eChapters

Commercial Crop Breeding

The term commercial crop breeding is straightaway equivalent to ‘commercial plant breeding’ and remains largely plant breeding with slight twist that commercial plant breeding aims at delivering commercial products to be delivered to the end users that is the farmers as per the need of the consumers/ markets. Thus, the farmers plant those products (open-pollinated cultivars and hybrids) which are easily accepted by the consumers and which are easy to be handled by the traders as the products reach to the traders and then from traders to the retailers and ultimately to the consumers.

OS COXAE

Ox: The os coxae or hip bone consists of 3 flat bones i.e ilium, ischium and pubis which fuse together to form the acetabulum.

Ilium: is largest of the 3 parts. It shows three surfaces, three borders and three angels. The lateral (gluteal) surface presents gluteal line parallel to cotyloid border. The medial surface consists of rough medial triangular part, the sacral surface for articulation with sacrum and a smooth quadrilateral part, iliac surface. The iliopectineal line separates these surfaces and bears psoas tubercle in its middle (Fig. 6.1).

About 25% of worldís total food production is lost due to insects, bacteria and rodents after harvesting.

Indiaís exports of Processed Food was Rs. 31563.43 Crores in 2014-15, which includes products like Mango pulp (Rs. 841.39 Crores), Dried and Preserved vegetable (Rs. 847.11 Crores), Other Processed Fruit and Vegetable (Rs. 2,569.93 Crores), Pulses (Rs. 1,209.51 Crores), Groundnuts (Rs. 4,675.35 Crores), Guargum (Rs. 9,480.00 Crores), Jaggery and Confectionary (Rs. 1,161.81 Crores), Cocoa Products (Rs. 848.62 Crores), Cereal preparations (Rs. 3,038.79 Crores), Alcoholic and Nonalcoholic beverages (Rs. 2,231.58 Crores) and Miscellaneous preparations (Rs. 2,437.77 Crores).

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that up to 40% of food crops are lost due to plant pests and diseases annually. Such losses not only threaten global food security but also have the potential to limit food access due to unavailability of food, or sharp increases in food prices. But this challenge is also an opportunity to find new ways to help crops better withstand adverse conditions in a farmer’s field.

GK Enterprise –Profile in brief

• Established in 2000 to provide Management Consultancy to all types of industries
• Centrally Located in Mumbai
• Consists of Group of Engineers having Industry Experience of more than 20 years
• Completed more than 500 plus ISO Certifications all over India & abroad.
• Certifications done for following areas –manufacturing, service, Education, Medical and projects business
• Established with a purpose of improving work efficiency of all types of business in India & abroad.

Keeping the medical, ecological and economical importance of nematode phylum in mind, it is remarkable to see that nematode systematics is far from established. It has a long history of constant revision and there may be as many classifications as there are nematode taxonomists. Ferris and Ferris (1987) anticipated about the growing sense of excitement pervading systematics as new techniques make it possible a depth of understanding of phylogenetic relationships and affinities never before thought possible. They further stated that Darwin’s ‘genealogical taxonomy’ based on the concepts of descent with modification, is linked directly with two approaches to phylogentic inference, viz., phonetics and cladistics. In both these, patterns of descent take precedence over processes and in classifications based on these procedures, ‘grades’ and ‘gaps’ beloved by the evolutionary systematics are ignored and categories are usually of lesser importance. The phonetic approach deals with ‘natural classification’ based on overall similarity and the belief that the more characters a classification is based on, the more reliable it will be.

9.1 General Description

Education can help farmers in impoverished nations move away from environmentally damaging slash-and-burn agriculture (Nganje et al. 2001). The goal of their study was to see how much extension education can help people embrace agricultural strategies other than slash and burn. In Cameroon, farmers' cropping patterns are modelled as a function of farm size, farmer educational level, and extension professional visits, whether slash and burn, varied crops, or monocropping. According to the data, higher extension visiting rates reduce not just the risk of farmers choosing slash and burn agriculture, but also encourage them to switch to monocropping. Because monocropping is a trend toward export-oriented agriculture in Cameroon, it may help to promote greater economic development in Western Africa (Nganje et al. 2001). Continued extension education activities are therefore vital in decreasing the environmental damage caused by slash and burn agriculture while also encouraging the adoption of more profitable cropping strategies.

