eChapters

India, internationally recognized as the principal producer, consumer and exporter of spices globally, is often referred to as the spice bowl of the world. A total of 75 spices out of 109 are cultivated in the country, among which
pepper, cardamom, chillies, ginger, turmeric, coriander, cumin, and fenugreek are of significant importance. The approximate export of spices during 2021- 22 was 15,31,154 MT valued at 30,576.44 crore (US $4,102.29 million)
compared to 17,58,985 MT valued at 30,973.32 crore (US $ 4,178.80 million) during the previous financial year. Indian spices are exported to more than 180 destinations, with the leading importers being USA, China, Bangladesh, Thailand, UAE, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, UK, Indonesia, and Germany. The key spice-producing states of India include Himachal Pradesh (ginger), Haryana (garlic), Karnataka (pepper, ginger, cardamom (small), chilli, turmeric and garlic), Orissa (ginger, chilli, turmeric, and garlic), Kerala (pepper, chilli, turmeric, nutmeg, mace, and clove) and Rajasthan (coriander, chilli, cumin, garlic, fenugreek, fennel, and ajwain).
Seed Spices in Rajasthan Economy
Of the 75 spices grown in India, 20 are classified as seed spices, where the economically important part is the seed.

Practical applications and field techniques in spices breeding are essential for developing new varieties that meet the needs of farmers, processors, and consumers. These techniques involve a combination of traditional methods and modern technologies to select, test, and propagate spice plants with desirable traits. Here’s an overview of the key practical applications and field techniques used in spices breeding:
1. Selection and hybridization
• Mass selection: This traditional technique involves selecting the bestperforming plants from a large population based on desirable traits such as yield, flavor, and disease resistance. The selected plants are then propagated
to create the next generation.
• Hybridization: Cross-breeding different varieties or species of spices to combine desirable traits from both parents. This technique is used to create hybrids with improved characteristics, such as higher yield, better flavor, or
enhanced resistance to pests and diseases.
• Example: Cross-pollinating different varieties of chili peppers to produce hybrids with higher capsaicin content for spicier flavors.

Calcium is a vital mineral playing an essential role in numerous physiological processes, including bone formation, muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, and blood clotting. Proper calcium metabolism in animals is regulated by a complex interplay of dietary intake, hormonal control (mainly by parathyroid hormone; PTH, calcitonin, and vitamin D), and organ systems such as the kidneys, intestines, and bones. Imbalances in calcium homeostasis, whether due to dietary deficiencies, genetic predispositions, hormonal dysfunctions, or systemic diseases, can lead to a wide range of disorders affecting the skeletal system and overall health. Calcium-related disorders in animals can broadly be classified into those resulting from calcium deficiency, excess, or abnormalities in calcium regulation. Among these, skeletal manifestations are the most pronounced, as the bones act as a primary reservoir for calcium in the body. Various diseases related to calcium disorders and their nutritional management are discussed
below:
a) Rickets
Rickets is a skeletal disorder that affects young animals and birds, characterized by improper bone mineralization. This condition occurs primarily due to deficiencies in vitamin D, calcium, and phosphorus, which are essential for proper bone development. Rickets can lead to deformities, pain, and reduced growth rates, and understanding its causes, symptoms, mechanism, and nutritional management is crucial for prevention and treatment.

Flood management is a continuing process of assessing flood risk and coordinating prevention, preparedness, response, recovery, and adaptation. Unlike flood control, which often emphasizes physical structures, integrated flood management accepts that floods cannot always be eliminated and seeks to balance their risks and beneficial functions. It protects life and property while considering river-basin development, environmental sustainability, social needs, and economic feasibility. This chapter explains flood-management concepts, objectives, purposes, and techniques. It discusses structural and non-structural actions, forecasting, watershed treatment, afforestation, rainwater harvesting, floodplain zoning, community preparedness, institutional responsibilities, interlinking proposals, and government programmes. Emphasis is placed on coordinated, basin-wide and risk-informed decision-making.

The purpose of a sub-surface drainage system is to lower the ground water table and removal of salts beyond the crop root zone. The ground water table may rise due to commonly practiced flood irrigation method, seepage from unlined channels, percolation of rain and runoff water and sub-surface flow from higher areas. Sub-surface drainage consists of drains laid at a specified depth, spacing and grade below the ground surface. The size, spacing and depth of drains depend largely on the soil-water properties viz. , infiltration, saturated hydraulic conductivity, drainable porosity; and the requirement of removal of water through drains in certain time period fixed on the basis of rainfall and crop cultivated. The drains are usually placed in a pervious stratum. Suitable filter of coarse sand and gravel may be used when it is placed in a low permeable stratum. Sub-surface drainage serves the important job of removal of concentrated salt solution from the crop root zone particularly in arid and semi-arid region.

