eChapters

7.1 INTRODUCTION

An understanding of the processes of oxidation and reduction in soils and the associated changes and practical implications requires a knowledge firstly of soil respiration and the movement of O₂ and CO₂ in soils, and secondly an appreciation of the significance of the changes which occur when, as a result of the use of all the O₂ in a given zone of the soil, respiration changes from aerobic to anaerobic. This results in marked changes in the biochemistry of the system. A basic knowledge is therefore needed of the microbiology and biochemistry of aerobic and anaerobic respiration and of the physics of gas movement, as well as of the chemistry of the system.

LUMBAR VERTEBRAE

Ox: The lumbar vertebrae are characterized by elongated flattened transverse processes (projecting outwards) and large, strongly curved articular processes (Fig.5.1a). The body is constricted in the middle and expanded at the extremities. The anterior extermity is less convex and posterior is less concave. The posterior vertebral notches are much deeper. The intervertebral foramina are often double in the anterior part of the series and are very large further back.

Nanotechnologies are being spoken of as the driving force behind the new industrial revolution. The mass production of these nano materials and their applications mean a dramatic increase of workers dealing with Engineered Nano Materials (ENM) and becoming possibly exposed to resulting hazardous effects and increased environmental burden of the environment due to the leaks of these materials from industrial processes. It is, hence, essential to consider the importance of ENM safety and their new applications and understand that it is important for these materials and products to be safe to enable successful promotion of nanotechnology for useful applications (Eman M Osman, 2019). 

1. White alkali soils also know as

a. Acid soil                  b. Saline soil

c. Saline sodic soil    d. Sodic soil

Thermodynamics is defined as the “branch of science which deals with the interaction between the heat and work”[1]. Thermodynamics is also sometimes stated as the science of energy. Thermodynamic deals with the principles of energy and energy conversion in engineering. It also considers the thermodynamic properties of substances. Thermodynamics deals with the conversion of heat into work and vice-versa.

Interaction of radiant energy, exhibiting the properties of both waves and particles, with matter is dealt in spectroscopy. Matter may be defined as material, existing in solid or liquid or gaseous phase, which is composed of molecules, atoms, or ions. Atoms, molecules, and ions, irrespective of their physical state, remain in constant motion in a matter. Molecules may rotate, vibrate, and move from place to place in space. While radiant energy interacts with matter, these molecular motions are influenced to some extent. It is observed that radiations from ultraviolet and visible range of electromagnetic spectrum lead to the movement of bonding electrons from lowest energy state (ground state) to higher energy state (excited state) in the molecules, while absorption of IR radiation causes the molecule to vibrate more. Such changes, referred to as transition, are responsible for changing the molecular energy level.

Drought is a recurrent feature of climate or climatic anomaly or weather related natural disaster. It occurs when the precipitation remains deficient over an extended period of time, usually for a season or more and affects water shortage in water bodies, streams, soil moisture, ground water etc. resulting into low crop production and economic performance of large regions or entire country. Drought occurs in virtually all regions varying its severity, low and high from regions to regions.

Increasing population, declining natural resources, changing climate and political stability are the major threat to our food, nutritional as well as environmental security. It is expected that India’s population will boom to 1.5 billion by 2030 and to feed them we need approximately 341mt food grain including 315 mt cereals and 26mt pulses) (Kumar et al., 2016).

The products of the plants which are used as food adjuncts to add taste only is called

A. Spices                   B. Medicinal plants

C. Aromatic plants     D. Condiments

Biosecurity refers to the measures aimed at preventing the introduction and/or spread of harmful microorganisms to animals and plants in order to minimize the risk of transmission of infectious disease. Biosecurity is of growing interest as a result of developments at the international level, including globalization of the world economy, technological progress and the rapid increase in communications, transport and trade. Against this background, there is concern that the appropriate level of protection of human, animal and plant life and health is not being maintained as risks increase. Biosecurity is a strategic and integrated approach that encompasses the policy and regulatory frameworks for analyzing and managing relevant risks to human, animal and plant life and health, and associated risks to the environment. 

3.1 Redgram or Pigeon Pea

In any production programme, the importance of quality seed needs hardly be emphasized. In fact, the major bottleneck in the pigeon pea cultivation programme is the restricted or poor availability of quality seeds of the desirable varieties. The seed has been considered as the ‘vehicle of change’. With better attention paid to their interaction among water, fertilizer and seed of improved varieties, the production can be maximized. Although a numbers of improved varieties of pigeon pea have been released since 1970, organized seed production programmes have been rather limited. Most of our national efforts in this direction continue to be centralized on cereal crops like wheat, rice and hybrid millets. Moreover, the benefits of the current research will not reach the farmers unless large-scale seed multiplication programmes are organized.

