eBook Chapters

5.1 Seed back up programs

In hybrid breeding program, testing of new hybrid combinations is a continuous process and in most cases, the availability of crossed (hybrid) seed for their annual evaluation of selected hybrids is an important issue. Since, the selection of hybrids for advancement is based on yield data, one year will be required to produce seed for testing in the subsequent season. This means for each cycle of advancement, one valuable season will be consumed in their seed production. To avoid this situation and enhance the testing program at a fast pace, an aggressive hybrid seed production program should be followed. This can be achieved by visually selecting relatively more number of hybrids based on their flowering time, plant vigor, disease resistance, and early pod load about 4-5 weeks before harvesting. During this period, the new seed of the selected hybrids can be produced manually. This operation is facilitated by the perennial nature of pigeonpea plant, which can flower for extended periods of 40-50 days; that allows completion of desired number of pollinations of the target crosses in the same cropping season. One trained person can pollinate about 300 buds in 6-7 hours; and with 20% success, about 150 seeds can be produced. Experience has shown that, with good planning and crop management, this program can be achieved with ease.

Object: Yield estimation of kharif crops.

Material required: Polythene bags, balance, gunny bags or baskets, pans and harvesting equipment like sickle, knife etc.

Theory: Yield is the ultimate objective of cultivating agricultural plants. Different plant parts constitute the economic yield in different crops, like grain in cereals, pulses and oil seeds, vegetative parts or fruits in record yield at the correct maturation stage. Do not allow excessive wilting or drying of the material. Estimate yield in a sufficiently large sample. Materials required only a representative crop to estimate yields. (Do not select plants of any particular type. Do not damage any plant part vegetable crops; bark or out growth in fiber crops (jute, cotton); and the entire plant in fodder crops. The yield per unit area (per M₂ or ha) is the product of yield per plant multiplied by the number of plants per unit area. It is, therefore, essential to know the yield components per plant as well as per unit area.

Yield mapping or yield monitoring is a technique in agriculture of using GPS data to analyse variables such as crop yield and moisture content in a given field. This data produces a yield map that can be used to compare yield distribution within the field from year to year. This allows farmers to determine areas of the field that, for example, may need to be more heavily irrigated or are not yielding any crop at all. It also allows farmers to show the effects of a change in field-management techniques, to develop nutrient strategies for their fields, and as a record of crop yield.

Yield is ultimate indicator of variation of different agronomic parameters in different parts within the field. So mapping of yield and interpretation and correlation of that map with the spatial and temporal variability of different agronomic parameters helps in development of next season’s crop management strategy. Yield monitors measure the volume or mass flow rate to generate time periodic record of quantity of harvested crop for that period. Time periodic yield data is then synchronized with location address obtained from on-board GPS system to create most common colour coded thematic map. Yield mapping can be carried out easily in mechanized crops. By using either loading cells that weighed the crop passing on a conveying belt or an array of sonic beam mounted over the grape discharge chute to estimate the volume, and the tonnage, of fruit harvested. Tree crops seem to have more stable yields. In handpicked fruits yield mapping is more difficult. Yield maps are one of the most valuable sources of spatial data for precision agriculture. In developing these maps, it is essential to remove the data points that do not accurately represent the yield at a corresponding location. Map averaging or smoothing is usually done to aid data interpretation. A long yield history is essential to avoid drawing conclusions that are affected by the weather or other unpredictable factors during a particular year. Processed yield maps can be used to investigate factors affecting the yield or to prescribe variable rate applications of agricultural inputs according to spatially variable yield goals (yield potential).

The stability of yield is an important characteristic to be considered when judging the value of a cropping systems when compared to others cropping systems. Here, we focus on multiple cropping and how this agroecological practice can be used to increase the sustainability of crop production. Strip, mixed and relay intercropping can be used to increase crop yields through resource partitioning and facilitation. In addition to achieving greater productivity, diversifying cropping systems through the use of strategic cropping systems will increase yield stability, reduce weeds, pests, disease and improve soil health. Several multiple cropping systems are already implemented in industrialized agricultural landscapes, including mixed intercropping with perennial grasses and legumes as forage and relay intercropping with winter wheat and red clover. Because multiple cropping systems will provide numerous benefits, researchers should be clear about their objectives and use appropriate methods so as not to draw spurious conclusions when studying multiple cropping systems. In order to advance the practice, experiments that test the effects of multiple cropping systems should use standardized methodology and researchers should report a set of common criteria to facilitate cross-study comparisons. Multiple cropping systems with two or more crops appears to be less common with annuals than perennials, which is likely due to differences in the mechanisms responsible for complementarity. One area where intercropping with annuals in industrialized agricultural landscapes has advanced is with cover crops, where private, public and governmental organizations have harmonized efforts to increase the adoption of cover crop mixtures.

The integration of yoga practices into community mobilization represents a profound synthesis of ancient wisdom and contemporary social transformation methodologies, offering communities powerful tools for personal and collective empowerment that address the physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual dimensions of human development. This innovative approach recognizes that sustainable community change requires not only strategic planning and organizational capacity but also the inner resources, collective harmony, and holistic well-being that yoga practices can cultivate among community members. Yoga, derived from the Sanskrit word “yuj” meaning to unite or join, embodies principles of integration and connection that align naturally with community mobilization goals of bringing people together for collective action and mutual support. The ancient science of yoga offers systematic practices for developing self-awareness, emotional regulation, physical vitality, and spiritual wisdom that can enhance communities’ capacity for sustained collective action while promoting individual well-being and social harmony. The application of yoga in community contexts