Vegetables being good source of carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, vitamins and dietary fibers constitute important component of human diet. These are the cheapest source of natural protective food and increase the palatability. India is the second largest producer of vegetables next to China. Diseases are inherent component of agro-ecosystem, which must be dealt with continuous and knowledgeable basis. Diseases in the standing crop from the seedling stage until harvest and spoilage caused by microorganisms during transit, storage and marketing are major constraints in increasing production and availability of vegetables. At different stages of vegetable production, disease management requires several approaches, and it is more successful, if it is integrated into crop production system. Since vegetables are mostly grown year after year in the same fields especially near towns and cities, therefore, concerted efforts are required to manage the diseases. More than 300 diseases have been reported to occur on vegetable crops and it is beyond the scope of this chapter to discuss all the diseases. However, brief description of etiology, diagnostic symptoms and management practices being adopted are presented here for the economically important fungal and bacterial diseases of vegetable crops.

Future areas of emphasis for research and scholarship in nematode ecology are indicated by pressing agricultural and environmental issues, by new directions in applied nematology, and by current technological advances. Studies in nematode ecology must extend beyond observation, counting, and simple statistical analysis. Experimentation and the testing of hypotheses are needed for understanding the biological mechanisms of ecological systems. Opportunities for fruitful experimentation in nematode ecology are emerging at the ecosystem, community, population, and individual levels. Nematode ecologists will best promote their field of study by closely monitoring and participating in the advances, initiatives, developments, and directions in the larger f ield of ecology. Some major concepts in ecology have been explored including the dynamics of species interaction, the relationship between complexity and stability in ecosystems and the characterization of organisms as “r” or “K” selected (Howard Ferris, 1993). There has been some application of concepts of plant-herbivore coevolution and density-dependent regulation of populations.

9.1 Introduction

In order to increase the production and productivity of crops, provision of irrigation system is highly essential. A project that makes use of weir or a barrage for providing irrigation to fields is called as direct irrigation system. On the other hand, a storage irrigation system makes use of storage reservoir by construction of dams. In order to provide irrigation by both the schemes, it is necessary to have a network of canal systems. A canal is an artificial channel, generally trapezoidal in shape constructed on the ground to carry water to the fields. The canal systems that provide water to the fields include main canals, branch canals, distributaries, minors and watercourses. It is imperative to design the canal systems properly for a certain realistic value of peak discharge that must pass through them so as to provide sufficient irrigation to the command areas. The flow irrigation that provides irrigation water to the fields may be of two types i.e. Inundation irrigation and Perennial irrigation.

8.1. Introduction

Providing appropriate nutrition is an elementary step in dairy animal production. Improper nutrition prevents cattle to express full genetic potential for milk production and reproductive efficiency. Nutrition helps in maintaining good health condition of the animal.

Therefore, one should know the basic digestive physiology, various types of nutrients and their requirements in different categories of animals present in a dairy herd. As feed cost contributes principal expenditure of a dairy farm, balanced ration should be prepared in a cost effective manner. Proper understanding of feeds and rations also help to explore alternative feeds and supplements without hampering the health as well as productivity of the animals. Effective dairy farming requires converting feed into milk which worth more than the total cost of production (mostly contributed by feed cost).

4.1 Introduction

Precipitation is a major component of hydrological cycle. It occurs because of condensation of water vapour molecules in the atmosphere. When the precipitation falls on the grounds, it undergoes several phases before it appears as runoff in the streams. Certain amount of precipitations is intercepted by the foliage of plants and roofs and other parts of the building and other hydraulic structures. This intercepted water is called as interception loss which is evaporated to the atmosphere. Sometimes the dried surface of the buildings and other structures soak certain amount of precipitation while falling on them which also adds to interception loss. After striking the land masses, certain amount of the precipitated water gets infiltrated into the soil surface which then moves both in lateral as well as in vertical direction. This loss is called as infiltration loss. For the study of groundwater, infiltration loss is not a loss but rather it is a gain in terms of groundwater recharge. However for a surface water hydrologist, it is a loss since it decreases the amount of runoff contributing to the stream or any other water bodies.

SYNOPSIS

Vegetables are essential for well-balanced diet since they supply phytonutriceuticals. About 3 billion people in the world are malnourished due to imbalanced diets. Regular consumption of a vegetable rich diet has undeniable effects on health since they have been strongly associated with improvement of gastrointestinal health, good vision, and reduced risk of heart disease, stroke, chronic diseases such as diabetes, and some forms of cancer.

The classification of living organisms has passed through several changes and has reached the present stage with the gradual assimilation of more and more knowledge about them. The classification is mainly based on the anatomy, life style, habits, habitats, metamorphosis and such other characteristics. Though the concept of classification of living organisms was perhaps started by Aristotle between 384 - 322 BC, it was the Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus (1758) who presented the classification, which was acceptable to most of the Taxonomists. He propounded the binomial nomenclature of naming each and every organism of animal and plant origin with a generic and species name. In his classification, he was consistent in using Latin names for all the organisms. He was the originator of a regular system of classification in which he recognized larger and smaller categories, the larger ones comprising of a varying number of smaller ones. Because of his contribution in the field of Taxonomy, he is rightly called the ‘Father of nomenclature’. A.D.Imms later modified the system to some extent in 1961. However, Brauer (1885) laid the foundation of the modern system of classification of insects. He was the first one to emphasize the fundamental division into primitive wingless insects, the ‘Apterygota’ and the winged or secondarily wingless insects, the ‘Pterygota’. The latest code on classification and nomenclature was approved and published by the ‘International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature’, London in 1964.