Chapter Overview

This chapter discusses the crucial concept of gender sensitization in the context of livestock production. Gender sensitization involves raising awareness about gender equality concerns, challenging stereotypes, and promoting equitable practices in the livestock sector. The chapter covers the stages of gender sensitization, offers guidelines for veterinarians and veterinary students, provides real-world examples, outlines a sensitization strategy, and underscores the pressing need for gender sensitization in livestock production.

Electrophoresis

The mobility of ions in an electric field is the basis for the separation method known as electrophoresis. Ions that are negatively charged move toward a positive electrode, while those that are positively charged move toward a negative electrode. Usually, one electrode is biased either positively or negatively, and the other is at the ground for safety reasons. Ions can be distinguished from one another based on their size, shape, and overall charge, which determine their migration rates.

Poly Acrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (PAGE)

Introduction

Electrophoresis is an electrochemical process in which substances with a net electric charge migrate under the influence of an electric current. This migration occurs in an agar gel or a liquid- filled buffered matrix such as cellulose acetate. Positively charged substances travel toward the cathode (negative electrode), while negatively charged substances go toward the anode (positive electrode). Different substances move at different rates depending on their charge. This movement is called electrophoretic mobility.

Proteins are charged molecules. They have a positive as well as a negative charge. Among proteins, particularly caseins, they have different contents. The charge density also varies depending on the molecular weight. Proteins have a net negative charge at a pH above 4.6, and hence they move towards the anode (positive electrode) when subjected to an electric field under alkaline conditions. Due to differences in the charge of individual protein fractions, their migration rates also differ and are hence separated into distinct bands. These bands are stained with the dye amido- black, destained with 7% acetic acid, and observed for the electrophoretic pattern.

The name Lepidoptera derived from the Greek words “lepido” meaning Scale and “ptera” meaning wings refers to the flattened hairs (Scales) that cover the body and wings of most adults. Lepidoptera (Moths and Butterflies) is the second largest order (1.10 lakh sp.) in the class insecta, characterized by the body, wings and appendages being generally covered densely with pigmented scales which provide the colour pattern of the characteristic of the species and play an important role in courtship and intraspecific recognition.

Adults

• Head: Hypognathus and relatively small.

• Compound eyes are large and set well apart. Ocelli two in number in moths or reduced to Chaetosoma in butterfly.

• Mouthparts form a coiled tube (Proboscis) beneath the head.

• Antennal type:

• Butterflies: Clubbed, clavate, capitate.

• Moths: Pectinate (Uni/Bi).

• Adults have siphoning type mouthparts except in micropterygidae (Mandibulate mouthparts). Front wings large, triangular, hindwings large, fan shaped.

• Body and wings covered with small, overlapping scale.

• Thoracic segments are fused and metathorax is the largest and most prominent.

• Wings covered with scales. Androconia (Plumules) on upper surface of wings in some males serves as outlet for odouriferous glands. are fringed distally with each tip finely divided. • Wing coupling apparatus variable (generally Frenulum and retinaculum or Amplexiform type)

Sprinkler irrigation is an advanced method of irrigation in which water is sprayed to air and allowed to fall on the ground similar to rainfall. The spraying of water occurs through nozzle connected to a network of pipes with water under pressure. The rate of application and area of coverage under a sprinkler is regulated by suitable selection of nozzle size and pressure in the system.

History of Sprinkler Irrigation

The sprinkler irrigation has started elsewhere in the world in the early part of twentieth century. Before 1920, sprinkler irrigation was limited to orchard, nurseries and intensive vegetable cultivation. The cost of sprinkler reduced considerably by the development of impact sprinkler and lightweight steel pipe with quick couplers in the 1930s. As a result, sprinkler irrigation began to spread in larger area and to the area of field crops. However, sprinkler irrigation developed mainly after the Second World War with the introduction of lightweight portable aluminum pipe.

Sprinkler irrigation has started in India from mid of 1950s. Due to requirement of high initial investment, the average Indian farmers cannot afford the system and therefore the area under sprinkler irrigation in India was 0.66mha (approx.) out of total irrigated area of 87.80mHa in 1995 (INCID). The sprinkler irrigation was first introduced in India in hilly regions such as Western Ghats in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and in the North Eastern States especially by plantation owners for irrigating tea, coffee and cardamom crops. Since the cost of aluminum pipe is high, to replace it, High Density Polyethylene Pipe (HDPE)/PVC with suitable modification have been introduced in sprinkler system. However, the area under HDPE/PVC piping system is below 20% to the total area under sprinkler irrigation. The remaining area is cultivated under aluminum or steel based sets. The indigenous manufacturing of the system has started in India only 35-40 years ago and there are about fifty numbers of manufacturers till 1996 (INCID). The details of the cultivated area under sprinkler irrigation system in the world and in Indian States are given in Table 8.1 & 8.2 respectively.