The negative impacts of shifting cultivation on the environment as farmers strive to provide for higher populations and the associated decline of shifting cultivation into an unproductive system have led most governments in Southeast Asia to perceive it as a backward method of cultivation (Thanh and Vien 2017). Consequently, governments throughout the region have tried to ban shifting cultivation. In Malaysia, for example, huge development programmes have been implemented to improve shifting cultivators livelihoods when they abandon shifting cultivation (Majid, 1983). The government of Laos has enacted land-use and forestry policies aiming at expanding forest cover, eliminating shifting farming, and supporting intensive commercial agriculture (Castella et al., 2013). For many years, the Vietnamese government has implemented strict rules and procedures to combat shifting cultivation. These include a large-scale programme called 'Fixed Cultivation, Fixed Residence' (officially known as Resolution No. 38/CP), which aims to permanently settle 'shifting fields' and 'shifting people' (McElwee, 2004), as well as a forestlandallocation policy that ties people to specific plots of land, effectively making shifting cultivation impossible (Castella et al., 2005).

Important features

• Cattle produce 81% of world milk production, followed by buffaloes with 15 percent, goats with 2 percent and sheep with 1 percent; camels provide 0.5 percent. The remaining share is produced by other dairy species such as equines and yaks.

• About one-third of milk production in developing countries comes from buffaloes, goats, camels and sheep. In developed countries, almost all milk is produced by cattle.

• Milk from dairy species other than cattle represents 40 percent of milk production in Asia, 23 percent in Africa, 3 percent in Europe and 0.5 percent in the Americas; it is almost non-existent in Oceania (FAO)

Taxonomy of Cattle

Cattle belong to the kingdom Animalia, phylum Chordata, class Mammalia, order Artiodactyla, family Bovidae, genus Bos, and species taurus or indicus. Cattle were originally identified by Carolus Linnaeus as three separate species: Bos taurus, Bos indicus, and Bos primigenius. Bovines, which include cattle, bison, African buffalo, water buffalos, and certain antelopes, belong to the subfamily Bovinae.

Phosphorus (P) is the second most important essential nutrient limiting crop/ plant growth, next only to nitrogen (N). Phosphorus is an important component of nucleic acid like deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). It is needed for energy storage and transfer, which is the single most important essential function of P. Phosphate compounds act as “energy currency” within plants. The most important common P energy currency is adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The ATP transfers energy for synthesis of ADP. Life is not possible without P. It is the source of energy that powers practically all energy-requiring biological processes in plants. Phosphorus is present in plant as phospholipid such as lecithin and cephalin which appears to be involved in the structural framework of protoplasm. Phosphorus is involved in many important processes such as photosynthesis, cell division, tissue development, and growth in plant. Requirement of P by the crops is less, compared to N and potassium (K). It is present in plant tissues. It is reported that for 5-6 t ha^-1 of wheat grain yield, it removes about 100-120 kg N, 20-30 kg P₂O₅ and 150-180 kg K₂O from soil.

Phosphorus is 11^th most abundant element on the earth crust. However, it is the least mobile element among the major plant nutrients. Its complex chemistry in soil makes it highly deficient nutrient element in most of the arable soils across the globe. Only 0.1% of the total P in the soil is available for uptake by plants because of its fixation as various insoluble compounds depending upon the soil pH. About 43% of the world’s arable soil is P deficient which limits crop growth and production (Roy et al., 2018). In the Indian context, about 80% of the soils are reported to have low to medium available P content (Muralidharudu et al., 2011). Thus, application of P-fertilizers to maintain the soil fertility and sustain crop productivity becomes imperative in today’s input intensive agriculture.