The method of preserving various food stuffs by drying them, and thereby depriving microorganisms of the water necessary for their growth, has been known for centuries. According to Marco Polo’s accounts of his travel in Asia in 13^th century, soldiers of Kublai Khan carried dried milk on excursions. Before it was used, water was added to a portion of dried material. Mixing was accomplished by movement of the horse during riding on the trip. The recombined product was then consumed at the mealtime. The belief is that part of the fat was removed from the milk before drying and dehydration was accomplished by solar heating.

Drying is defined as the removal of the liquid, usually water, from a product by evaporation, leaving the solids in an essentially dry state. Today the production of dried milk and milk products has become important segment of dairy industry. Dry milk provides a means of preserving the excess milk supply during the flush season for use during the lean season. The value added dried dairy products like malted milk foods, infant food and infant formulae and dairy whiteners are convenient ready to use products having wide acceptance. The water content of milk powder ranges between 2.5 and 5%, and no microbial growth occurs at such low water content. Drying extends the shelf life of milk, simultaneously reducing its weight and volume. The main purpose of drying milk are: a) to improve the storage life of the product due to low moisture content, b) to reduce cost for storage and transportation of product due to reduced bulk, and c) to provide convenient product for utilization in many dairy and food preparations.

The production of dried milks to a great extent is now being governed by the market requirement and to some specialized use of such products. Considerable quantities of dried skim milk powders are being used extensively in the preparation of ‘Reconstituted and Recombined milks”. Milk powders are also used extensively in the manufacture of ice cream, bakery products, confectionary products, cottage cheese and in other cheese varieties. The greatest proportion of milk powder is utilized in confectioneries, such as milk chocolate, caramels, soft sweets, coatings, biscuits and cakes. In these products, milk powder has a special effect on the quality of particular products: it improves consistency, flavour as well as nutritional value and shelf life.

A. Bhattacharya    
    
4.1.    Factors of Abiotic Stress
    
4.2.    Light
    
4.3.    Temperature
    
    4.3.1.    Heat-stress Threshold
    4.3.2.    Low Temperature Stress
    4.3.3.    Plant Responses to Heat Stress
    
4.4.    Water
    
    4.4.1.    Drought
    4.4.2.    Flooding
    
4.5.    Soil
    
    4.5.1.    Soil Type
    4.5.2.    Soil pH
    4.5.3.    Soil Fertility
    4.5.4.    Soil Salinity
    
4.6.    Growth and Development
    
    4.6.1.    Phases of Development Sensitive to Temperature or Photoperiod
    
4.7.    Phenology
    
    4.7.1.    Changes in Phenology of Cropping Systems
    4.7.2.    Effect of CO2 on Flowering
    4.7.3.    Temperature and Effects on Phenology
    4.7.4.    Effect of Salinity
    
4.8.    Molecular/Genetic Aspects of Flowering Response to Climate Change
    
4.9.    Simulation of Phenology for Future Climate
        
    References

Body Parts of Farm Animals

It is important to know about the various terms used to indicate different body parts of the animals so that whenever a description of the animal/body part is presented, one could specifically understand it. Some of the terms used to point out different body points of common livestock species have been shown in Figure 2.1.1-2.1.5. Terms which are more frequently used for different livestock species have been depicted in Table 2.1.1.

The earth's crust is made up of minerals and rocks. Minerals are inorganic substances with a definite chemical composition, whereas rocks are mixture or aggregates of minerals. Each mineral is composed of certain elements present in fixed proportion. For example, mineral quartz, SiO₂ is a compound of the elements silicon (Si) and oxygen (O) combined in the proportion of 1:2, so its chemical formula is SiO₂, whereas rock granite is a mixture of several minerals like quartz, feldspar etc. Nature has provided unique physical properties to different minerals that can be used to identify them.

4.1 Physical Properties of Minerals

Majority of minerals contain following properties that can be used to identify them in field and in laboratory: crystal habit, cleavage, hardness, density, luster, streak, color, tenacity, magnetism, and taste.

4.1.1 Crystal habit

The faces that develop on a crystal depend on the space available for the crystals to grow. If crystals grow into one another or in a restricted environment, it is possible that no well-formed crystal faces will be developed. However, crystals sometimes develop certain forms more commonly than others, although the symmetry may not be readily apparent from these common forms. The term used to describe general shape of a crystal is habit.