A. Mass Production of Quality Bio-control Agents: Techniques, Formulations, Economics, Field Release/Application, and Evaluation

Biological control agents, such as phytophagous insects, play a significant role in integrated pest management by targeting and suppressing weed populations naturally. Effective utilization of these agents requires understanding their mass production, formulation, economics, field release/application, and evaluation.

Techniques for Mass Production of Bio-control Agents

Mass production of bio-control agents involves rearing insects or other organisms in large quantities while maintaining their effectiveness and quality. The following are key techniques used in mass production:

1. Laboratory Rearing: Laboratory rearing of bio-control agents is a meticulous process that ensures the continuous production of high quality insects under controlled environmental conditions. This technique involves creating optimal conditions for temperature, humidity, and light to simulate natural habitats. Nutritional requirements are met by providing specific diets, which can be natural or artificial, tailored to the needs of the bio-control agents. Breeding protocols are established to manage mating, egg-laying, and larval development cycles efficiently. By controlling these factors, laboratory rearing ensures a stable and sustainable supply of bio-control agents for field application.

Fruits, the vivid and delightful offerings of the nature, undergo remarkable transformations as they travel from the orchard to our dining tables. These changes indicate the significance of post-harvest physiology, which is the scientific study that reveals the secrets of how fruits behave after they are picked, including the mechanisms that affect fruit quality and how long it may be stored. The next section provides definitions of the various stages and key players involved in the processes of fruit maturity, ripening, and post harvest physiology. These topics will be further explored in the subsequent sub-sections of this chapter.

Fruit developmental physiology

The life cycle of horticultural commodities (fruits and vegetables) can be effectively categorized into three primary physiological stages after fruit set or initiation, namely growth, maturation, and senescence. Still, a lack of obvious differentiation exists among the several stages. Growth encompasses the process of cell division followed by cell enlargement, which determines the ultimate size of the product. Maturation typically begins prior to the cessation of growth and involves various activities across different commodities. The stages of growth and maturity are commonly denoted as the developmental phase. Senescence can be described as the phase in which anabolic biochemical processes transition into catabolic processes, resulting in the ageing and eventual demise of the tissue. Ripening, a term specifically used for fruit, is typically regarded as the initial phase of senescence that occurs during the later phases of development. Defining the transition from growth to senescence is rather straightforward.

IKS stands for Indigenous Knowledge Systems. When applied to pest and disease management in agriculture, IKS refers to the traditional and local knowledge systems developed by communities over generations to deal with agricultural challenges, including pests and diseases.

5.1 Key Aspects of IKS for Pest and Disease Management

1. Traditional Practices: Indigenous communities often have developed practices based on observation and experience to control pests and diseases. These may include specific plant combinations, crop rotations, or timing of planting to minimize pest damage.

2. Natural Remedies: IKS often includes knowledge of natural substances and plants that have pesticidal or medicinal properties. Examples include the use of neem, garlic, chilli, or certain plant extracts to deter pests or control diseases.

3. Cultural Practices: Traditional farming practices may include rituals or timing of activities that are believed to influence pest and disease outbreaks. For instance, planting during specific lunar phases or following certain cultural calendars.

4. Biological Control: Indigenous knowledge may also involve the use of natural enemies of pests, such as predators or parasites, to manage pest populations. This aligns with modern biological control principles.

5. Crop Diversity: Traditional farming systems often promote crop diversity, which can help naturally manage pest and disease pressures by reducing monoculture effects and providing habitats for beneficial organisms.