5.1 Important Terms

i. Inoculum: The infective pathogen propagules coming in contact with the host constitutes the inoculum. The inoculum in the liquid state is a significant factor in anaerobic digestion in solid phase because it is very useful to convey the micro organisms, the water of recirculation. Depending on the particular inoculant formulation, the inocula can be used for seed coating, for dipping seedlings, direct application to the furrow, or as foliar application. An appropriate inoculum consists of copious amounts of active microbes having the potential to convert the organic matter to biogas and the S/I ratio is essential for the rate of degradation of a recalcitrant substrate since it governs not only the biogas composition, digestion period and reactor. Spread of inoculum may occur by wind, water, infected plant material, insects, animals, birds, and people. Plant diseases may have more than one source of inoculum. The infection cycle of some economically important soil-borne plant pathogens involves a combination of primary infection from particulate inoculum residing in the soil and secondary infection as disease is spread from infected to susceptible hosts.

The infectivity of inoculum can be quantified by the pathozone profile which measures changes in the probability of infection when inoculum occurs at different distances from the host. For instance, the germinability of inoculum, the growth of the mycelial colony and the infectivity of mycelium at the surface of the host combine to dictate the shape of the pathozone profile for Rhizoctonia solani on radish. The ultimate shape of the pathozone depended on inoculum type and was particularly sensitive to changes in the density and distribution of the mycelium in the fungal colony. Mycelium from an infected radish plant grew much further and at a higher density than that from particulate inoculum (mycelial discs). This results in pathozone profiles that differed in shape. For particulate inoculum the profile rise and fall with distance whilst for an infected plant the decay is sigmoidal.

Tillage is a mechanical manipulation of soil to provide favourable condition for crop production. Soil tillage consists of breaking the compact surface of earth to a certain depth and to loosen the soil mass, so as to enable the roots of the crops to penetrate and spread into the soil. A good seedbed is generally considered to imply finer particles and greater firmness in the vicinity of seeds. The depth up to which tillage operations disturb the soil can classify the operation as shallow, medium or deep. The depth of tillage depends on the crop and soil characteristics and also on the source of power or energy available. The optimum seedbed preparation for raising upland crops, involves the many unit operations. Strength of soil is affected by soil moisture content and can be represented in terms of cone index. Compacted soil has more cone index than the loose soils. Movement of machine in the field causes soil compaction. Sometimes it forms hard pan which is to be broken by the tillage operations to enhance root growth and penetration and infiltration of excess water.

17.1 Introduction

Cotton is a major fibre crop of global importance and has high commercial value. It is grown commercially in the temperate and tropical regions of more than 100 countries. Specific areas of production include countries such as China, USA, India, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Turkey, Australia, Greece, Brazil, Egypt etc., where climatic conditions suit the natural growth requirements of cotton. These include periods of hot and dry weather and adequate moisture obtained through irrigation. Cotton crop is considered as one of the most important cash crops that influenced the industrial and agricultural economy of the different cotton growing countries of world. Thus, cotton is an immensely important crop for the sustainable economy of these countries and livelihood of the farming community. Cotton crop is considered as one of the most important cash crops that influenced the industrial and agricultural economy of the different cotton growing countries of world. Cotton cultivation and textile industry provide livelihood to million persons, therefore any failure of cotton crop significantly influence the economic growth of cotton belt and textile sector.

3.1 Damping-off Disease of Seedlings

The disease is quite common in nurseries or seedbeds all over the world. It is virtually a serious threat to almost all the nursery crops of vegetables and other crops including tomato, chillies, cauliflower, cabbage, brinjal, cucurbits, tobacco and a number of other crops. The economic importance of the disease is more because it takes the toll of precious seedlings in the very initial stages of the crop cultivation. The seed can become infected with a fungus which may cause darkening and softening of the seed leading to its decay. Similarly, seedlings may also be infected while sprouting or even after emergence. The disease is more serious in heavy soils with poor drainage. Abundant soil moisture with 90-100% humidity and temperature around 200C is favourable for the disease.