Some common crystal habits are as follows:

Abstract: Rose is a popular cut flower and flowering garden plant. Fragrance, wide colour range, plant forms and wide adaptability make it a versatile floriculture crop. The diagnostic traits of the different classes are described with reference to their potential commercial value. Increasing genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop and molecular genetic techniques are valuable tools aiding modern rose breeders, cultivars are almost exclusively asexually propagated. A gametophytic self incompatibility is found within this species. Numerous cultivars developed through hybridization and mutation techniques are discussed. Rose breeding efforts have been focused on miniature forms, floral fragrance, recurrent blooming, diverse colours, thornlessness, potential rootstocks, mutilple disease, pest resistance and winter hardiness. Transgenic research is highlighted. The journey of rose is endless and rose breeding may continue forever.

Keywords: Rose, intervarietal hybridization, mutation, inheritance, self incompatibility, rootstock, seed production, genetic transformation.

Economics

The term “Economics” is derived from the Greek words ‘OIKOS’ and ‘NOMAS’ or ‘NEMEIN’. ‘Oikos’ means house hold and ‘Nomas’ or ‘Nemein’ means management. So in its original sense economics means house hold management; i.e. satisfying as many wants of the house hold or family as possible by allocating the limited resources at the disposal of the family wisely among different wants. In the modern and practical sense Economics means management of day to day problems arising from unlimited wants and limited resources by wisely allocating limited resources to satisfy maximum wants. In other words economics is the study of how man manages his limited resources as it satisfies as many wants as possible.

Shrubs are the most diverse groups of ornamentals grown in tropical gardens. In habit they are hardy perennials having low spreading woody branches. They vary widely in stature and include dwarf bushes to those attaining the stature of small trees.

IMPORTANCE AND USES OF SHRUBS

Shrubs are quick growing and many of them flower continuously in the humid tropics. Their variability in flower colours and foliage characteristics and their easiness in propagation by vegetative means make them garden favourites. The various uses to which shrubs are put to in gardens are detailed below: -

In A Shrubbery : Grouping of shrubs in a shrubbery is done to display the attractiveness of their flowers and foliage. In temperate situations shrubs grown in shrubberies include Rhododendron, Peony, Fuchsia, Buddleia, and Camellia while in the tropics and subtropics, the range of shrubs available for planting are very wide.

As Focal Point Plants : Shrubs that are ever flowering like Hamelia and Hibiscus or those that have spectacular flowers such as Mussaenda, Neerium and Ixora are grown as focal point plants in small gardens. They are also grouped for mass effect in large gardens.

H erbs include non-woody or succulent-stemmed plants that are relatively shorter in stature when compared to shrubs. Based on their ornamental nature they can be broadly grouped as Flowering Herbs and Foliage Herbs. Flowering Herbs can be further classified based on their duration into Annual Flowering Herbs and Perennial Flowering Herbs. Foliage herbs of a perennial nature are further differentiated into monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous foliage herbs.

ANNUAL FLOWERING HERBS

Annual herbs are grown in gardens for their spectacular beauty when they are in flower. They are seasonal in habit and have duration of up to four months. Most of them have a short vegetative phase, which is followed by continuous flowering for several weeks. They are used in gardens for obtaining various colour effects. Varieties of annuals having analogous or similar flower colours can be grouped in flowerbeds and flower borders for monochromatic effects. For contrasting colour effects, varieties having complementary or contrasting colours like violet and yellow or blue and orange as well as green and red can be used. For colour blending effects, flowers having different shades of the same colour can be grown.

Mycotoxins are naturally occurring toxins produced by certain molds and can be found in food. The molds grow on a variety of different crops and foodstuffs including cereals, nuts, spices, dried fruits, apples and coffee beans, often under warm and humid conditions. Mycotoxins can cause a variety of adverse health effects and pose a serious health threat to both humans and livestock. The adverse health effects of mycotoxins range from acute poisoning to long-term effects such as immune deficiency and cancer. A scientific expert committee jointly convened by WHO and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), called JECFA, is the international body responsible for evaluating the health risk from natural toxins including mycotoxins. International standards and codes of practice to limit exposure to mycotoxins from certain foods are established by the Codex Alimentarius Commission based on JECFA assessments.

Mycotoxins are toxic compounds that are naturally produced by certain types of molds (fungi). Molds that can produce mycotoxins grow on numerous foodstuffs such as cereals, dried fruits, nuts and spices. Mold growth can occur either before harvest or after harvest, during storage, on/in the food itself often under warm, damp and humid conditions. Most mycotoxins are chemically stable and survive food processing. Several hundred different mycotoxins have been identified, but the most commonly observed mycotoxins that present a concern to human health and livestock include aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, patulin, fumonisins, zearalenone and nivalenol/deoxynivalenol. Mycotoxins appear in the food chain as a result of mold infection of crops both before and after harvest. Exposure to mycotoxins can happen either directly by eating infected food or indirectly from animals that are fed contaminated feed, in particular from milk.

