shells. The animal waste is in the form of manure. All these agricultural wastes are free of cost however; they can be utilized as an important resource (Lionel and Arnold, 1931). Agrawal (1998) has mentioned India as the final dumpyard. The wastes obtained from various resources can be converted into heat, steam, charcoal, methanol, ethanol, biofuel, compost, energy, biogas, construction and high valued chemical compounds. Many times these agri-industrial wastes are not completely utilized and either they rot in open areas or are burned in the fields.

Abstract

Bioinformatics is an important interdisciplinary field that brings together several areas of science, including molecular biology, biostatistics, and computer science (vis-a-vis information technology). With the rapid increase in the sequencing of DNA/RNA/protein molecules, as well as the growing understanding of the interconnections between different areas of biological science, the importance of bioinformatics is only increasing. This chapter seems to provide a thorough introduction to the definition, concept, and importance of bioinformatics. It also appears to highlight the relevance and potential scope of the subject for students interested in pursuing a career in the field. As bioinformatics continues to evolve and expand, it is likely to become an increasingly important area of research and development in the life sciences.

It is a discipline of science that describes handling, preparation and storage of food that can prevent food-borne diseases. When there are two or more cases of a similar illness from the ingestion of the same common food it is known as a food-borne disease outbreak (FSN, 2018). In order to avoid potential health hazards, food safety is very important. This needs safety between industry, market and the consumer. For food safety the labelling on food material is vital. This includes the origin of food, steps taken for food hygiene, food additives, pesticide residues, policies on biotechnology, food guidelines for the management of governmental import, export inspection and certification systems for foods. The food should be safe in the market with safe preparation and delivery of the food for the consumer. Foegeding et al., (1996) have done an assessment of risk factors with food borne pathogens.Warnock et al., (2007) have reported intervention to food safety.

When pathogens are in the food they may be transmitted to the consumer. It may result in an illness or death of the person or other animals. The pathogens include bacteria, viruses, molds and fungus. These multiply in the food medium. Joon et al., (2012) have found pathogenic bacteria in meat products of Korea. The developed countries have high intricate standards for the preparation of food; however, in the developing countries there are less standards and enforcement of the standards which are followed. Apart from food another major source of infection is water, which is very critical in spreading many diseases. It is possible to prevent food poisoning if good water is used for all purposes. However, it becomes difficult as in the food supply chain a large number of persons are involved apart from the fact that pathogens can be introduced into foods no matter how much precautions are taken. Cowden (2000) has studied the notification on food poisoning to improve health. Frenkel et al., (2015) studied the amount of wastes from food processing industries.

What is Nanotechnology? Answers differ depending on who you ask, and their background. Broadly speaking however, nanotechnology is the act of purposefully manipulating matter at the atomic scale, otherwise known as the “nanoscale.” Coined as “nano-technology” in a 1974 paper by Norio Taniguchi at the University of Tokyo, and encompassing a multitude of rapidly emerging technologies, based upon the scaling down of existing technologies to the next level of precision and miniaturization. Taniguchi approached nanotechnology from the ‘top-down’ standpoint, from the viewpoint of a precision engineer.

Foresight Nanotech Institute Founder K. Eric Drexler introduced the term “nanotechnology” to the world in 1986, using it to describe a ‘bottom-up’ approach. Drexler approaches nanotechnology from the point-of-view of a physicist, and defines the term as “large-scale mechano synthesis based on positional control of chemically reactive molecules.” In the future,“ nanotechnology” will likely include building machines and mechanisms with nanoscale dimensions, referred to these days as Molecular Nanotechnology (MNT).

A process control system that identifies the hazardous points in the food production process is known as HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point). It puts into place many stringent actions to prevent any hazards from occurring. In any food process if there is strict monitoring and controlling steps, the chances for hazards are minimum. Today, HACCP is an integral part of modern food industry that identifies and controls the major food risks. These are like microbiological, chemical and physical contaminants. These can also be practiced at home scale by checking proper storage, handling, cooking and cleaning procedures. These steps have resulted in industries taking greater responsibility for and controlling the food safety risk factors. This helps in better consumer protection, agriculture, the food processing industries and promotes domestic and international food trade.