Abstract

February 14, 2019 marks the third anniversary of the One Billion Rising campaign, a new escalation in violence against women that calls for a radical shift to end the global epidemic of abuse that women face worldwide. Violence against women continues to be on rise. This ill-omened barrier to achieving equality, development, peace as well as to the fulfillment of women and girls’ human rights has gone viral. The National Coalition against Domestic Violence reports that 1.3 million women are victims of domestic abuse each year. Violence against women is a serious problem in India, too. Overall, one-third of women age 15-49 have experienced physical violence and about 1 in 10 has experienced sexual violence. It is very disturbing as well as discouraging to think that a country that praises womanhood through epics and their devotion to goddesses can be so demeaning and indifferent when it comes to the common women living in the country. Amid environment of bleak hope, yog with multiple benefits of physical, psychological and mental stresses offers a ray of hope for women. Yog means connectivity with oneself that ignites power to understand strength of one’s own innerself, builds confidence to think of innovative attainments, endure the atrocities of external world and stay moralized. Yog classes run throughout the world providing relief to billions. Yog therapies are in operation to cure social stress, mental fatigue and physiological disorders etc. More research on yog, yog therapy and yogic interventions aided by political and social will are needed to have its effective implications on the women empowerment and sustainability of human world.

As rural populations decrease, so does the agricultural work force. In Europe and North America, agriculture now represents about 5% of the work force. In Africa and Asia, it is expected that the number of agricultural workers will have decreased from nearly 70% of the population in the 1980s to barely 50% by 2015 (Crop life International, 2010). The events of the past few years have highlighted the vulnerability of global food security to major shocks – both in the global agricultural markets and in the world economy. The food price crisis and the ensuing economic crisis reduced the purchasing power of large segments of the population in many developing countries, severely curtailing their access to food and thus undermining their food security. “We estimate that in 2012 there will be over a million children suffering from severe acute malnutrition – what’s important to know is that malnutrition can kill,” UNICEF’s Director of Emergency Programmes, Louis-Georges Arsenault, said in a news release. “We need more resources to really scale up our response before it becomes too late and too many lives are lost.” Sahel and other regions in the Horn of Africa are facing severe food crisis (UN, 2012). In such a condition, to feed the hungry mouths of the world, agriculture needs to be more modern and decisions should be information and knowledge based and not instinct-based. Information and communication technology has a great role to play here.

Youth Engagement in Farming
Youth engagement in farming is critical for the future of agriculture, given the challenges of an aging farming population, rural-to-urban migration and the declining interest in agriculture among young people. Empowering youth to view agriculture as a viable and profitable career can ensure food security and foster rural development.
Importance of Youth Engagement in Farming
• Demographic Dividend: Harness the potential of the large youth population to rejuvenate the agricultural workforce.
• Innovation and Technology Adoption: Youth are more likely to adopt modern agricultural technologies, digital tools, and innovative practices.
• Sustainable Development: Involve youth in addressing climate change, biodiversity loss, and resource conservation through sustainable farming.
• Rural Livelihoods: Reduce rural unemployment and migration by making farming attractive and lucrative.
Strategies for Engaging Youth in Farming
1. Modernizing Agriculture • Promote Agri-Tech: Introduce youth to precision farming, drones, IoT, and AI-based tools.
• Mechanization: Provide access to modern machinery to reduce drudgery and increase productivity.
2. Entrepreneurship Opportunities
• Agri-Startups: Encourage youth to explore startups in organic farming, agribusiness, food processing, and agri-tourism.
• Value Addition: Train youth in post-harvest management and valueadded product creation.

While on one hand, more than 25 per cent of rural population in India is between 15 and 29 years of age, on the other, very little demographic dividend in agriculture is being derived. Unable to find decent employment, youth often look for employment in the urban informal sector, with poor working conditions and pay. But without training in skills suited to the urban labour market, these youth have few opportunities in the urban areas. Inadequately trained to compete successfully in urban labour market, they often suffer varying levels of poverty and marginalization in towns than in rural areas. In rural areas, if young farmers do not replace the ageing farmers, it will result in problems related to food security. For young people to take to agriculture, farming must be personally satisfying, mentally challenging, socially acceptable and economically rewarding. However, field reality is something different.

The World is a home to more than one billion young people aged between 15 and 24 years.  Many are unable to fulfil their potentional because of poverty, hunger, poor health and lack of education. As a result, they lack the skills needed to gain employment, with rural youth typically, but often fruitlessly migration in search of economic opportunities. However, given support and opportunities for gainful employment, young people have the potential to play a significant role in agriculture.

India has a big advantage as more than half of its population is below 30 years of age.  Indian agriculture will receive a big boost if the country takes advantage of its young population and encourage them into farm sector by making it lucrative.  It is necessary to launch a Youth for Agricultural Transformation Movement in rural India. Youth can provide demand driven services such as farm health monitoring and marketing of biological software essential for sustainable agriculture, climate-risk management, organization  of bio-parks, food parks, bio-village, bio-industrial watersheds and improved post-harvesting technology. Educated rural youth can establish Village Knowledge Centres (VKVs) to provide information at right time to farmers. Home Science graduates can establish nutrition clinics to help hidden hunger through appropriate local grains and vegetables (Swaminathan, M.S.). Why Youth in Agriculture?

ABSTRACT

India is a developing country and agriculture is at the core of this development. Youth participation in agriculture for its sustained contribution to a nation’s development is crucial but this is not ascertained. FAO has declared year 2014 as the International Year of Family Farming (IYFF). Today’s youth are tomorrow’s family farmers, and maintaining interest in farming as a profession is vital to future food security. The number of young people of working age is increasing while the same group is typically rejecting careers in agriculture and food system. This scenario can be changed by cultivating the next generation of agricultural leaders—not just as farmers but as food entrepreneurs, scientists, agronomists, extension agents, union and government leaders etc. Governments, particularly in developing countries, need to invest in policies and practices that provide access to land, credit and banking services, education and knowledge, and technical skills for young farmers. And these governments need to ensure that young people have access to markets, goods and service, employment opportunities, and leisure so that they prefer to stay on the farm.