Introduction

Fermentation is an alluring procedure of biochemical adjustment of essential nourishment microorganisms and their enzymes accomplish by lattice. Fermentation is a utilized to upgrade bio-accessibility and bioavailability of supplements from various crops and improves organoleptic properties (e.g., appearance, generation of sour taste and new aroma compounds, and textural changes such as consistency or viscosity) just as increase the shelf life of realistic usability. It makes foodstuff safe not just hindering the growth of pathogenic microorganisms because of antimicrobial growth of lactic acid and it also detoxifies aflatoxin. With these advantages, fermentation is a successful method to reduce the risk of mineral deficiency among population, particularly in developing nations where unrefined cereal or pulses are profoundly consumed. Tragically, it is additionally connected with multiplication of microorganisms, for ex., yeast and molds caused food safety concerns, (Omemu et al; 2011), decrease in provitamin A and antioxidant (Ortiz et al; 2017), carotenoids, just as loss of nutrients and minerals (Hotz & Gibson, 2007).

Fermentation is a minimum cost-efficient procedure for production and preservation of nutrient, therefore fermented food is an important piece of the eating regimen in numerous of the world. In the nineteenth century the scientific study of microbiology began, and just because, the scientific procedure of fermentation was comprehended. several classifications have been utilized to sort the assorted exhibit of the fermented nourishment produced dependent on various microorganisms, and food types, and kinds of fermentation included.

The microorganisms associated with fermentation process fall into three classes: bacteria, yeast, and molds. Yeasts are the principal microorganisms for the fermentation of breads, whereas molds is mainly used in processing of cheese and legumes. Bacteria is included only of the fermentation of cereal product. cereal and tuber fermentation are a lactic and acetic acid producing bacteria. yeast is a piece of mix microbial fermentation by bacteria in weaning food; all the more frequently, be that as it may, alcoholic fermentation of yeast may not totally alluring. Four genera of lactic acid producing bacteria are recognized as overwhelming cereal fermentation to be specific, Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, and Lactococcus spp. all of which require carbohydrate for the energy. Lactic acid and other natural acids produced from hexoses bring down the pH from about 6.5 to about 3.6. In the event that the pH is beneath 4.0, fermented product retard the growth of pathogens and along these lines ensure fermented items.

1.1 Introduction

In India Agriculture was practiced formerly on a subsistence level, the villages were self sufficient people exchanged their goods and services within the village on a barter basis. With the development of means of transport and storage facilities, agriculture has become commercial in character; the farmer grows those crops that fetch a better price. Marketing of agri produce is considered as an integral part of agriculture, since an agriculturist is encouraged to make more investment to increase production. Thus there is an increasing awareness that it is not enough to produce a crop but it must be marketed. It involves buying and selling of agri-produce. In olden days the farmer sold his produce directly to the consumer on cash or barter basis. Presently it has undergone a series of transfers/exchanges from one hand to another before it reaches consumers. National Commision on Agriculture terms agricultural marketing as a process which starts with a decision to produce a saleable farm commodity and involves all aspects of market structure of system, both functional and institutional based on technoeconomic considerations that include pre & postharvest operations, assembling,grading,storage,transportation and distribution but as per ICAR it is the assembling,processing & distribution. Inadequacies of present Indian agrimarketing system being improper warehouses,lack of grading,standardization,inadequate transport facilities,presence of large number of middlemen,unregulated markets, inadequate market information and credit facilities etc. Characteristics of agri-products being seasonal and perishable has to be colleted from various places ,stored & marketed with proper price. Existing agri-marketing system in India refers to sale through money lenders, hats,mandies(wholesalers) or co-operative marketing. Improvement of Agri-market system refers to regulated markets,constructing warehouses, provision for grading,standardization of produce (seal of AGMARK) and Weights & measures, daily broadcast of market price and transport facilities, market surveys etc.

Objectives of book keeping

How much have we earned this year?

How much during the past year?

Is our business improving?

Also, how much cash do we have?

How much our customers owe us?

Pig farming is considered as a beneficial sector in India that provides avenues of fast economic growth for new entrepreneurs and socioeconomically weaker sections, due to high fecundity rate, better-feed conversion efficiency, early maturity, small generation interval, and minimum investment on housing and equipment. Pig farming has evolved into a semi-commercial enterprise using intensive farming practises, in addition to being reared through free range management. Pig farming provides money to rural impoverished people from the lowest socioeconomic strata. As a result, effective programmes to popularise technological pig rearing of meat producing animals with enough financial supplies are required to modernise the Indian pig business and advance the productivity of small sized rural pig farms. 

Identification of Diseased Animals

Detection of compromised pigs necessitates awareness and fast decisions about treatment, transportation, and/or culling.

Walking the pens daily to observe the pigs will aid in the early identification of healthy and unwell pigs. Before unsettling a group of pigs, try to assess them from afar. This allows you to assess their behaviour.