The temperature of food storage is important. Below 4⁰C the food pathogens do not grow. Above 60⁰C some colonies begin to die. However, almost all die at 71⁰C. How hot is the food served is important for food safety. The size of the piece is important to how quickly it will cook all the way through. The smaller the piece the faster it will cook. Large or thicker pieces take a longer time to be cooked. Otherwise cooking for a longer time is better so that pathogenic microorganisms do not grow. In case of a thicker piece the color must be checked inside to outside after cooking which should be consistent. If the meat has the bone, check the color/temperature closest to the bone in the thickest part. In case of meat the contamination usually gets introduced while butchering and the practices used. The street food on a cart is perhaps the most contaminated as it has some level of bacteria in it. The meat in the decorated malls also has pathogenic bacteria. The environment plays a very pivotal role which can recontaminate the food even after proper cooking. The amount of harmful pathogens keeps growing in number with the passage of time. Fresh from the grill is the best, an hour or two is not ideal, half a day or overnight could make a person sick. Due to the reason that consumers do not know the time and temperature of cooking it is important to eat food which is freshly prepared.

Cereals are cultivated grasses grown for their edible starchy grains. Larger grains used as staple food – Rice, wheat, maize, barley, oats etc.

Rust
The rust of wheat has been studied more than any other disease in the world. K.C. Mehta and colleagues conducted exceptional research on the disease in India. There are three recognized wheat rusts. These include Puccinia graminis tritici, which causes black stem rust; Puccinia recondita, which causes brown rust (leaf rust); and P. striiformis, which causes yellow rust. Considering their later seasonal arrival, brown and yellow rusts inflict more damages than black rust.
1. Black or Stem Rust
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Symptoms are produced on almost all aerial parts of the wheat plant but are most common on stem, leaf sheaths.
• Brown pustules of uredina appear on lower surface of the leaves, leaf sheaths and the stems, and on the spikes. which give them a rusty appearance.
• Uredina form urediniospores , which are the repeating spores.
• Uredina gradually start producing teliospores and finally transform into telia.

Introduction

Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is one of the most widely cultivated and consumed crops in the world. Wheat is perhaps best known for its different end-use baking properties as determined by grain texture, protein content and quality. Wheat is generally traded by and classified into “hard” and “soft” market classes on the basis of grain hardness or texture of the wheat kernel (caryopsis). Soft wheats have softer endosperm texture that fractures easily, therefore requiring less energy to mill, yields smaller particles, and has less starch damage after milling when compared to hard wheats. Hard and soft are used with slightly different connotations in different parts of the world. In Western Europe, hard is applied primarily to durum wheats and the soft applied to bread wheat. Elsewhere the term is applied to different cultivars within the species Triticum aestivum. In general, hard wheats are used for bread baking, while soft wheats are used for cookies and cake making. Hard wheat requires more force to crack the kernel, maintains a larger particle size, passes through sieves more easily and has more damaged starch MacRitchie (1980). Higher starch damage is required for good bread making quality Tipples et al. (1994) but is detrimental to the biscuit making quality.

The pros and cons of wheat imports are now a matter of public, political and media concern and debate. I have been quoted as both favouring imports and opposing it. Since this issue is a complex one with short- and long-term implications, I would like to explain my personal position.

The wheat import plan announced by the Government of India is in response to the need for maintaining adequate food stocks both for the purpose of food security and for feeding the public distribution system (PDS). Following the Wheat Revolution in 1968, Indira Gandhi decided to build a sufficient buffer stock of foodgrains under government control in order to ensure that the basic staples are available at reasonable prices even under conditions of unfavourable monsoon. She was also deeply conscious of the linkage between food security and sovereignty in foreign policy. Maintaining adequate food reserves is an absolute must from the point of view of avoiding both panic purchase and famines, particularly at times when there are indications of aberrant monsoon behaviour. Some years ago the Government of India had over 60 million tonnes of foodgrain reserves and substantial quantities were exported to reduce the cost of maintaining stocks of that order.

Abstract

Wheat is unique among cereals because of its ability to form viscoelastic dough. Variety of products such as leavened and unleavened breads, pasta, cookies, and breakfast cereals are prepared using wheat. The viscoelastic property of dough is mainly due to the presence of gluten proteins viz., gliadins and glutenins. Variations among these proteins play a significant role in determining the quality of wheat. Although considerable studies have been carried out on quantity and quality of protein and their relation to bread quality, very little work has been reported on their relation with quality of Indian traditional products like chapati and tandoori roti. Results indicate that ratio between gliadins and glutenins are important in determining the chapati quality. It has been found that varieties having 5+10 HMW glutenin subunits with IBL/ IRS chromosomes are more suitable for the preparation of chapati and roti. This article is focused on the relation between protein and its subunit composition and the quality of chapatti and roti quality.