Entomopathogenic / Entomophilic / Insecticidal/ Entomogenous nematodes can be found in the orders Aphelenchida, Ascaridida, Mermithida, Oxyurida, Rhabditida, Spirurida and Tylenchida. Phylogenetic relationships reveal that nematodes have established trophic associations with insects numerous times (Adams and Nguyen, 2008). Nematodes may have a proclivity (exaptation) for negotiating the natural defenses of insects and their associations with insects are tremendously fruitful (ecologically and evolutionarily).
3.1 Evolution of Parasitism in Insect-transmitted Plant Nematodes
Nematode-insect associations have evolved many times in the phylum Nematoda, but these lineages involve plant parasitism only in the Secernentean orders Aphelenchida and Tylenchida. In the Aphelenchida (Aphelenchoidoidea), Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (Pine wood nematode), B. cocophilus (Red ring or Coconut palm nematode) (Parasitaphelenchidae), and the many potential host-specific species of Schistonchus (fig nematodes) (Aphelenchoididae) nematode-insect interactions probably evolved independently from dauerforming, mycophagous ancestors that were phoretically transmitted to breeding sites of their insect hosts in plants (Giblin-Davis et al., 2003). Mycophagy probably gave rise to facultative or obligate plant-parasitism because of opportunities due to insect host switches or peculiarities in host behavior. In the Tylenchida, there is one significant radiation of insect-associated plant parasites involving Fergusobia nematodes (Fergusobiinae: Neotylenchidae) and Fergusonina (Fergusoninidae) flies as mutualists that gall myrtaceous plant buds or leaves. These dicyclic nematodes have different phases that are parasitic in either the insect or the plant hosts. The evolutionary origin of this association is unclear.

Introduction 
Chapter 16, “Global Warming and Food Security” delves into the intricate relationship between global warming and food security. The chapter opens by defining the multifaceted concept of food security, which includes availability, access, utilization, and stability. It emphasizes the critical importance of these components in ensuring a stable and reliable food supply. The chapter then explores various challenges to food security, highlighting the impact of rapid population growth, climate change, land and water scarcity, poverty, inequality, and conflicts. It underscores how these challenges are compounded by global warming, which exacerbates environmental stressors such as rising temperatures, altered weather patterns, and extreme weather events. The implications for agriculture are profound, affecting crop yields, livestock health, and overall food production. The section on the causes and consequences of global warming outlines key phenomena such as risi ng temperatures, changing weather patterns, melting glaciers, and ocean acidification. It illustrates how these factors disrupt agricultural systems and food distribution networks, leading to increased food insecurity. To address these issues, the chapter discusses various strategies for enhancing food security in a changing climate. These include adopting climate-smart agricultural practices, diversifying crop and livestock systems, developing climateresilient crop varieties, and implementing efficient water management strategies. It also highlights the importance of policy and institutional interventions, supportive measures for smallholder farmers, and research and development initiatives. The chapter concludes with a discussion on the need for collaboration and partnerships among various stakeholders, including governments, international organizations, and the private sector, to effectively address the dual challenges of global warming and food security. Global warming, a consequence of human-induced climate change, has emerged as one of the most pressing challenges of our time. As the Earth’s average temperature continues to rise, it brings about far-reaching impacts that extend to various sectors, including food and agriculture. The intricate relationship between global warming and agriculture is of paramount importance, as agricultural systems are both vulnerable to climate change and significant contributors to greenhouse gas emissions. Understanding the impacts of global warming on

Entomopathogenic / Entomophilic / Insecticidal/ Entomogenous nematodes can be found in the orders Aphelenchida, Ascaridida, Mermithida, Oxyurida, Rhabditida, Spirurida and Tylenchida. Phylogenetic relationships reveal that nematodes have established trophic associations with insects numerous times (Adams and Nguyen, 2008). Nematodes may have a proclivity (exaptation) for negotiating the natural defenses of insects and their associations with insects are tremendously fruitful (ecologically and evolutionarily).
3.1 Evolution of Parasitism in Insect-transmitted Plant Nematodes
Nematode-insect associations have evolved many times in the phylum Nematoda, but these lineages involve plant parasitism only in the Secernentean orders Aphelenchida and Tylenchida. In the Aphelenchida (Aphelenchoidoidea), Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (Pine wood nematode), B. cocophilus (Red ring or Coconut palm nematode) (Parasitaphelenchidae), and the many potential host-specific species of Schistonchus (fig nematodes) (Aphelenchoididae) nematode-insect interactions probably evolved independently from dauerforming, mycophagous ancestors that were phoretically transmitted to breeding sites of their insect hosts in plants (Giblin-Davis et al., 2003). Mycophagy probably gave rise to facultative or obligate plant-parasitism because of opportunities due to insect host switches or peculiarities in host behavior. In the Tylenchida, there is one significant radiation of insect-associated plant parasites involving Fergusobia nematodes (Fergusobiinae: Neotylenchidae) and Fergusonina (Fergusoninidae) flies as mutualists that gall myrtaceous plant buds or leaves. These dicyclic nematodes have different phases that are parasitic in either the insect or the plant hosts. The evolutionary origin of this association is unclear.