Z scheme: Refer non-cyclic electron transport.

Z-DNA: A duplex DNA structure in which helical coiling of the two polynucleotide chains is left handed and phosphate backbone of the polynucleotides follows a zig-zag course.

Zeatin: Most abundant natural cytokinin present in plant.

Zantedeschia aethiopica (L.) Spreng. (syn. Calla aethiopica L.) (Araceae): Eng.- Arum Lily; Hindi – Iram sousan [NI]. A rhizomatous perennial, suitably planted in moist and shaddy situations and under green house conditions.

z-test: The z-test is based on the assumption of normality. The z-test is based on the normal probability distribution and is used for judging the significance of several statistical measures, particularly the men.

Zeatin: Zeatin is a cytokinin C10 H13 N5 O first isolated from the endosperm of Indian corn.

Zeaxanthin: Zeaxanthin is an isomer of lutein occurring in fruits and vegetables (spinach and corn) (Plate 682, 683 and 684).

Zein: Zein is a protein from Indian corn that lacks lysine and tryptophan and is used in making textile fibers, plastics, printing inks, edible coatings, adhesives and sizes.

Zeolite: It is clay embedded in the plastic film to adsorb ethylene. It is used in Japan. Zeolite is anhydrous silicates that is analogous in composition to the feldspars and used in water softening, adsorbents and catalysts. Or Zeolite is one of various hydrous silicates that are analogous in composition to the feldspars, occur as secondary minerals in cavities of lavas, and can act as ion-exchangers. These are used especially in water softening and as adsorbents and catalysts (Plate 685).

Zero 2: It is Australian oxygen scavenging plastic packaging materials.

Zein: Prolamin which accounts for approximately half of the total storage proteins in corn. Contains minimal concentrations of lysine and tryptophan, but is rich in leucine.
Zeolites: Crystalline, hydrated alkali-aluminium silicates. Useful as catalysts for production of invert sugar from sucrose, downstream processing of flavour compounds, detoxification of contaminated foods and feeds, and as molecular sieves.
Zero energy cool chamber (ZECC): Zero energy cool chambers is an on-farm rural oriented storage structure which operates on the principle of evaporative cooling and has been constructed using locally available raw materials such as bricks, sand, bamboo, rice straw, vetiver grass, jute cloth etc. The chamber has been constructed above the ground and comprises of a double-walled structure made up of bricks. The cavity of the double wall is filled with riverbed sand. The upper part of the chamber was covered with vetiver grass mat on a bamboo frame. Zero energy cool chamber (ZECC) is a double wall structure having space between the walls which is filled with porous water absorbing materials. These pads are kept constantly wet by applying water. When unsaturated air passes through wet pad, transfer of mass and heat takes place and the energy for the evaporation process comes from the air stream. Losses can be minimized by using best post-harvest handling techniques during storage, transportation and distribution to market. There are various technologies available to create and maintain optimal temperature, relative humidity and atmospheric composition for harvested fruits and vegetables during storage.

INTRODUCTION

Zantedeschia is commonly known as Calla lily. The other names are Arum lily, Aroid lily, Lily of the Nile and Pig lily. They are mainly grown for their attractive, large flower spathes, which are usually produced in the spring and summer and also for their variegated and spotted foliage. They are grown in large quantities by commercial growers because they are commonly used for decoration in Easter and throughout the spring and early summer months. It grows very well in open conditions in warm climate. Regular gardeners may have their bloom in winter, spring or early summer depending upon the temperature conditions maintained in the greenhouse.

Zantedeschia is an excellent cut flower and last a long time in water. There are various species, which produces different coloured flowers. The flower spathes of calla or arum lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica) are white, the spathes of the yellow or golden callas (Z. elliottiana) are yellow, whereas the pink calla (Z. rehmannii) produces lavender red, rose red, violet red or pink spathes. The white arum (common calla) forms large colonies in marshy areas ranging from the coast to an altitude of 2250 m above mean sea level. Thus, they may exist in humid, salt laden air at the coast and freezing, misty mountain grassland at high altitudes and as a result, are very versatile in the garden. The leaves of the calla are very interesting in that they contain water stomata, which can discharge excess water by a process known as guttation. This prevents logging and enables calla lily to grow in wet conditions.

Zantedeschia commonly known as Calla lily, Richardia or Pig lily belongs to family Araceae. It is the only genus in the tribe Zantedeschiae which is the sub family philodendroideae. The name Zantedeschia was given as a tribute to Italian botanist “Giovanni Zantedeschi” (1773-1846) by the German botanist Kurt Sprengel (1766-1833). It is considered by many people in the Republic of Ireland to be a symbol of Irish Republicanism. The Romans valued them so much that they often decorated the edges of the bloom with filaments of gold. These spectacular flowers are beginning to rival the rose in popularity for bridal bouquets. In India there has been initiation in the production of tubers of Calla and few tissue culture labs have started production for New Zealand and Dutch Companies. It is used as potted plants, callas are very attractive. It is used for decoration throughout the spring and early summer months focal point for a spectacular arrangement or bouquet.

Zantedeschia commonly known as Calla lily, Richardia or Pig lily belongs to family Araceae. It is the only genus in the tribe Zantedeschiae which is the sub family philodendroideae. The name Zantedeschia was given as a tribute to Italian botanist “Giovanni Zantedeschi” (1773-1846) by the German botanist Kurt Sprengel (1766-1833). It is considered by many people in the Republic of Ireland to be a symbol of Irish Republicanism. The Romans valued them so much that they often decorated the edges of the bloom with filaments of gold. These spectacular flowers are beginning to rival the rose in popularity for bridal bouquets. In India there has been initiation in the production of tubers of Calla and few tissue culture labs have started production for New Zealand and Dutch Companies. It is used as potted plants, callas are very attractive. It is used for decoration throughout the spring and early summer months focal point for a spectacular arrangement or bouquet.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The Zantedeschia albomaculata are native to areas of South Central Africa which are subjected to periodic drought (Letty, 1973). Zantedeschia was originally placed in the Calla genus by Carl Linnaeus, Zantedeschia aethiopica was moved in 1818 by Carl (Charles) Sigismund Kunth to the Richardia genus, until it was finally classified as Zantedeschia. Although Zantedeschia did not remain in the Calla genus, even after all this time this wonderful bulb is still referred to by its common name of calla lily.