I. FILL UPS

1. Green revolution in wheat was started by _____ in Mexico.
2. Wheat revolution in India was started by_____.
3. Isolation distance for wheat seed production is _____.
4. Seed rate for wheat seed production is _____.
5. Wheat is a _____ pollinated crop
6. Seed multiplication ratio for wheat is ranged from _____.
7. Spacing adopted in wheat seed production plot is _____.
8. Average seed yield in wheat is _____.
9. _____ is the critical moisture content for wheat seed storage
10. The minimum pure seed percentage for wheat foundation seed is _____.

Introduction

Carbohydrates constitute nearly 80% of the total dry matter of wheat kernel. Starch is the predominant form, with cellulose, hemicellulose and pentosans present in lesser amount. Starch is present in discrete granules within the cells of the endosperm. Starch content is available in the range of 65% to 75% and generally related negatively to the protein content. Starch structure is a crucial determinant of many end-product uses of wheat. While the amylose /amylopectin ratio is a useful descriptor of starch structure, a more complete analysis of the population of the molecules which constitute a particular starch is considerably more revealing. The molecules range from the high degree of polymerization (10⁷ – 109 glucose units) and heavily branched amylopectin population, to the lower degree of polymerization (103 -106 glucose units), and infrequently branched amylopectin population. Starches with widely differing structures are suited to particular end uses. For example, starches with no amylose, the so called waxy starches are particularly suited to use as thickeners or gel forming agents because they form a clear stable gel with little retrogradation. In contrast, starch with high amylose content form hydrogen bonded insoluble aggregations which are suited to use in adhesives, plastics and as a source of dietary-fibre starch. The size and branching pattern of starch are also important determinants of the suitability of starches for particular end-uses due to the effects these parameters have on gelatinization temperature, starch swelling and viscosity.

Wheat also known as bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L. em. Thell, 2n = 6x = 42, family Poaceae formerly Gramineae or grass family, a self-pollinated crop), second only to rice as source of calorie has been grown on 218 million ha with production of 765 million tons globally during 2019-20. Top five countries, namely, China (135 million tons), India (103 million tons), Russia (77 million tons), USA (51 million tons) and Canada (34 million tons) account for 65% of the global production. Other major countries growing wheat are Ukraine (28 million tons), Pakistan (26 million tons), Australia (24 million tons), Argentina (21 million tons) and Turkey (18 million tons). Wheat is eaten by 2.5 billion people in 89 countries and distributed from Scandinavia to South America and across Asia. Global annual wheat trade is worth USD 50 billion.

Loose smut of wheat occurs worldwide but is more abundant and serious in humid and sub – humid regions. In India, this disease is found in all wheat growing areas but the incidence is generally more in comparatively cooler and moist parts of north India than south India. The yield loss may go up to 30% due to this disease.

7.5.1. Functions

The two primary functions of tyres, especially rear ones, are to provide maximum work output while ploughing the field and for haulage.

Curriculum reorientation is necessary, when any one in use is no longer responsive to the needs, interests and unable to meet the demands of the farming community to which it is intended to serve. In any case a number of factors, such as those listed below, must be taken into consideration while reorientation:

There should be an analytical assessment of the existing agricultural extension curriculum in order to justify any proposed reorientation.

Learning needs of the farm university graduates and farmers should be reviewed from the point of view of both individual learner requirements and national development needs.

Abstract

The present study discusses the cropping pattern changes in Andhra Pradesh agriculture will leads to crop diversification and crop concentration using with Geographical Information System (GIS). Crop data were compiled for the triennium ending period 1980-81, 1990-91, 2000-01 and 2004-05 from various statistical abstracts of Andhra Pradesh. For measuring the crop diversification indices, we have used the Herfindahle index and for crop specialization is measured by using the Location quotient method. The level of crop diversification in the some districts of the state in the eighties is very high. However with the advent of green revolution, there had been a moderate crop unification or crop concentration in the eighties. This trend of crop unification is found to be reversed after 1990-91, though the magnitude of the change is not very striking. The crop diversification is observed to differ across the districts. The level of crop diversification is high in the agricultural backward regions of Rayalaseema and Telangana districts and low in the agriculturally progressive Coastal Andhra districts. During the period 1990-91 to 2004-05, the major trends in crop concentration are increase in the concentration of rice in the districts where it is popularly grown and decline in the concentration of coarse cereal crops, pulses and oilseeds. The concentration of spice crops and fruits and vegetables are also on an increasing trend, which they are popularly grown in their respective districts.