Check the pens for down or lame animals, watch for increased activity around the water or feeders, and listen for coughing or sneezing. Inspect the ventilation system for improper or poorly managed air quality.

Then, enter the pen area quietly and study the pigs individually utilising B.E.S.T. Method. This acronym stands for:

• Body
• Eyes/Ears/Nose
• Skin/Hair-coat
• Temperament.

4.1 Mustard

The principle oil yielding rape seed and mustard sp. cultivated in India are

4.1.1 Land Requirement

Select seed field on which the Brassica sp. was not grown in the previous season unless the crop in the previous season was of the same variety and was grown from certified seed. To avoid disease control it is necessary to fallow a 3-4 year crop rotation so that a given field is selected one in every 3-4 years. In addition select field should be well drained, leveled and suitable for Brassica cultivation.

Vermicomposting is the rapid aerobic non-thermophilic composting technique for decomposition of various biodegradable wastes using epigeic earthworms in comparison to other conventional pit or heap composting techniques. Earthworms fragment the half decomposed organic material, mix and promote microbial activity. Worm utilizes 5-10% of food for its body growth and excretes remaining portion as vermicompost. The action of earthworm is both mechanical and biochemical. Mechanical fragmentation of the half decomposed organic material to finer particles by earthworm in its gizzard helps to increase surface area of action by microbes and aeration inside bed. Biochemical action improves the enzymatic digestion, nutrient enrichment and change in organic and inorganic contents.

Chapter Overview

This chapter provides a comprehensive understanding of the intersection of gender and animal husbandry, emphasizing the influence of culture, society, and history on our perceptions of gender and sex. It explores the interconnectedness of these concepts and their significance in shaping roles and expectations of the members of a society in livestock production. This chapter delves into the complex concepts of gender and sex, shedding light on their intricate nature and exploring their implications for animal husbandry.

8.1 General Description

Based upon ethnic values and culture, both private and common property land tenure regime is found in existence in the shifting cultivation system. In Odisha state of India, shifting cultivation locally called as podu, there exists both private and common property regime (Dash 2006). In case of Meghalaya state, while the private land ownership pattern does exist among the Khasi and Karbi tribes, the Garo tribes, on the other hand, resort to community land ownership pattern (Deb et al., 2013). Furthermore, an ethno-agrarian economy based on shifting cultivations is self-sufficient, and such shifting cultivators typically rely on outside sources for alleviation of their economic demands very infrequently, if at all (Gupta 1994). The use of human labour is the key input in the shifting cultivation system and the practice of mutual exchange of labour amongst these shifting cultivator communities is also not uncommon. In practices like harvesting, the groups of families join hands together to harvest the crop of each plot one by one. This practice of community labouring reduces drudgery and increases work productivity. During this harvesting time, it is said that farmers exchange their innovations and look at each other’s innovations as they work. Further, it is customary to arrange food and drinks by the family of the plot which is being harvested. The community recognizes these harvest periods as festive events which makes their work enjoyable. The case of village named Nawalparasi, Nepal, shows that shifting cultivators work in an innovative way in their community in which the part of the village land is set aside and is cultivated by the members of whole community jointly. The benefit they harvest from this area is used to fund for teachers’ salaries in community school (kerkhoff and Sharma 2006). Further, the close knit and kinship ties are not only necessary for labour sharing but also important for technology diffusion among the members (NAEB 2008). The division of labour exists between men and women. It varies from place to place. The Manipur shifting cultivation characteristics portray that the women predominate in seed selection and planting, weeding and other operations, the activities like cutting of the trees in jungle, clearing, burning are generally done by men Both men and women participate in harvesting of produce and so harvested produces are carried to the villages by head loading.

2.1 Tracing History of Casting
The manufacture of end products, viz. two-wheeler, four-wheeler, fan, washing machine, fridge, grinding machine, water cooler, etc., in companies requires many components. The components of these products have different shapes and sizes. Casting is a manufacturing process, which gives shape and size to a component of interest by pouring molten metal, which is in red hot state into a mould, which is designed such that its internal shape and size exactly match with the external shape and size of the component of interest. Casting is a very old art form that dates back thousands of years before the start of written history. Findings from the archaeological record show that the casting process was used more than 6000 years ago, or around 3000 BC. It is assumed that the moulds consisted of two pieces of pottery joined by a rope and featuring a hole to allow the molten metal to be poured into them. It is assumed that early hunting tools and weapons were made in this manner The Greeks and Romans made the casting process in artform to make bronze status, in which hollow wax has been used. Every component of a product was casted individually. The core of the mould was composed of clay and coated in wax. Next, a layer of clay was heated to melt the wax inside, and then the clay was heated once again to burn off any leftover wax. Melted metal was poured into the region where the wax had been removed once the mould was stable and ready, which is a process like contemporary investment casting. China started producing tools, bowls and many industrial items using casting around 1000 BCE. In specific, they produced farm tools and weapons. After several centuries, the casting process reached European counties to make gun, bullets, etc. With the advent of industrial revolution, the casting process became as a usual manufacturing process, what is seen today. Later, several metals, which are used in casting have been invented to produce high quality products with increased end of life for them. Over a period, metal casting underwent development. Casting procedures advanced quickly along with improvements in metal-heating and melting techniques. Gold was the first metal to be casted because of its low melting point and malleability. China made significant contributions to the development of casting when it discovered sand casting and iron, also referred to as pig iron.