The name “aethiopica” probably denotes South Africa, the country of the origin. Formerly its name was Calla or Richardia. This plant was introduced in Europe very early, apparently before Van Riebeeck had established the refreshment station at Cape. It is also illustrated in an account of Royal Garden in Paris in 1664. It was sent as one of the interesting plant of Cape to Europe by Simon van der Stal sometime before 1697. The genus is restricted to African continent with seven recognized species Z. aethiopica, Z. albomaculata, Z. ellottiana, Z. jucunda, Z. odoratum, Z. petlandii, andZ. rehmannii.

The common calla (Z. aethiopica) is found from the western Cape through the eastern Cape, Kwa Zullu-Natal, Mpumalanga and in to the Northern Province. In Australia calla lily is naturalized in moist niches of the cooler parts of the New South Wales, southern and south western Victoria, moist valley in Adelaide hills and north west Tasmania. They are serious weeds of pastures and natural bush land in south west of western Australia.

The calla lily is used throughout the world as an ornamental for its flowers. It is mainly grown in temperate and sub tropical climates of the world. They also thrive well under tropical conditions. New Zealand is the topmost producer followed by The Netherland. The original summer flowering calla species were introduced in New Zealand in the early twentieth century. Finland and Scandinavia are also big producer of callas and exported to Sweden and Norway. New Zealand offers a favourable climate to grow callas outdoors and for exports it is grown under controlled conditions. In India it is a potential emerging crop and requires improvement programme for commercialization.

ABSTRACT

Zanthoxylum armatum DC. is a plant species belonging to flowering family Rutaceae which has medicinal application in traditional Ayurvedic system of medicine. It is characterized by trifoliolate leaves with leaf-stalk winged, branches with straight prickles, and fruits are small reddish brown. In India, tribal community used this species as carminative, dyspepsia, tooth curing, treating malaria fever, stomach pain and expelling roundworms. Chemistry indicates that Z. armatum is a repository of many chemical compounds such as alkaloids, flavonoids, sterols and triterpenoids. Zanthonitrile, berberine, α-sitosterol, armatamide, limonene and linalool are major constituents. Leaves and young shoots yield essential oils which act as anti-bacterial, antifungal and anthelminthics, and has tremendous potential in development of value added products. Volatile oils are active constituentsof linalool, limonene and ligan. Z. armatum has been declared as an endangered species as per International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources(IUCN) Red List category. Conservation practices needs to be adopted to conserve this valuable medicinal plant. There is a need to study on ecology, adaptive biology, chemistry and biotechnological intervention for future propagation and conservation of this medicinal plant species.

Introduction

Research in different fields of biological science requires test systems to observe the effects of chemicals or drugs. Testing new chemical entity (NCE) in drug discovery and development requires either in vitro or in vivo systems, including cell culture, tissue, organs and whole animal. Various advantages and disadvantages of each test system force scientists to find an alternative test system. The use of laboratory animals like rodents and non-rodents for evaluation of the effects of drugs or toxicity studies having ethical concerns. The cell-based and tissue-based test systems have various disadvantages including problem related prediction of the desirable and undesirable effects in animals. All such factors favor the use of laboratory animals like rats, mice, guinea pigs, rabbits, dogs, and primates in the pre-clinical phase of drug discovery. However, cost, manpower, and time-consuming efforts can be considered unfavorable for the use of such animals for testing every newly synthesized compound. Because of such difficulties in the field of new research with animal models, scientists made efforts to identify a newer animal model that can replace currently available animal species in research up to a certain extent. The animal model that is used in such drug discovery programs and toxicological testing must have homology to human beings or target species. The limitations or disadvantages of currently available animal models may be solved up to a certain level by using aquatic animal species like zebrafish.

1. Introduction

The increasing global population has intensified the challenges associated with land and freshwater scarcity (Dutta, 2019). The unpredictable supply of water bodies has prompted a significant shift among farmers towards the utilization of private tube wells, exerting increased pressure on groundwater resources (Ahmad et al., 2003; Ahmad et al., 2007). Due to inadequate water management practices and excessive extraction of groundwater, leading to a decline in water tables, irrigation is increasingly exerting a detrimental influence on the ecosystem (Pingali and Shah 2001; Qureshi et al., 2003). Therefore, agricultural technologies that contribute to water conservation, cost reduction, and increased productivity are gaining increasing importance (Gupta et al., 1997; Gupta et al., 2002).

Zero tillage fish farming, a groundbreaking approach in aquaculture, has emerged as a sustainable and efficient method for cultivating fish without disturbing the aquatic environment. Zero tillage fish farming is an innovative and sustainable aquaculture method that minimizes soil disturbance and preserves natural pond ecology (Hussan et al., 2019). In contrast to traditional practices involving pond bottom dredging, zero tillage maintains water quality, supports biodiversity, and enhances overall environmental sustainability (FAO AQUASTAT 2009). By avoiding disruptive practices, this approach promotes self-sustaining aquatic ecosystems, contributing to increased productivity, cost-effectiveness, and resilience in fish cultivation. Zero tillage fish farming represents a significant shift towards responsible and eco-friendly aquaculture, addressing challenges such as environmental degradation, food security, and the impact of climate change. This chapter explores the principles, benefits, and importance of zero-tillage fish farming, shedding light on its potential to transform the aquaculture industry.