Agriculture remains the primary livelihood for much of South Asia, underpinning food security, rural incomes, and economic stability. Despite its pivotal role, the sector has historically been constrained by low productivity, fragmented supply chains, significant post-harvest losses, and limited access to markets and institutional finance (FAO, 2023).Over the last decade, a rapid expansion of technology-driven agritech startups across South Asia- particularly in India- has sought to address these systemic gaps. By deploying artificial intelligence (AI), the Internet of Things (IoT), machine learning (ML), blockchain, drones, and renewable energy, these enterprises are reshaping agricultural value chains, enhancing resilience, and creating measurable socio-economic impact. Following are some of the promising areas where startups have shaped rural economies

Size – Shapes - Arrangements – Morphology

Bacteria are very small, most being approximately 0.5 to 1.0 mm diameter. Smallest bacteria are Mycoplasmas, as small as 0.2 micrometers (almost as small as largest poxviruses).

Accepted wisdom is that bacteria are smaller than eukaryotes. But certain cyanobacteria are quite large; Oscillatoria cells are 7 micrometers diameter, size of red blood cells. And certain eukaryotes (e.g. Nanochlorum eukaryotum) are very small, only 1 to 2 micrometers, but true eukaryotes (nucleus, chloroplast, mitochondrion are present). So size difference is, like many generalizations, only a useful yardstick, not an absolute truth.

Epulopiscium fishelsoni, discovered in 1985 in intestinal tract of sturgeonfish, is an enormous, cigar-shaped cell, as large as 80 x 600 micrometers (that’s 0.6 mm, large enough to be seen by the naked eye). Amazingly, this cell is prokaryotic! Initial evidence by EM was hard to believe, but confirmed rRNA comparisons with other organisms, a cousin of Gram-positive Clostridium genus.

The relative size of the bacteria are as follows :

8.1 Climate Change

Climate change is a broad term of global negative phenomena as created predominantly by burning of fossil fuels, which add heat-trapping gases to earth’s atmosphere. The over accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere lead to increased temperature and this is called as global warming. As a result, sea-level rise; ice mass loss in Greenland, Antarctica, Arctic and mountain glaciers worldwide; shifts in flowering/ plant blooming; and extreme weather events occur.

Advanced artificial-intelligence models can achieve high predictive performance, but their black-box nature limits clinical trust and accountability. This chapter examines interpretability and explainability as essential requirements for trustworthy healthcare analytics. It reviews intrinsically interpretable models, post-hoc explanation methods, example-based approaches and network-based explanations. A framework combining data preparation, model selection, ensemble learning, calibration, uncertainty estimation and explanation validation is presented. An explainable sepsis-risk prediction case study demonstrates logistic modelling, ensemble methods, Bayesian uncertainty, SHAP attribution and network analysis. The chapter also addresses causal reasoning, adversarial robustness, temporal and multimodal data, human-centred explainability, ethical responsibilities and regulatory requirements for dependable clinical AI.

11.1 Introduction

Our Country is a fast developing nation for the overall development and has proved that the country which was known for a begging bowl for food grains has turned up towards self-sufficiency and also has excess production to feed the present level of population. From about 50 MT of food grain production in 1950-51, harvest in 2010-11 reached over 241 MT, highest ever along with high production of fruits, vegetables, milk, egg and fish. This increased food production in the country has mainly been achieved through productivity gains, as the net sown area has remained static for the last four decades.

5.1 Introduction

A steam can be defined as a flow channel in to which the surface runoff flowing over the land surfaces and base flow/ground flow flowing below the ground surfaces meet. It receives the total flow from a specified basin. Streamflow representing the runoff phase of the hydrologic cycle is the most important basic data for hydrologic studies. Interestingly, stream flow is the only part of the hydrologic cycle that can be measured accurately. Stream flow is a historical data and like rainfall and runoff, it is a stochastic hydrologic variable. It is also called as discharge or rate of flow. Discharge is defined as the volume of water flowing through a cross section in a unit time.

(+)sense RNA (plus-sense RNA)     :    A virus with a single-stranded RNA genome of the same polarity (‘sense’) as mrna.

1. TYPES AND GRADES OF IMMUNITY

The immune response, which has inherited the character of memory, as evinced by rapidity and specificity of the responses on the second exposure to antigen, was cleared the minds of scientists especially bacteriologists who could find certain cells especially lymphocytes to play a major role in immune response.
 
The fact that the blood also contains soluble protective substances both heat stable which were later known as antibody and heat labile, later called as the complement system. These two were regarded as totally separate phenomenon in the beginning years. Eventually the distinctions between specific and non-specific responses were understood.
 
There are two types of immunity
    i)    Non-specific (Innate, natural or native) immunity
    ii)    Specific (Acquired) immunity.

Metabolism - sum total of all chemical reactions in living cells

Catabolic reactions - degrade macromolecules and other molecules to release energy

Anabolic reactions - used to synthesize macromolecules for cell growth, repair, and reproduction

Can divide metabolism into 4 groups: carbohydrates, lipids, amino acids, nucleotides.