Training helps people to become qualified and proficient in doing some jobs (Dahama, 1979). Usually an organization facilitates the employees’ learning through training so that their modified behaviour contributes to the attainment of the organization’s goals and objectives.
 
Training needs refer to the gaps between desired and expected levels of performance. Needs may be numerous. Besides they also need group, affection, recognition and fulfilment of their talents.

Training need may be defined as difference between existing and desired performance of person(s). In other words it is a gap between job requirement and job performance. That means it is gap between the existing and desired level of competency. Thus, the attitude, knowledge and skills of a person are lower than desired if the gap is significant there is a need for training.

In India’s National Extension Programme, professional workers constitute the link between the people and the institute created to advance economic and social change upon the character philosophy, technical knowledge and compliance of these workers largely rests for the success of the programme. Hence the quality of these workers and their training is the important element to be dealt with properly and guided wisely.

In early fifties, the Gramsevak / Village Level Workers (VLW’s) served as a key-man in Community Development Programme and therefore, the Government of India aimed at imparting him by better training and supervisory assistance. As a step in this direction, Gramsevak Training Centers were started to impart training to GramSevaks / VLW’s and Extension Officers were appointed in block for better supervisory assistance.

Introduction 

In the thirst of modernization and industrialization man has contributed pollution to the life and ecology of plants, animals and microbes. Increased demand for food and fiber has lead to the chemicalization of agriculture we have reached to such a stage that modern agriculture is dependent on high yielding varieties, which can only be grown under the influence of fertilizers and pesticides. Pesticides are the man made chemicals which are being used to produce enough cheap food. In India, 90,000 MT of technical grade pesticides are used annually to control pests and plant diseases. The pesticides are classified as insecticides, fungicides, weedicides, herbicides, nematodicides and rodenticides; of which insecticides constitutes 77% of the total pesticides used in different agricultural and animal husbandry practices and in public health operations.

Climate change drastically influence water availability, salinity and several adverse soil conditions which will have direct bearing on original yields. Abiotic stress factors influence growth and secondary metabolite production in higher plants. The influences are well marked. In fact, productivities depend on the changed ecosystem also. Secondary metabolites play a major role in the adaptation of plants to the changing environment and in overcoming stress constraints. This flows from the large complexity of chemical types and interactions underlying various functions: structure stabilizing, determined by polymerisation and condensation of phenols and quinones, or by electrostatic interactions of polyamines with negatively charged loci in cell components, photoprotective, related to absorbance of visible light and UV radiation due to the presence of conjugated double bonds, antioxidant and antiradical, governed by the availability of –OH, –NH2, and –SH groupings, as well as aromatic nuclei and unsaturated aliphatic chains, signal transducing. Several plant-abiotic stress stimuli systems evidenced the multiplicity of biochemical mechanisms involved in the protective role of secondary metabolites:

India is the second largest producer of fruits with a total production of 81.0 million tons from 6.98 million ha in 2012-13. The leading states in terms of area and production are:

Jay et al., (1995) and Joerger et al., (2003) have written the role of bacteriocins as an alternate to antibiotics. Bacteria produce bacteriocins which are proteinaceous in nature or peptidic toxins. These inhibit the growth of similar or closely related bacterial strain(s). There are different types of bacteriocins which are classified based on the producing strain, common resistance mechanisms and mechanism of killing. Ahmad et al., (2013) have isolated antifungal compound for food preservation. Martin et al., (2018) and Batish et al., (1997) found antibacterial compounds from fungus. Mahboubi et al., (2019) studied the potential of Zataria in IBS. There are bacteriocins from gram-positive bacteria known as the colicins, the microcins and the bacteriocins from Archaea (Cascales et al., 2007). The bacteriocins from E. coli are called colicins (formerly called ‘colicines,’ meaning ‘coli killers’). These have been studied widely. Earlier called colicin V and is now known as microcin V. It is very small and is produced and secreted in a different manner than the classic colicins. Adrienne et al., (2016) have studied the colicin resistance.