20.1 Introduction

High levels of energy and materials consumption in industrial countries are the driving force behind the decline in virtually all major life support systems on Planet Earth. Over the last decade an increasing number of scientists and other thoughtful people have come to conclude that modern levels of materials and energy consumption are having a destabilizing influence on the world’s ecosystems.

Energy consumption contributes directly to climate change by adding carbon-based molecules to the atmosphere in excess of naturally occurring amounts. Carbon molecules, primarily carbon dioxide from burning petroleum products, trap radiant heat and keep it from escaping from the Earth’s atmosphere. The resulting warming of the air is changing our global climate.

Materials consumption contributes indirectly to climate change because it requires energy to mine, extract, harvest, process, and transport raw materials, and more energy to manufacture, transport and, after use, dispose of products.

All the materials used in products, only 1% is used in products ‘durable’ enough to still be in use six months later, according to industrial ecologist Robert Ayres. This wasteful consumption of materials wreaks havoc on our land, water resources and their ecosystems. What’s seldom appreciated is that it also wreaks havoc on our atmosphere and contributes to climate change. Waste prevention and recycling are critical to stopping climate change.

Zero-sum game : When the gains made by winners in an economic transaction equal the losses suffered by the losers.

Zerovalent (nZVI) Ionic Compounds

Although Ag⁺ contains a filled d¹⁰ shell, the structures of Ag compounds can in many instances be understood only if one assumes the existence of weak attractive Ag⁺ - Ag⁺ interactions. Similar attractive forces have been shown to be responsible for the formation of gold cluster compounds. In Ag⁺ solid state compounds the unoccupied 5s and 5p orbitals give rise to empty bands which may be partially occupied thus resulting in subvalent Ag compounds; examples are Ag₃O and Ag₂F. The compound Ag₅SiO₄ prepared from Ag and Si0₂ at 350 °C under a high pressure of oxygen, contains [Ag₆]⁴⁺ clusters (average oxidation state 2/3) and should be formulated at [Ag₆]⁴⁺ (Ag⁺)₄ (SiO₄ ^{4 -})₂.

Ag and Au forms numerous cluster compounds in which the metals are zero valent or subvalent. Examples are Ag₆ Fe₃ (CO)₁₂ {HC(PPh₂)₃} and paramagnetic cluster ions [Ag₁₃ Fe₈ (CO)₃ ²]^4-.

1. Basic Information and Agrarian Status

Zimbabwe is a landlocked country located in Southern Africa covering 39,037,000 hectares. It is bordered by Zambia, Mozambique, South Africa, Botswana and Namibia. It is situated between 15 and 22° south latitude and 26 and 34° east longitude. Climatic conditions are largely sub-tropical with one rainy season between November and March. In 1981, the country had 5 hectares per capita whilst it is estimated that the current population to land ratio has declined to 3.25 hectares per person and this is largely attributed to population increases that have taken place over the years. The national census conducted by the Central Statistics Office in 2002 showed that the country has a population of 1,20,00,000 people. About 80 per cent of the population resides in the rural areas, where they sustain their livelihoods through agriculture. When discussing agricultural production activities in the country, it is important to note that nearly all the soils (80 per cent) in the country are sandy from granite rocks or from schists.

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. The Agriculture Sector of Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe has a total area of 390 580 square kilometers of which one per cent is made up of rivers and lakes, 38 per cent is arable land and the rest is suited for livestock and wildlife production. The country is bordered by South Africa, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia and Mozambique. It is located between latitudes 15,30 and 22,30 degrees south of the Equator and between longitudes 25 and 33,10 degrees east of the Greenwich Meridian (CSO, 2006).

The Agriculture sector forms the backbone of Zimbabwe’s economy and accounts for about 17 per cent of the GDP. Zimbabwe‘s agricultural sector comprises mostly smallholder farmers who include communal, resettlement and small-scale farmers. However, this sector is besieged by a plethora of issues, namely high stocking rates, sub-optimal climate, and deforestation and land degradation. The Land Reform and Resettlement Programme which commenced in 1980 resulted in hundreds of thousands of Zimbabweans being resettled on former white commercial farms, in either Model A1(communally owned) or A2 schemes (large scale commercial farms). Thus the challenge to policy makers was now to ensure that future agricultural production is not compromised by current practices. The new farming sector largely comprises resource poor farmers, academics, corporate leaders, high-level policy makers and traditional farmers. Most of the new farmers lack requisite Agricultural skills and knowledge needed in modern Agricultural practice. Land reform measures led to the exodus of some white farmers in the beginning of the 21st century which crippled the economy depriving it of technological know-how and causing shortages of basic commodities.

The modernization of agriculture therefore, among other intervention strategies, through the use of ICTs can contribute directly to food security at national and household levels, beneficiation of agricultural produce, effective land management and an increase of national wealth.

Zinc is found in earth’s crust to the tune of 0.008%. However about 50% of Indian soils exhibit deficiency of zinc with a content much below the critical level of 1.5 ppm. Soil contains both available and unavailable form of zinc. Water soluble, exchangeable, organically complexed and armorphous iron oxide bound forms are considered available zinc and crystalline iron oxide bound and residual zinc are considered as unavailable. The available fraction constitutes around 8% of the total zinc which is too low for utilization by crops in zinc deficient soils.

Zinc is required by crops in microquantities for its growth. The use of high analysis fertilizer due to cultivation of high yielding varieties, enhanced cropping intensity and the decline in the use of organic manures result in the deficiency of trace elements particularly zinc. With the liberal application of nitrogen the demand for zinc increases producing deficiency symptoms. The critical limit of zinc in dry matter for different crops and levels less than 20 ppm suggests the probability of zinc deficiency and less than 15 ppm indicate sure deficiency.