Keywords : Cropping Pattern, Diversification, Location Quotient, Andhra Pradesh, GIS

Definition

‘Whipping agent’ are a wide variety of materials to describe their role in confectionery manufacture as a means of holding air introduced into a product, to produce a uniform dispersion of air cells within the confection leading to a lower specific weight and considerable modification to the texture.

Stable foams cannot be obtained by whipping high concentration sugar solutions without the presence of a ‘surface-active’ agent.

Many types of proteins have whipping properties and those used in the sweet industry are:

(a) Egg albumen, crystal powdered and spray dried;

(b) High Bloom gelatine and gelatine hydrolysates;

(c) Skimmed milk in spray dried form;

(d) Whey, or whey in a mixture with skimmed milk;

Abstract

The continental drifting and the movement of Indian plate to the tune of 6500 km in a time frame of 65 million years towards north north-easterly, its collision with Eurasian plate, the rise of mighty Himalayan mountains, the still prevalent northerly directed compressive force which has originally drifted the Indian plate and the disseminated intraplate seismicities have been the proven facts. In this context, a remote sensing based study carried out using IRS satellite images revealed that the whole Indian plate is whirling like a worm with series of alternately arranged E-W trending arches and deeps and N-S extensional/block faulting, NE-SW & NW-SE strike slip faults and E-W trending fracture swarms from Cape Comorin in the South to foot hills of Himalayas in the north. These ongoing tectonic activities have displayed hierarchy of geomorphic anomalies in the fluvial, coastal and hydrological systems and these suggest that the whole Indian subcontinent warrant detailed studies to understand the post drift kinematics and its impacts over the ecosystems, natural resources and natural disasters.

Introduction

Consequent to the continental drifting, the Indian plate has moved towards north northeasterly and collided with Eurasian plate, thus resulting into the rise of Mighty Himalayan Mountains along the junction of these two plate boundaries as demonstrated by many earlier Geoscientists. But the behaviour of the Indian plate, both during the collision and after that, has not been comprehensively studied and understood as to whether it has remained as an inert plate or suffered any mid plate deformations. However, disseminated information has been brought out by many earlier workers on the post trappean arches, deeps, horsts and grabens within the

Indian plate. Some of such tectonic grains from north to south in the Indian Peninsular are:

Scientific name: Ammi majus L.
Family: Apiaceae
Ammi majus L., a member of the Apiaceae family, is a valuable medicinal plant. Its botanical name is derived from the Greek words "Ammi" and "majus," meaning "sand" and "larger," respectively. This plant has been used for centuries in traditional medicine, particularly for its antispasmodic and anti-inflammatory properties.
Origin and distribution
Ammi majus L. is native to Egypt and is now cultivated in various parts of the world, including India, Europe, and North Africa. It has been introduced to many countries for its medicinal and ornamental value.
Botany
This herbaceous annual plant grows up to a height of 0.75 to 1.15 meters. It has a round, erect, and solid stem with a tap root system. The large leaves are 5-8 cm long, alternate, and light green, with a compound, pinnately divided, and lanceolate shape.
The inflorescence is an umbel, axillary, and terminal in position, bearing white flowers. The calyx tube is adnate to bracts, with 5 teeth. The petals are 5 in number, epigynous, distinct, and bifid. There are 5 stamens, epigynous, and alternate with petals. The ovary is inferior, 2-celled, disk epigynous, 2-lobed, with a solitary ovule in each cell. The style has 2 branches, with a minute and capitulate stigma.

Morphological characteristics

It is a moderately deciduous tree with straight trunk and numerous spreading branches, which form large shady crown with whitish grey corky lenticellate bark, exfoliating in thin flakes. It has a clear bole of 6.0-9.0 meter, and a girth 1.5-2.5m. Branchlets and young parts are clothed with fine white mealy pubescence. Leaves are simple, opposite, broadly ovate, cordate, glandular, glabrous above when mature and fulvous-tomentose beneath. It attains its largest dimension in the mixed forests of moist region as in the eastern sub Himalayan track, Assam and elsewhere in south India.

Floral characteristics

Flowers are 2.5-5.0 cm in diameter, brownish yellow that ends in terminal panicle. Calyx is campanulate, pubescent outside and with 5 lobes. Corolla is showy, brownish yellow with short tube and oblique limbs. Stamens are 4 in number and didynamous. Ovary is 4 chambered with one ovule each; style slender ending in a bifid stigma. Fruits are drupe and obovoid in shape, 1.8-2.5 cm long, pericarp leathery, shining yellow outside when dry; endocarp bony, embedded in an aromatic sweetish pulp. Seeds are 1 or 2, hard and oblong ex-albuminous. The panicles of flowers appear from February to April.