Hybrid vigour is used as a synonymous of heterosis. In 1910, the term heterosis was first used by Shull who defined this phenomenon as the stimulus of heterozygous, and in his word, it has been the “interpretation of increased vigour, size, fruitfulness, speed of development, resistance to insect-pests and diseases or to the climatic rigors of any kind manifested by the out breeding organism as compared with corresponding inbreds as a specific result of the unlikeliness in the constitution of uniting parental gametes”. This definition is often interpreted as not implying a genetic basis for heterosis, because the definition basically describes the phenotypes that result from the crossing of two different inbred lines. Generally, heterosis is manifested as an increase in vigour, size, growth rate, yield, or some other characteristics but in some cases, the hybrid may be inferior to the weaker parent. This also represents as heterosis (average heterosis), and if heterosis is estimated over the superior parent, such an estimate is sometimes referred to as heterobeltiosis, hence, authors feel “heterosis refers a biological phenomenon in which the F₁ population obtained by crossing of the two genetically dissimilar gametes or individual shows increased or decreased vigour over better parent or over the mid-parental value. Earlier, Power (1944)also suggested that the term heterosis should be used only when the hybrid is either superior or inferior to both the parents. Other situation should be regarded as partial or complete dominance. It can be easily explained with the help of Table 5.1.

9.1 Introduction

Phytochemicals are the individual chemicals from which the plants are made. Phytochemical is simply a word that means plant chemicals. Plants have the ability to synthesize mixtures of structurally diverse bioactive compounds with multiple and mutually potential therapeutic effects. The plants have the capacity of manufacturing the secondary products. Phytochemicals with antioxidant properties tend to be brightly colored because they contain chromophores, ie, a series of alternating single-bonded and double-bonded carbons. Isoprene is often the building block of such units. The darkest green vegetables contain the most chlorophyll, and vegetables with the most chlorophyll require the most antioxidants. Green will mask the other colors, when other-colored antioxidant phytochemicals are present. Hundreds of phytochemicals are currently being studied. Many are believed to have a major positive impact on human health (Duke and Sternberg, 2005). Important plant secondary metabolites have been isolated over a period of time from natural sources. The phytochemical may belong to the following categories : Terpenoids, Phenolic compounds, Alkaloids, Glycosides, Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic acids, etc. Some of the phytochemicals from the plants are listed in Table 9.1 and structures of some of them are given in Fig.9.1.

A. Mesta diseases

1. Anthracnose

Occurrence & severity status

Mesta (Hibiscus cannabinus) is very much prone to be attacked by anthracnose disease (Singh, 2014). It is very destructive disease in India (Ghosh, 1983). The disease also occurs in South Korea with overall disease incidence of 20%. (Kwon et al., 2015).

Symptoms

Symptoms on kenaf plants include dark brown spots on the leaves, petioles and stems. New leaves and shoots are most susceptible to infection (Kwon et al., 2015). Initially the terminal bud is attacked, where stipules and young leaves are affected and develop necrotic spots and withers (Singh, 2014). Mature lesions on fully expended leaves are dark brown and often irregular in shape, and not vein delimited. Later, the infected leaves fall off; Flowers and seed capsules are also affected by the disease (Singh, 2010). The stems are affected in patches. On stem the lesions are elongated and black, which later form cavities and in severe cases, stem-dieback or wilt occurs (Singh, 2010; Kwon et al., 2015).

Postharvest losses of fruits and vegetables are even higher and are estimated to be 40-50%. Postharvest fruit rotting are a major cause of those losses and are chiefly caused by fungal pathogens after fruit ripening. In a manner similar to foliar diseases that occur in the field, several factors as fungal pathogenicity, host response and environment determine the outcome of host resistance or susceptibility. However, in postharvest diseases fruit ripening is another major component that will determine fruit resistance. The molecular trigger induces the germ tube to differentiate an appressorium. It has been shown that excess nutrients over ride it and protein synthesis is not required once germination has occurred. Protein synthesis during conidium germination and appressorium formation on cellulose membranes were observed (Pathak, 1997). A specific polypeptide (95 kDa) was synthesized only when appressoria matured (a period lasting from 12-24 h after germination). This molecule is involved in the synthesis of the melanin precursor, Scytalone.