Zinc is a limiting factor in crop production and application of ZnSO₄ is preferred because of its water soluble nature. The zinc sulphate, when applied soil, gets transformed into different forms like Zn (OH), zinc carbonate in calcium rich alkali soils ; zinc phosphate in near neutral to alkali soils of high phosphorus application; and zinc sulphide under reduced conditions.

1. Introduction

Micronutrients are essential nutrients required in small quantities but play a crucial role in human health and productivity. Key micronutrients include iodine, iron, zinc, and vitamins A, B6, and B12 (Godswill et al., 2020). Zinc deficiency, a common micronutrient shortfall, is prevalent not only in developed countries but particularly in impoverished nations. It can affect individuals of all ages, with young children and breastfeeding women being the most vulnerable. Addressing zinc insufficiency through zinc supplementation or diets rich in animal protein sources has shown promising results in promoting growth and reversing hypogonadism. Subsequent research has revealed that inadequate zinc consumption in the diet is the primary cause of this hypogonadism syndrome. Since the identification of zinc deficiency as a health concern in 1961, there has been a noticeable increase in interest in the biochemical and clinical aspects of zinc nutrition (King and Cousins, 2006). In this paper, we provide a comprehensive review of the physiological functions of zinc, zinc bioavailability (including inhibitors and enhancers), the human requirement for zinc, factors affecting zinc absorption, consequences and causes of zinc deficiency, evaluation of zinc status, and prevention strategies for zinc deficiency, focusing on the use of zinc-fortified foods.

Nanotechnology holds immense promise in bolstering environmental protection and sustainability by revolutionizing approaches to monitoring, addressing, and amending environmental pollutants. This paradigm shift extends to resource conservation and energy efficiency through the innovation of more adept technologies. Yet, as we harness the potential of nanotechnology, it is of prime importance to meticulously evaluate its environmental and health implications, instating stringent measures to mitigate risks. Responsible and sustainable development, coupled with effective regulation, is imperative.

Internationally maize (Zea mays) and citrus (Citrus sp.) are reported to largely suffer from Zn de?ciency, for which these are considered as marker plants. Zinc de?ciency in maize results in pale or whitish top young leaves and the de?ciency is referred to as 'white bud' (Camberato and Maloney, 2012). In citrus, Zn de?ciency results in ‘rosette’ (cluster of stiff leaves at the end of young shoots) formation (Brennan, 1993). Zinc de?ciency in India was ?rst reported in rice by Nene (1966) at the Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand, and given the name ‘khaira’ disease due to dark-brown-coloured spots resembling kattha (Acacia catechu extract used in paan – the betel leaves) on the leaves of zinc de?cient plants. Soon All India Coordinated Project on Micronutrients was launched by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) with headquarters at the Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, which was later shifted to the Indian Institute of Soil Science, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. About half of the cultivated soils in the India are de?cient in available zinc. Zinc de?ciency is most in Maharashtra and Karnataka and rice-growing states of north and northeast (Table 12.1). A good response of cereals to Zn fertilization has been reported (Rattan et al., 2008).

A family of 56 genera and over 1,300 species, Zingiberaceae are distributed in tropical regions, chiefly in Indomalaysia. About 17 genera and over 115 species have been reported from India, chiefly in Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas. Some largely represented genera along with number of their world over reported species are Alpinia (250), Amomum (150), Costus (150), Zingiber (90), Kaempferia (70), Curcuma (60), Hedychium (50), Globba (50) and Elettaria (7).
Selected Indian Genera
Alpinia, Amomum, Costus, Curcuma, Elettaria, Hedychium, Zingiber.
Economic Importance
1. Spices and condiments: Seeds of Amomum cardamom (Badi elayachi) and Elettaria cardamomum (true cardamom), roots of Alpinia officinarum (gangal root) and rhizomes of A. gangala (Siamese ginger), Curcuma longa (turmeric) and Zingiber officinalis (ginger) are used as spices, condiments and flavouring agents. Ginger oil, obtained from rhizomes of Z. officinalis, is used in perfumery and for medicinal purposes. Turmeric is also used for medicinal purposes.

Zinnia is a very important summer annual belongs to family Compositae. Zinnia was named for the man who wrote the first scientific description of the flower, “Dr. Johann Gottfried Zinn” a German Professor of medicine, but it was the late 19th century that plant breeders started to pay any attention to this plant. Zinnia is a half hardy plant. They are popular for bedding however, cut flowers of zinnia remain fresh for several days. They are easy to grow from seeds. Collection of open pollinated seeds is in common practice in India. Non-uniformity of bloom with respect to colour, flower shape and size, height of the plants and excessive etiolation of the plants result into poor sale of zinnias.

Zinnia is a very important summer annual belongs to family Compositae. Zinnia was named for the man who wrote the first scientific description of the flower, “Dr. Johann Gottfried Zinn” a German Professor of medicine, but it was the late 19^th century that plant breeders started to pay any attention to this plant. Zinnia is a half hardy plant. They are popular for bedding however, cut flowers of zinnia remain fresh for several days. They are easy to grow from seeds. Collection of open pollinated seeds is in common practice in India. Non-uniformity of bloom with respect to colour, flower shape and size, height of the plants and excessive etiolation of the plants result into poor sale of zinnias.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The genus Zinnia consists of 20 species, all native to the New World (Bailey, 1951). Further Stemart and Thomas (2007) suggested that zinnia are native to scrub and dry grassland in an area stretching from the Southwestern United States to South America, with a centre of diversity in Mexico.

Zinnias are grown mostly as annual in Mexico, Texas, New Mexico, Colorado, Brazil and Chile. It is sometimes called the Mexican marigold as its designation in some degree is justified in case of the yellow varieties. In early days zinnias were not popular. Although native to North and South America, not everyone found them attractive or desirable as a landscape plant. In fact, when Spanish first saw the zinnia species in Mexico, they considered the flower so unattractive that they named it “mal de ojos” which is Spanish for “Sickness of eye”. Zinnia seeds brought back to Europe in eighteenth century caused little excitement although the plant did not get good name. But it was not until the late nineteenth century that plant breeders started to pay any attention to this species.