Distribution

Though it is a native of Asia, it has extensively been planted in tropical areas of Africa, Asia, Australia, America, West Indies, and on several islands in Pacific Ocean. In India, it is naturally distributed in Eastern SubHimalayan tract, Aravali Hills, Western Peninsula, Indo-Gangetic plains, Western Himalaya and Central India. It occurs naturally from 5° to 30°N longitude and between 50 to 1300 m elevations.

Curcuma zedoaria (zedoary or white turmeric) is a perennial herb and member of the genus Curcuma, family Zingiberaceae. The plant is native to South Asia and Southeast Asia but is now naturalized in other places including the US state of Florida. Zedoary was one of the ancient food plants of the Austronesian peoples. They were spread during prehistoric times to the Pacific Islands and Madagascar during the Austronesian expansion. Its use as a spice in the West today is extremely rare, having been replaced by ginger, and to a lesser extent, yellow turmeric. Curcuma Zedoaria (Berg.) Rosc.syn. C. zerumbet Roxb; Amomum zedoaria Christm., the Kasthurimanjal of commerce, is also known as Round zedoary in English, Kachura in Sanskrit and Kakhur in Hindi.

Morphological characteristics

Zedoary is a rhizomatous annual or biennial herb with a long, scented stem. It stands at 1.8 metres tall. On the inside, the rhizomes are large and pale yellow or yellowish. The roots are fragrant, and the tubers are ellipsoid in shape. With the exception of a bitter aftertaste, the edible root of the zedoary has a white interior and a mango-like scent; however, its flavour is more similar to ginger. Although there is no obvious aerial stem, the shoot has a pseudo stem made up of four to six long and densely overlapping sheathing leaf bases. The leaves are enormous, up to 1 m long, rectangular and strongly veined, and frequently violet in colour in the centre.

White yams are food plants belonging to genus Dioscorea and family Dioscoreaceae with about 600 species. White yams are among the 10 species of edible yam and belong to species rotundata (D. rotundata Poir). It originated in West Africa.

White yams are herbaceous annual climbers. Its vine arises from large underground stem that is technically called tuber rather than root (Armstrong, 1996). The underground stem thickens to produce one or more tubers which vary in size and shape. The plant bears green flowers that turn brown on maturity and when dry. The aerial stem may be smooth or thorny which could be round/cylindrical (O’ Hair, 1984). Vines can grow to sizeable lengths if provided with a rigid support. Vine length varies within and among species. The leaves could be alternate or opposite, usually heart shaped and may be smooth or hairy. In some varieties, bulbils are formed but this is real in white yam.

Whole blood, plasma, serum, and blood transfusions are critical life-saving therapies in veterinary medicine. They are used to restore blood volume, correct anemia, provide clotting factors, and address protein deficiencies in various disease conditions. This chapter discusses their administration doses, species-specific considerations, and disease conditions where these fluids are essential.
Key components of blood therapy
1. Whole blood: Contains red blood cells (RBCs), plasma, clotting factors, and platelets.
2. Plasma: The liquid portion of blood with clotting factors, albumin, and immunoglobulins but without RBCs and platelets.
3. Serum: Plasma without clotting factors.
4. Packed red blood cells (pRBCs): Concentrated RBCs used to treat anemia without volume overload.

Whooping cough is highly infectious specific disease, commonly of children characterized by respiratory catarrh and a special type of cough with inspiratory laryngeal spasm producing a characteristic sound.

This is common in children below 6 years, females are attacked more. Atypical cases are sometimes seen in adolescents and adults.

The disease occurs sporadically and less commonly in epidemics. It occurs mostly in winters and spring and is more common in temperate areas. The causative organism is Haemophillus pertusis present in the upper respiratory tract, conveyed by the infected sputum droplets of the patient to the contacts during the earlier stages of catarrh and paroxysmal cough.

The incubation period is 7 to 15 days or more.

A moderate degree of laryngeal, tracheal and bronchial catarrh with peribroncholitis and acute localized emphysema of the lungs are often associated. The tracheobronchial glands are sometimes enlarged. Rarely the right heart may be dilated and there may be haemorrhage in the brain and the meninges.