Origin, History and Definition

The term biotechnology was coined by Karl Ereky, a Hungarain engineer, in 1919. The origin of biotechnology can be traced back to prehistoric time when armers and gardeners have been making use of hybridization and grafting among plants with a view to bring about an improvement in existing attributes. Using these approaches, several hundred varieties in ornamental plants were produced. Microorganisms were already used for processes like fermentation, formation of yoghurt and cheese from milk, vinegar from molasses, production of butanol and acetone from starch by Clostridium acetobutylicum or the production of antibiotics like penicillin from Penicillium notatum. Four defferent phases of biotechnological research were witnessed during the last century. In 1920, Chain Weizmann used Clostridium acetobutylicum to convert starch into butanol and acetone (during world war I, acetone was used as an essential component of explosives). Alexander Fleming in 1929 discovered penicillin from Penicillium notatum and wounded soldiers were given treatment using this antibiotic during world was II. In 1970s with the discovery of restriction enzymes, which led to the development of recombinant DNA, technology brought a revolution in the field of biology. The latest phase in the history of biotechnology is the study of structure and function of whole genome (DNA) and whole proteome (protein). This area of research is described as genomics and proteomics, respectively. Some more important activities in the field of biotechnology are given in Table1

In fact, biotechnology is the product of interaction between science of biology and technology. It is the technological exploitation and control of biological system. Biotechnology has wide range of its uses and accordingly Office of Technology Assessment described biotechnology as: (i) old biotechnology that includes fermentation, i.e. formation of vinegar from molasses and that of cheese and yoghurt from milk, production of antibiotics from certain fungi and process of baking and brewing and (ii) new biotechnology that includes the techniques of recombinant DNA and PCR polymerase chain reaction, cell culture and fusion and bioprocessing which became possible only through the researches in molecular biology. However, no efforts have been made to distinguish between old and new biotechnology. Keeping in view the importance of biotechnology, attempts have been made to define it. Following are some of the definitions of biotechnology, however, none of the definitions of biotechnology seems to be complete. The first definition seems to be comprehensive and wide.

The theory of probability has its origin in the games of chance related to gambling such as throwing a die, tossing a coin, drawing cards from a pack of cards etc. Jerame Cardon (1501-1576), an Italian mathematician was the first man to write a book on the subject entitled “Book on Games and Chance”, which was published after his death in 1663. The systematic and scientific foundation of the mathematical theory of probability was laid in mid-seventeenth century by two French mathematicians B. Pascal (1623-1662) and Pierre de Fermat (1601 1665).

Important terms and concepts

To understand probability, let us first get acquainted with some important terms and concepts associated with probability.

• Trial: An experiment is any natural or planned activity for which it is not possible to predict the particular result called a trial.

• Events: The possible outcomes of experiments of a trial are called events. For example: Tossing of a coin in an experiment and one toss of the coin is called trial. In tossing of a coin there are only two outcomes or events, i.e. head or tail.

Types of events

Events can be of following different types:

• Exhaustive events

• Equally likely events

• Mutually exclusive events

• Dependent events

• Independent events

• Null or impossible events

• Exhaustive events: It is the total number of all the possible outcomes of an experiment.

1.    Introduction    3
2.    History and Scope of Microbiology    4
    2.1.    Controversy over the origin of microorganisms, 5
    2.2.    Germ theory of fermentation, 6
    2.3.    Germ theory of disease, 6
    2.4.    Development of laboratory techniques and pure cultures, 7
    2.5.    Discovery of immunization, 7
    2.6.    Discovery of protection against infection, 8
    2.7.    Discovery of chemotherapeutic agents, 8
    2.8.    Microorganisms as geochemical agents, 9

1. Introduction
 
The bryophytes are found everywhere in the world except in the sea. They grow on wet soil or rock, the trunk of trees, in lake, river and even in Antarctic island. The bryophytes are placed taxonomically between algae (Fig. 1) and pteridophytes (Fig. 2); there are about 24,000 species in the world. They are further divided into three phyla, Bryophyta (mosses 14,000 species, Fig. 3), Marchantiophyta (liverworts 6,000 species, Fig.4a,b) and Anthocerotophyta (hornworts 300 species, Fig. 5). They are considered to be the oldest terrestrial plants, although no strong scientific evidence for this has appeared in the literature. This hypothesis was mainly based on the resemblance of the present-day liverworts to the first land plant fossils, the spores of which date back to almost 500 million years. Among the bryophytes almost all liverworts possess beautiful cellular oil bodies (Fig. 6) which are peculiar, membrane-bound cell organelles which consist of ethereal terpenoids and aromatic oils suspended in carbohydrates- or protein-rich matrix, while the other two phyla do not. These oil bodies are very important biological markers for the taxonomy in the Marchantiophyta (Asakawa, 1982, 1995; Asakawa et al., 1979b, 2008c, 2012b, 2013a,b; Asakawa and Ludwiczuk, 2008a,b; Ludwiczuk and Asakawa, 2010).