The start of real popularity of the zinnia came around 1920 when Bodger Seeds Ltd. introduced the dahlia flowers Giant Dahlia. John Bodger discovered it as a natural mutation in a field of Mammoth and within the next few years selected the California Giant (large, flat-flowered variety) from the strain. The most attractive feature was availability of flowers in different colours. It also was considered to be a new trend in plant habit and flower form. It even won a gold medal from the Royal Horticultural Society of England, making everyone want to grow this prize winning flower. The many garden form of Zinnia elegans developed from the wild plant that grown in Mexico. Common zinnia has escaped and naturalized in part of southern United States including central Florida. Recently cultivation of new hybrid zinnias have started in some American and European countries under open as well as protected conditions for cut flower production.

INTRODUCTION

Zinnias are popular in flower gardens because of their variable coloured blooms and their ability to withstand hot summer temperatures. They are easy to grow from seeds. Plants come in many colours, shape and size adapted well to most growing conditions. Out of about twenty species, these are some eight to ten species of zinnia known to the gardens, but only few of them have become favourite and that abundantly deserves the pre-eminence. They have attained position as one of the most splendid of annual flowers. Most varieties are prolific bloomer, making them excellent for landscape. They are also available as compact varieties suitable for hanging baskets, window boxes and containers. Recently, new hybrid zinnia cultivars have attracted attention as a cut flower crop. There are at least hundred varieties in the diversity of flower colour and types. Some with flower heads upto 15 cm across. The colour of zinnias are white, cream, green, yellow, apricot, orange, red, bronze, crimson, purple and lilac with stripped, speckled and bicoloured flowers. An important variety of zinnia is Coccinea or Scarlet-rayed. This variety became popular after its existence in 1829 and was thought much of for its brilliant colour and stately habit. During the fifty years that have elapsed since it appeared, the flower has been in all characters and now posses a race of perfectly double zinnias, the flowers of which show no central disc, but are perfect rosettes of exquisite form and of every shade of colour except blue. There is not a more striking instance of floral advancement, accomplished by systematic selection, than is afforded by zinnia, which is at once one of the largest and long standing of many good and cheap annual flowers.

Abstract: Zinnia, multipurpose ornamental annual is noted for its garden performance. The uses of zinnias range from dwarf cultivars used for containers, borders or edging, bedding to tall cultivars used for cut flowers. Breeders and seed companies successfully introduced hybrid cultivars in the mid 20^th century. Some modes of inheritance of floral doubleness, floral colour, male sterility, self incompatibility, leaf morphology, disease resistance have been discussed/ clarified; research succeed in interspecific hybridization, polyploidy, mutation breeding and seed production are presented. Somaclonal variation for generating mutants has created new horizons in zinnia breeding. Important traits for both production and landscape use include flower colour and bloom time, plant habit and form, seed germination, disease and virus susceptibility.

Keywords: Breeding, cytology, inheritance, polyploidy, F₁ hybrids, seed production.

Classification

Classification is ordering of organisms into groups (or sets) on the basis of their relationships that are of associations by contiguity, similarity or both.

Classification of living things is an attempt to interpret nature. It attempts to bring together the kinds that are alike and closely related and to separate those that are unlike and unrelated.

Animals might be classified in various ways but the classification is based primarily on structural characters. Those animals with certain structures in common are classified into one group, and those with other structures into other group. Thus the animal kingdom is divided into a dozen or so major groups called phyla (singular, phylum); each phylum has a name, and its members have certain structural characters in common. The characters used to distinguish phyla include the number of cells, symmetry, body form and segmentation, the nature of the appendages, and the arrangement of the internal organs.

On the basis of degree of complexity, and probably evolutionary sequence, the animal phyla are usually arranged in a series from the lower phyla to the higher ones.

Nomenclature should not be confused with terminology which deals with terms, like antenna, abdomen, radius etc. Names of animal and plants may be either vernacular or scientific.

Vernacular names or local names of plants and animals are different from region to region, from language to language.

Scientific names or Latin or International names are used universally all over the world. Without them we would not be able to communicate and to use the knowledge accumulated about animals and plants in literature. These international names are under certain rules or nomenclature.

Nomenclature

No-men-cla-ture means a system of names. It is derived from Latin Nomen means name and calor means to call, which means to call by names. Nomenclature is the “language of Zoology” and the rules of nomenclature are its grammar. Since all zoologists work with animals and used their names, it is essential that the general principles of zoological nomenclature be familiar to all zoologists.

Introduction

The quest for data and analysis of the economics of zoonoses control is now in its fifth decade: The World Health Organization (WHO) Executive Board having passed a resolution, recommending that a group of experts meet and discuss the subject and commission some pilot studies. (a) The health economics recognised as a sub-discipline of economics (b), the cost–benefit analysis established a notion for long enough to merit the writing of a survey article (c) and the difficulties of putting a monetary value on human life (d) the alternative non-monetary approaches being developed. The development of veterinary or animal health economics, partly spurred on by the gathering of experts initiated by that same WHO resolution. The International Society for Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics held its first meeting marking the formal launching of the fraternity.

Introduction

Aquaculture and Zoonotic Diseases

Diseases that can transfer from wild or domestic animals to humans are referred to zoonosis (Fig 1). Zoonosis also includes biotoxin producing agents from fish to human beings which is well documented. There are a number of pathogens which spread from fish and shellfish to human and other domestic animals causing diseases.There are also many other infectious organisms of fish origin that have not been reported but have potential to infect and harm man. Zoonotic diseases originated from fish and shellfish have been documented in the past mostly from wild caught fish and shellfish. However, in the last 30 years as the capture fisheries is declining and aquaculture is growing steadily worldwide, zoonotic incidences from the latter are increasing.