If you are inclined to make research as a career, the first question is why are you interested in research or making it as a career in your life -whether for money or to pass a cozy life in a government institute or to get fame or to solve some scientific problems - related to cosmos, Agriculture, animals, human health, search some medicinal plants or you have great passion for science and impressed with its power to find solutions for many universal problems ? Or it is un-employment, now rampant in every field, which is deriving you to join higher degrees and research. Many times, this unemployment or no vacancies in due time leads the young persons to continue their post graduation or joining doctorate program with the hope that some vacancy will arise in the ensuing period or a suitable job may fall after or prior getting a Ph.D. degree.

Agriculture Scenario

It has been seen since last few decades there is huge decrease in the production of the agricultural production. Three factors which can be held responsible for the increase of agricultural production per hectare:

1. Overall increase in efficiency due to the merger of farms and a more efficient redistribution of farm land.
2. More efficient cultural practises and better quality and availability of inputs (fertilizer, pesticides).
3. Genetic improvement of crops.

At this moment over 6 billion people need to be fed and it is expected that in the year 2050 more than 10 billion people will inhabit the earth (FAO, 1996). Moreover, demands per capita will rise when standards of living in developing counties improve. As a consequence there will be a huge increase in the demand for food, and production will need to triple in the coming 40 years. A continued effort to secure agricultural production in the future will therefore be vital. Reduction of losses caused by a-biotic and biotic stress will be a key issue. Scenario studies on world food security generally assume that a large increase in production will be achieved by genetic improvement of crop species and biotechnology. History has indeed shown a continuous increase in crop yields, resulting from plant breeding efforts. However, in the light of the speed at which the human population develops, and taking into account the expected reduction of available arable land due to climate change and human intervention, it may be necessary to accelerate the rate at which genetic improvement is achieved. Modern biotechnology provides new tools that can facilitate development of improved plant breeding methods and augment our knowledge of plant genetics. The knowledge that is obtained with these new tools can be used to contribute to an enhanced food security throughout the world.

The world population is expected to reach 9 billion by 2050. This population growth of 2 to 3 billion people over the next 30 years, combined with the changing diets, would result in a predicted increase in food demand of around 70% by 2050 (UNDESA 2009).

24.1 Introduction

When crosses are made between two different species of a genus or between two different genera, they are known as distant hybridization (also called wide hybridization). It includes both interspecific and intergeneric hybridization. Thomas Fairchild (1717) was the first man to do distant hybridization. He produced a hybrid between two species of Dianthus, viz., D. caryophyllus and D. barbatus (Carnation and Sweet William). Intergeneric hybrid produced by Karpechenko, a Russian scientist, in 1928 is Raphanobarssica. It is the amphidiploid of cross between radish (Raphanus sativus) and cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata). Unfortunately, it had roots like cabbage and leaves like radish. Triticale was produced by Rimpau in 1890 itself. It is an amphidiploid obtained from a cross between wheat and rye (Triticum and Secale). Another example is Saccharum nobilisation involving Saccharum officinarum, S. barberi, S. sinensis, S. spontaneum. Wide hybridization has been used in the genetic improvement of some crops. It is an effective means of transferring desirable genes into cultivated plants from related species and genera.

The extensive integration of drone technology in agriculture is swiftly revolutionizing farming practices, providing substantial enhancements in efficiency, precision, and sustainability. Drones provide farmers a cost-efficient and effective method for crop monitoring, resource management, and yield optimization. Drones facilitate high-resolution imagery acquisition, real-time crop health monitoring, and precise application of fertilizers or pesticides, empowering farmers to make data-driven decisions that improve productivity. As technology becomes increasingly accessible, particularly in developing regions, its usage is steadily rising. Agriculturalists are progressively recognizing the capacity of drones to decrease labor expenses, mitigate resource wastage, and improve environmental sustainability, establishing them as a crucial instrument in the future of agriculture.
CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE WIDESPREAD ADOPTION OF DRONE TECHNOLOGY IN AGRICULTURE
The extensive integration of drone technology in agriculture offers both obstacles and prospects. Comprehending these factors can influence the future of agriculture and realize its complete potential. Drone technology is being integrated into Indian agriculture; yet, obstacles to wider implementation persist. Challenges
• Significant Initial Expense: The initial capital required for acquiring drones, along with essential sensors and software, can be excessive, particularly for small-scale agricultural producers. The expenses associated with training and upkeep exacerbate the financial strain, hindering certain farmers from embracing the technology.
• Technical Skills and Training: Proficient operation of drones necessitates a specific degree of technical acumen. Agriculturalists must acquire the skills