15.1 Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 In bivariate distribution if the change in one variable afects a change in the other variable, the variables are said to be correlated.

Q.2 If the change in both the variables takes place in the same direction then the variables are said to have a positive or direct correlation.

Q.3 The pair of variables say, Income and expenditure in house hold or the height and weight of a group of children possess the direct correlation between them.

Q.4 If the change in both the variables takes place in oposite directions, then the variables are said to have "Negative or inverse" correlation.

Q.5 The pairs of variables say (i) Price and demand of a commodities or (ii) Volume and pressure of a perfect gas" have a negative correlation.

Q.6 The two variables are said to have a perfect positive correlation if the deviation in one variable is followed by a corresponding and proportionate deviation in the other variable.

Q.7 There are some funny combinations of variables between which the correlation are said to be "spurious or nonsense".

Rural development programmes are created and maintained for influencing people to make changes in their way of living and of making a living. The existence of such programmes implies that the present situation of the rural people is not what it should and could be, that something different should prevail, and that it is possible through appropriate action to attain a more desirable status for them.

Changes that are important to people are those that help them to meet their needs for biological, economic, social, aesthetic and moral well being. Basically, all programmes for rural development exist to help people to meet their needs. If programmes do this people have their free choices in societies and will not participate for long periods in them. The element of people’s needs, therefore, becomes a central concern of planner for rural development. Hence, the entire process of planning for rural development implies a need for change. But now the question arises that change from what, to what, by whom, where and by what methods?

The society has to find ways to adjust itself so that people meet their needs for an improved economic status, for being more useful citizens and for enjoying a higher degree of social stratification, it must identify these conditions and plan realistically to achieve them. It is the prime concern to identify that what needs do people have ? How can needs be identified? What plan of priority should be set up for meeting people’s needs? What resources are necessary to meet people’s needs? How should resources be organized and directed to help people’s meet their needs? These questions give the key orientation and justification for rural programme planning.

18.1 Introduction

The Packaging Institute International describes packaging as the enclosure of items, packages or products in a wrapped pouch, box, bag, cup, can, tray, tube, bottle or other container for protection, preservation, containment, communication, performance and utility. To an engineer or a scientist, it is technical matter as it is a system designed for efficient delivery of safe food products with high quality, via each and every stage of distribution chain, from production of raw material to food manufacture, packaging, retail, wholesale, consumer, disposal and finally recycling or of resource resurgence. The extent of food packaging is literally broad as it encompasses technological activities such as graphic and machinery design, package manufacture and development, shelf life testing, distribution and marketing. Food packaging science is a discipline which applies principles from four major areas of science (materials science, food science, information science and socioeconomics) to understand the properties of packaging materials, packaging requirements of foods and the packaging system. Both material science and food science have been two major contributors for food packaging development. Material science is important to understand the mechanical strength, barrier properties, appearance and physical and chemical properties of paper, glass, metal, polymer and composite. Food science is important to understand the deterioration kinetics of foods (such as microbial growth, lipid oxidation, moisture loss or gain) governs the food shelf life. Food packaging technology is a science based solutions to address specific food packaging needs; examples are tamper evident packaging, microwavable packaging, modified atmospheric packaging, and controlled atmospheric packaging which are aimed at enhancing safety, quality and convenience for the consumer.

1.1 Some Useful Formulas Related to Farm Machinery

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Besides simple analysis, GIS is useful to do advanced analysis like network analysis, spatial analysis, 3D analysis and modeling. Different softwares are available to perform such analysis and the above mentioned analysis is done in separate modules of the softwares.

6.2 NETWORK ANALYSIS

Network consists of well connected linear features. Roads, railway line, water distribution system, sewer line, streams are some of the examples of networks. These networks consists of nodes and arcs with designated directions and connection with other linear features. Networks are topology based with attributes for the flow of objects like traffic. Road network will be considered for explaining network analysis.

Road map is digitised with nodes and arcs. Signals, accidents are represented as points. Road is represented as line and two or more roads intersect at nodes. Attributes are added to the nodes and lines. Dynamic segmentation model is used for network analysis. It is built on lines of network. In road network analysis, attributes for travel time, one way street, two way street, right turn, impedance are added to the nodes and arcs. A link is the line running between two nodes. Link impedance is the cost of passing through the link. Travel time is different in links in cities due to varying traffic at different locations. Time taken to pass through a known length of link may give the cost but the travel time in a link is not uniform because of varying speed designated in the link as 20 km per hour and 30 km per hour. Hence it is important to consider the length of link and also the travel time. If the speed limit is 20 miles per hour for a length of 2 miles, then the travel time is 6 minutes (2/20x60 minutes). Also tuning in the network is considered. A road may have a maximum of 12 possible turns excluding U turns. There are right turn, left turn, straight way for each road. Also U turn is possible. This turning takes different time depending on the signal. Straight way takes less time but left and right turn may require some more time. If signals is available then signal time should also be taken into account. Fig 6.1 show the possible turns in a road.