Definitions

        Toxicology: Knowledge (or science) of poisons, including their chemical properties, identification, biological effects, and the treatment of conditions they cause.

        Poison: Any solid, liquid, or gas that, when introduced into or applied to the body, can interfere with the life processes of cells of the organism - by its own inherent chemical properties - without acting mechanically and regardless of temperature.

Every nutrient has its specific functions to play in the biological system. As we know there are six nutrients i.e., water, carbohydrate, protein, fat, minerals and vitamins and each of these have different functions, it will be discussed separately for each nutrients.

2.1 Water

Water is the ideal dispersing medium because of its solvent and ionizing powers which facilititates cell reaction and due to its high specific heat which helps to absorb the heat of these reactions with a minimum rise of temperature. Lean adult body contains about 70 percent of water, though the amount varies from embryo to mature animals.

    1.    Microbial Risk Assessment (MRA) can be considered a tool for use in the management of the risks posed by food borne pathogens and in the elaboration of standards for food in international trade.

    2.    MRA comprises risk assessments of particular pathogen - commodity combinations

    3.    According to codex alimentarious commission (CAC) microbial risk assessment is defined as a scientifically based process consisting of 4 components.

        ·    Hazard identification
        ·    Exposure assessment
        ·    Hazard characterization
        ·    Risk characterization

1. Introduction

Fruits and vegetables have been an integral part of man’s diet from immemorial times. Fruits are the portions of plants that bear seeds, while vegetables are the edible components of a plant, including the leaves, stalks, roots, tubers, bulbs, flowers and seeds. These can be eaten raw or cooked. Fruits and vegetables can be preserved for short-term intervals under refrigeration, with or without receiving a minimal treatment like slicing, chopping, shredding or peeling. Fresh produce may also be irradiated or packaged in controlled or modified atmosphere in films for short-term storage. Long-term preservation includes canning, juicing, drying and addition of preservatives. Food contamination with hazardous biological agents remains a worldwide challenge in food safety and nutrition (Kenny 2002; Schlundt 2002; Tauxe et al 1997). Microorganisms form part of the epiphytic flora of fruits and vegetables and many will be present at the time of consumption. Production practices, growth conditions and the location of the edible part during growth (soil, soil surface, aerial part) will in combination with intrinsic, extrinsic, harvesting and processing factors affect their microbial status at the time of consumption. Man-made sources may be directly from farm laborers and from the equipment used for harvesting or storage. The types of microorganisms on fruits and vegetables would also vary with the orchards, vineyards or growing fields. The resident microflora normally subsists on the slight traces of carbohydrates, proteins and inorganic salts that dissolve in the water exuding from or condensing on the epidermis of the host. The numbers of bacteria present will vary depending on seasonal and climatic variation and may range from 104 to 108 per gram. The inner tissues of fruits and vegetables are usually regarded as sterile (Lund 1992). However bacteria can be present in low numbers in the insides of the fruits and vegetables as a result of the uptake of water through certain irrigation or washing procedures.

Introduction
At the beginning of the 21^st century, with a population of 6.1 billion in 2000 and expected to be headed for 9.1 billion by 2050 (UN News Centre, 2005), the challenge of yet again increase food production by many folds only in 50 years has become a daunting task in itself. The situation is further worsen because now, we need to increase food production in sustainable way by 2050 on approximately the same area of arable land using less resources, particularly, fossil fuel, water and nitrogen, at a time when we must also mitigate some of the enormous challenges associated with climate change. Furthermore, there is the critical and urgent humanitarian need to alleviate poverty, hunger and malnutrition which is afflicting more than 1 billion people

1.     What is IPM
    
2.    What is a Pest
    
3.    Importance of Crops in IPM
    
4.    Impact of Environment in IPM
    
5.    Crop Stage Specific IPM
    
6.    Management Practices
    
7.    Tropical Tuber Crops
    
8.    Ornamental Plants
    
9.    Medicinal Plants
    
10.    Aromatic Plants
    
11.    Plantation Crops
    
12.    Masticatory
    
13.     Spices
    
14.    Fruit Crops
    
15.    Vegetables
        
References

8.1    History of Sprinkler Irrigation
    
8.2    Advantage and Limitations of Sprinkler Irrigation
    
8.3    Scope of Sprinkler Irrigation in India
    
8.4    Type of Sprinkler System and Components
    
8.5    Design of Sprinkler Irrigation System
        
Questions and Problems
        
References