Appressoria grown in the presence of cyclohexamide do not mature nor they subsequently differentiate a penetration peg. Appressorium maturation involves the formation of melanin. It has been shown that melanization of appressoria is necessary for formation of a successful penetration peg. The melanin appears to give the appressorium mechanical strength, but pigmentation is only one factor required for penetration competent appressoria. At restrictive temperatures, pigmentation of conidia of C. lagenarium mutants could be restored with dihydroxyphenylalanine without restoration of appressorial competence. Non-pathogenic mutants have been used to determine factors important for pathogenicity. Cutinase production was essential for penetration of papaya fruits. The cutinase produced during infection of papaya fruit by C. gloeosporioides has been purified and characterized as a glycoprotein of 24 kDa. Polyclonal antibodies raised against this enzyme do not cross react with cutinase from Fusarium so/ani, and lesions do not develop when papaya fruits are inoculated with spore suspensions containing the antibody preparation.

Introduction

There are a number of estimates of post-harvest losses. The most conservative estimates for the handling losses at about 10 per cent, a quantity good enough to feed at least 60 million people. Storage loss occurs due to quantitative and qualitative damages caused by insects, mites, fungi, rodents, birds, heat, moisture, etc. Several hundred insect species have been reported to be associated with stored grains and milled and processed foods, but some 50 of these species are considered injurious. Under Indian conditions, the most important insect pests of stored grains are Sitophilus oryzae (Rice weevil), Tribolium castaneum (Red flour beetle), Rhizopertha dominica (Lesser grain borer), Callasobruchus spp. (Pulse beetle), etc.

The use of repellents to ward off insects has been a very old practice of mankind. The simple fly swatters, feather dusters, hand fans, mosquito nets etc., are some of the physical repellants still in use. In our own country, mustard oil or turmeric (haldi) water is also used as a mosquito repellent. Fire and smoke are the two oldest insect repellents known to man. To get rid of wasp nests from our dwelling or ward off honeybees during honey extraction, smoke is normally employed. Similarly sandal dhoop is often burnt to purify air (i. e. to ward off insects) in our houses.

Chemicals that prevent insect damage to plants or animals by rendering them unattractive or offensive are called repellents. A more broad-based definition would be: non-poisonous or mildly poisonous chemicals that induce avoiding (oriented movements in insects away from their source. Repellents are more important in the protection of man and his animals from insect attacks than in the protection plants.

A. CEREALS

1. Rice (Oryza sativa)

RD 60:20:20 kg/acre NPK

(Recommended by TNAU)

The word “Manure” is originated from the French word “Manoeuvrer” which refers to “work with soil”. The word Manure is also originate from Latin word “Manu” (hand) and operate (to work). Manures are the substances which are organic in nature, capable of supplying plant nutrients in available form, bulky in nature having low analytical value and having no definite composition and most of them are obtained from animal and plant waste products. Formerly, the word in use was “Dung ”in English (at present fertilizer).

Phytochemicals are the individual chemicals from which the plants are made. Phytochemical is simply a word that means plant chemicals. Plants have the ability to synthesize mixtures of structurally diverse bioactive compounds with multiple and mutually potential therapeutic effects. The plants have the capacity of manufacturing the secondary products. Phytochemicals with antioxidant properties tend to be brightly colored because they contain chromophores, ie, a series of alternating single-bonded and double-bonded carbons. Isoprene is often the building block of such units. The darkest green vegetables contain the most chlorophyll, and vegetables with the most chlorophyll require the most antioxidants.