Aquaculture growing at 6-7% annually world over including India is contributing to 50-60% of total fish production today. Additionally, aquarium industry is booming worldwide. Therefore,incidences and scale of zoonosis due to aquaculture are quite different from that from capture or wild fisheries. Disease outbreaks in cultured fish are often by pathogens indigenous to aquatic environment. In aquaculture, disease outbreaks are associated with quality and quantity of nutrients and high stocking density which increase pathogen load leading to easy transmission to human. Apparently healthy fishes may also harbor bacterial pathogens, especially in their kidneys and intestines. World Health Organisation (WHO) considers many diseases in aquatic animals as emerging type. Emerging diseases appear in a population for the first time or it may have been existed before, but is now increasing rapidly. Usually information on zoonotic potential of emerging diseases is limited which is essential to disseminate to human health managers. Potential biological contamination of aquaculture products can occur from bacteria, fungi, viruses, parasites and biotoxins. The location of the farm, the species being farmed, water temperature, husbandry systems, postharvest processing, and habits in food preparation and consumption are among the main factors influencing the zoonotic risk associated with aquatic animals and their products.

Abstract

The global economic burden due to zoonotic diseases is very high. According to a recent World Bank estimate, the economic burden due to six of the zoonotic diseases that have occurred in specific countries between 1997 and 2009 is estimated to be US$80 billion. In a worst-case scenario, potential losses from a pandemic influenza outbreak could be US$3 trillion, which is equivalent to 5% of the global GDP. Zoonotic diseases continue to represent an important health hazard in most parts of the world. More than 200 zoonotic diseases have been described, caused by bacteria, parasites, viruses, fungi and unconventional agents (e.g. prions). About 75 percent of the new diseases that have affected humans over the past ten years are caused by pathogens originating from animals or from products of animal origin. Many of these diseases have the potential to spread by various means over long distances and to become global problems. India contributes to substantial portion of the global burden of endemic zoonoses and is one of the several ‘EID hotspots’. The quality and safety of food supplies are put at risk by demands for more, cheaper food, driven by growing population and increasing urbanization, combined with a lack of resources to deal with issues related to food safety and lower or less rigorously enforced regulatory standards add to spread of zoonotic diseases. Human and financial resources that are dedicated by national authorities to the support of regulatory and non-regulatory food safety programs generally fall well short of needs. Commonly, many of the resources available are used for quality control of food for export, rather than products for domestic consumption, leaving the domestic market more vulnerable to unacceptable levels of food safety hazards, thus adding to the problem. In many developing countries, there is a substantial informal market that generally escapes any food safety controls. The successful control of zoonoses is possible if acceptable standards of life and social welfare are observed in developing country like India. Close cooperation and interaction between veterinarians, health physicians and public health operators, agriculturists and ecologists is thus necessary via one health approach strategy facilitating interdisciplinary collaborations and communications in all aspects of health care for humans, animals and the environment.

INTRODUCTION

Zoonoses are diseases and infections which are naturally transmitted between vertebrate animals and humans. The pathogens that cause zoonotic diseases are bacteria, fungi, viruses, parasites or protozoa. Disease transfer occurs via direct or indirect exposure to the pathogen. A pathogen is contracted directly through skin to skin contact of an infected animal or through ingestion of diseased animal products (infected faeces, urine, saliva, blood, milk or other bodily fluids). A bite or sting from a diseased animal or through an infected invertebrate host directly transfers the pathogen to humans as well. Indirect exposure occurs through air, water or soil in which the pathogen can survive for a limited period of time without a host ( Acha, et al., 2003).

CLASSIFICATION OF ZOONOSES

The World Health Organization (WHO) Expert Committee on Zoonoses came up with the following classification system of zoonoses based on the type of life cycle of the pathogen.

Introduction
The major conditions described under this heading are as follows :
    1.    Snakebite 
    2.    Scorpion bite 
    3.    Black widow spider sting 
    4.    Toad poisoning

Snake Bite
Poisonous snakes mainly belong to three categories

Introduction 

A toxin (Greek: ôïîéêüí, toxikon, lit. (poison) for use on arrows) is a poisonous substance produced by living cells or organisms that is active at very low concentrations. Toxins can be small molecules, peptides, or proteins and are capable of causing disease on contact or absorption with body tissues by interacting with biological macromolecules such as enzymes or cellular receptors. Toxins vary greatly in their severity, ranging from usually minor and acute (as in a bee sting) to almost immediately deadly (as in botulinum toxin)

A toxin is simply a poison that can affect the body by internal or external means. A toxin can be a chemical which occurs naturally or in synthetic form. More than 120,000 human-made chemicals have been introduced into the environment, in one form or another, and this number continues to grow each year at a phenomenal rate. At the same time, microbial toxins, being influenced by the vast numbers of chemicals, are mutating beyond belief.

• The name Zoraptera, derived from the Greek “zor” meaning pure and “aptera” meaning wingless was given to the order before winged forms were discopvered.

• Members of the order Zoraptera are small (less than 4 mm) and usually found in rotting wood, under bark or in piles of old sawdust.

• They live in small aggregations (gregarious) and appear to scavenge on spores and mycelium of fungi, or occasionally, on mites and other small arthropods.

• polymorphism in populations; with blind, apterous individuals dominating during colony life, but populations produce eyed alates (individuals with wings) for dispersal and founding new colonies.

• males with a distinctive “mating hook” and unique mating behaviors.

• unique grooming behaviors

Adults

• Antennae 9-segmented (moniliform).

• Mouthparts mandibulate, hypognathous.

• Soft bodied, small (usually less than 3 mm).

• Wings often absent with reduced venation when present.

• Tarsi 2-segmented

• Cerci 1-segmented

• ovipositor absent

• incomplete development (egg, nymph, adult)