12.1 General

The term “biomass” generally refers to renewable organic matter generated by plants through photosynthesis. Materials having organic combustible matter is also referred under biomass. Biomass is an important fuel source in our overall energy scenario. Biomass is produced through chemical storage of solar energy in plants and other organic matter as a result of photosynthesis. During this process conversion of solar energy in sugar and starch, which are energy rich compounds takes place. The chemical reaction of photosynthesis can be written as:

6CO₂ + 6H₂ O + sun light → C₆ H₁₂ O₆ + 6O₂ + 636_kcal

It indicates that the storage of 636 kcal is associated with the transfer of 72 gm carbon into organic matter. Biomass can be directly utilized as fuel or can be converted through different routes into useful forms of fuel. In fact, biomass is a source of five useful agents, which start with `F’ like Food, Fodder, Fuel, Fiber and Fertilizer. Further, biomass has many advantages like.

1. Introduction

Plum is one of the important stone fruit crops of temperate region throughout the world. The Japanese group of plum is native to China but was domesticated in Japan and subsequently was introduced to different parts of the world. In India, Japanese plums were introduced by European settlers and missionaries around 1870. Plum grows well in areas ranging from 900 m to 1600 m above mean sea level.

1.1. Uses

Among deciduous fruits, plum is widely distributed in the world, because of wider adaptability among different species and cultivars of plum to varied agro-climates and soil conditions. Plum is consumed as dessert, dried and processed products. Plum fruit is considered best to overcome the jaundice. Its fruit use for a preparation of juice and squash. It ranks next to peach in commercial production. It is widely cultivated in several countries in Europe, Asia and in the America.

I. General information

1. Shrub is a woody or semi-woody perennial plant with little or no trunk and grows up to a height from 50 cm to less than four meters.
2. Shrubbery border is an area of the garden devoted exclusively for growing shrubs planted in a row of rectangular fashion.
3. Plants suitable for shrubbery border.

Defining-Commercial Plant Breeding

The term commercial plant breeding originates by putting prefix ‘commercial’ before ‘plant breeding’ and is used as an adjective to plant breeding which surely is a noun. Naturally, commercial plant breeding remains largely plant breeding with slight twist that commercial plant breeding aims at delivering commercial products to be delivered to the end users that is the farmers as per the need of the consumers/markets. Thus, the farmers plant those products (open-pollinated cultivars and hybrids) which are easily accepted by the consumers and which are easy to be handled by the traders as the products reach to the traders and then from traders to the retailers and ultimately to the consumers. Along with consumers’ acceptance, these kinds of products must meet certain level of yield, maturity and resistance/tolerance to diseases and pests. Accordingly, these are designed and bred by the commercial seed companies which operate as per demand of the markets. Private seed companies operate on a business model and generate their own revenue to keep the companies running and therefore these seed companies are bound to design and breed commercially viable products. Thus, all plant breeding activities which occur at the research farm and laboratory of private seed companies aimed at designing and delivering commercially viable products are called as commercial plant breeding activities. While designing such project and running the plant breeding activities at the research farm and laboratories of the private seed companies, the emphasis has to be on ‘how to do’ and ‘how quickly to do’ rather than ‘why to do’. ‘Why to do’ issue is not totally ignored and this gets due consideration while formulating the research project based on extensive deliberations between various departments, namely, R&D, Sales and Marketing, Product Development, and Seed Production.

The term commercial plant breeding is generally not in use in public sector research institutes and the agricultural universities and certainly not in class room teachings and discussions while teaching courses on plant breeding and related courses under the domain of plant breeding. There the focus is on theory in contrast to applications which form the backbone of commercial plant breeding as practiced by the commercial organizations such as private sector seed companies which have to earn revenue by selling the products to meet the operational expenditure of running the companies and also to earn profit to run the activities of the company on long term basis in a sustainable manner and to invest in R&D. Therefore, a working definition of commercial plant breeding could be as follows.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

All soil components contribute in some measure to cation exchange. The source, extent, and quality of the contribution of each to the cation exchange capacity is varied and complex. Ocasionally, reactions between components alter the extent and quality of cation exchange. Also, in some this is strongly influenced by the pH of the soil-water complex, and the electrolyte content of the soil solution. Indeed, when ‘simple and rapid’ methods, empirical or allegedly fundamental in origin, appear in the literature, they must be viewed circumspectly. Mostly, they provide an incomplete, or a one-sided, picture of the phenomenon. To justify his invention, the experimenter usually provides correlations with other intrinsic soil properties (e.g. the concentration by weight and the mineralogy of the <2 jxm particles, the organic matter content, the surface area) or with the reaction of soil with its environment (e.g. plant growth and composition). However convincing such statistical parameters might be for the population of soils investigated, they do not help elucidate, and may indeed mask, the true extent and quality of cation exchange.