The plants collect water by its root system available in the soil medium. A soil rich in nutrients cannot ensure success of crops unless the presence of satisfactory state of water and air, mechanical attributes and thermal regime. The physical properties of soil and plants greatly influence the movement, retention and use of water. The soil should provide sufficient pore spaces and size distribution and decomposition of rocks and for the movement and retention of water for plant needs. Rainwater, irrigation, groundwater, seepage, etc., contribute in replenishing the water in dried up soils. In all the cases thorough understanding of behavior of water is required to ensure the need of water to plants and optimize the use of irrigation water.

6.1 Soils

Soil is initially formed by the disintegration and decomposition of rocks and minerals and accumulation of biological residues. Usually the outer layer of the land surface is referred

In order to understand the generation of tides first we should understand the motions of earth with respect to sun and moon. Tides are affected by the orbit of the moon around the earth and, less so, by the earth around the sun. The orbital motion of earth with respect to sun and the orbital motion of moon with respect to earth are as shown in Fig.15.1.

7.1. Culturing of Nematodes

The need to use host plant tissue makes the culture of phytonematodes more difficult and expensive than the culture of fungi and bacteria. Relatively few species of phytonematodes have been cultured, compared to fungi and bacteria. Populations derived out of extraction procedures are often not sterile, an additional hindrance to many types of biological studies.

Axenic culture of free living, insect/animal parasitic nematodes in chemically defined or nondefined media has been achieved with some success, but development of similar culture system for plant parasitic nematodes has been less compared to former ones. However, these techniques form useful research tools in Nematology, which help procure clean nematodes, free of contamination for wide range of studies. Dual culture of nematode and plant tissue is aimed to establish plant parasitic nematodes in sterile cultures. Since phytophagous nematodes are obligate parasites they need a plant tissue as a food source. The term ’Gnotobiology’ is normally used to culture/study a single species of a nematode in the absence of other nematodes /organisms or in the presence of other known species. These techniques are generally considered as tedious and time consuming, require expertise and specialized equipments, nematodes are rarely found associated with only one or few other organisms and there is a need to get non-sterile soil and/or plant tissues, which does not go with gnotobiotic techniques.

Chapter Overview

The need for gender analysis in various contexts, including the livestock sector, is vital for understanding and addressing differences and inequalities between men and women. This chapter explores the crucial role of gender analysis in the context of the livestock sector, focusing on animal husbandry and related activities. It delves into the significance of understanding and addressing gender disparities in livestock farming, highlighting the unique challenges and opportunities experienced by both men and women. The chapter emphasizes the need for equitable and sustainable development within the sector.

Nematodes offer several ecosystem services that affect the nitrogen cycle, decomposition capacity, and control of pests within soil systems. Firstly, the effects on the nitrogen cycle have generated a growing interest in the beneficial effects of nematodes to improve soil nitrogen content. Specifically, soil disruption, during activities such as tillage, increases nitrogen availability as well as the abundance of bacteria that compete for nitrogen (Ducker James, 2021). In response to more bacteria, bacterial feeding nematodes also increase in abundance, and this stabilizes nitrogen availability and increases nitrogen mineralization in soil once again, which is key for crop growth and soil fertility. Secondly, nematodes are involved in the decomposition of organic matter in the soil. Free-living nematodes are particularly essential as they recycle nutrients in the soil, which is matched by the indirect effect of bacteria and fungi-feeding nematodes that feed on the bacteria and fungi which decompose organic matter. Together, the feeding activity of these nematodes accelerates the decomposition process and makes minerals and nutrients accessible to growing plant roots.
Thirdly, nematodes are valuable biological agents of pest control. Predatory nematodes regulate populations of other organisms in soil as they feed on organisms such as protozoa, insects, and other nematode species. As a result, nematodes moderate the population of other nematodes, and studies have shown that nematodes such as the Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae can kill soil-based insect pests within 48 hours. Finally, nematodes have become key biological indicators of soil health. The diversity and richness of nematodes communities are particularly insightful as they act as proxies to reveal information on the levels of nutrients, fungal availability, and bacteria, in soil. Altogether, nematode communities provide abundant information on soil health and generate a number of benefits for food production systems.