This chapter deals with current views on the sources, extent and quality of cation exchange, and with comprehensive methods for evaluating these. The relationship between the properties thus observed and values obtained from simple and rapid procedures is considered.

1. Which of the following states has nutrient use of < 100 kg/ ha?

(a) Madhya Pradesh                (b) Karnataka

(c) West Bengal                       (d) Uttar Pradesh

2. Which of the following is the leading state in maize production

(a) Bihar                                   (b) Uttar Pradesh

(c) Punjab                                (d) Gujarat

1. The first Director of IARI was ?????.
   1. M. S. Randhawa
   2. B. P. Pal
   3. M. S. Swaminathan
   4. G. Kalloo
2. In vegetable blanching is done for?????.
   1. Removal of microorganism
   2. To activate the enzymes
   3. To retention colour
   4. All of the above
3. Viviparous refers to?????.
   1. Germination of seed on mother plant
   2. Germination of seed in the field
   3. Germination of the seed on monoecious plant
   4. Germination of seed on any place
4. Sourness in radish is due to ?????.
   1. Isosinate
   2. Isothiocinate
   3. Anthocyanin
   4. All of the above

The income of farmers is declining day by day due to increasing cost of inputs including wages of farm labor. The net income can only be increased by reducing cost of inputs and by increasing yield of currently adopted cropping systems. The income of farm can be increased by growing horticultural crops (vegetables, flowers, fruits etc.) as well as medicinal, aromatic or spice crops. However, these crops cannot be grown on large scale due to their market problems and involvement of high labor. So, in order to improve profit from ongoing cropping systems, some latest crop production practices are being discussed in this chapter.

1. Introduction The chapter aims to bring out the potential benefits of radiation processing technology for value-addition of millets. How the radiation processing technology can be exploited for making millets as a popular staple food would be the central theme. The key focus is to establish if irradiation (the term generally used for radiation processing of any material) can be employed for making millets for different purposes relevant to farmers and consumers. In order to understand and prove, we would list out the challenges involved in developing the market for millets. The key points that need to be considered for this go-to-market strategy for millets are : a) Millet grains have a long shelf-life, much better than the popular grains e.g., rice and wheat, consumed worldwide, but millet flour shelf life is significantly much shorter.

8.1 Design of Canal Embankments

 There are two aspects of canal embankment design.

 (i) The general requirement, such as free board, dowel, service/inspection road, drainage of banks etc. The aspect of free board is discussed in Para

8.2 to 8.3 and that of service/ inspection road in Para

 8.4 and drainage of banks in Para 8.5 in this chapter.

 (ii) Safe design of embankment i.e. Hydraulic and structural requirement.

It includes stability of inner and outer slopes, Structural safe design of inner cut slopes in deep cuttings in different types of soils/rocks of varying nature and ground water conditions. Stability of slopes may include drainage, so as to prevent rock falls/debris in canal. For outer slopes in embankment (filling sections) hydraulic gradient/pharetic line, toe drains etc, similar to the earthen dams, on different types of soil/rock foundation with respect to varying ground water level conditions are important.

The canal embankments in filling may even fail through its foundations by sloughing or liquefactions. All these aspects of canal embankments are discussed in this chapter in Para 8.4 to 8.9.

Hyperaemia and Congestion
Definition
Hyperaemia is increased volume of blood in affected tissue or part.
Hyperaemia (Active Hyperaemia)
Occurs in arterioles or arteries
Increased blood flow in capillaries
Congestion (Passive Hyperaemia)
Occurs due to impaired venous drainage
Stasis of blood in veins
classification of hyperaemia

What is book keeping?
Book keeping    is defined as;
1. The art of recording business transactions (pecuniary transactions) in a regulator and systematic manner.
2. Book keeping is the science and art of correctly recording in books of  accounts all those business transactions that result in the transfer of  money or money’s worth.
3. Book keeping is an art of recording day to day business transactions in a  set of books in a most systematic manner.
4. It is the process of analysing, classifying and recording transaction in accordance with pre-conceived plan.