1.1 Nematodes in Agriculture
Nematodes offer several ecosystem services that affect the nitrogen cycle, decomposition capacity, and control of pests within soil systems. Firstly, the effects on the nitrogen cycle have generated a growing interest in the beneficial effects of nematodes to improve soil nitrogen content. Specifically, soil disruption, during activities such as tillage, increases nitrogen availability as well as the abundance of bacteria that compete for nitrogen (Ducker James, 2021). In response to more bacteria, bacterial feeding nematodes also increase in abundance, and this stabilizes nitrogen availability and increases nitrogen mineralization in soil once again, which is key for crop growth and soil fertility. Secondly, nematodes are involved in the decomposition of organic matter in the soil. Free-living nematodes are particularly essential as they recycle nutrients in the soil, which is matched by the indirect effect of bacteria and fungi-feeding nematodes that feed on the bacteria and fungi which decompose organic matter. Together, the feeding activity of these nematodes accelerates the decomposition process and makes minerals and nutrients accessible to growing plant roots.
Thirdly, nematodes are valuable biological agents of pest control. Predatory nematodes regulate populations of other organisms in soil as they feed on organisms such as protozoa, insects, and other nematode species. As a result, nematodes moderate the population of other nematodes, and studies have shown that nematodes such as the Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae can kill soil-based insect pests within 48 hours. Finally, nematodes have become key biological indicators of soil health. The diversity and richness of nematodes communities are particularly insightful as they act as proxies to reveal information on the levels of nutrients, fungal availability, and bacteria,

Plant breeding/genetic improvement aims at altering plant genotypes in a way that they suit human needs for food, feed and industrial raw products and support sustainable plant production. In that sense, plant breeding may be regarded as the evolution of plant type by the will of mankind. Plant breeding/genetic improvement is important because an improved cultivar is the most-economic and least laborious input for farmers.

Plant breeding is one of the early accomplishments of humankind. Many of the cultivated plants are the result of slow and involuntary improvement from wild progenitors by human being over centuries. In fact, the process of domestication of wild plants is one of the most fascinating chapters in the history of humankind. Concept of plant breeding came in the being through domestication as it involved selection of the most desirable types. Among the ancient domesticates, some of the vegetable crops are front-runners, like peas, radish, muskmelon, watermelon, etc. Other present day popular vegetable crops were domesticated later in the Neolithic times. Some species including certain vegetables are still undergoing the domestication process. However, for all practical purposes, the breeders have given up domestication of wild relatives of the cultivated species. Today, breeders often incorporate important characters, like resistance to biotic stresses, adaptability to environments, etc. to the cultivated forms from their wild relatives.

Selection from the available variations is the oldest and the most effective breeding procedure. However, genetic recombination at present forms the basis of modern plant breeding approach. In this respect, Josef Kolreuter’s extensive crossing experiments between 1755 and 1806 were essentially the first attempts to scientifically-reconstruct naturally occurring species and types by combining their characters. Any way, no matter what method is adopted in the breeding approach, it inevitably involves selection, which is the most difficult part of overall breeding process.

The industrial revolution in Western Europe and concomitant flourish of capitalism and increasing commercial agricultural production stimulated breeding activities as a profitable venture of capitalistic economy. Throughout the 19th century, thousands of large and small seed companies were developed in Germany, England and the United States out of this impetus.

India ranks ___________ in area and production of vegetables in the world.

A. First           B. Second

C. Third         D. Fourth

9.1 Farm Tools and Equipment for Horticulture and Plantation Crops

Agriculture in India is one of the most prominent sectors in its economy. Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry, logging and fishing accounts for about 14% of the GDP and employed 60% of the country’s population. About 43% of India’s geographical area is used for agricultural activity. Despite a steady decline of its share in the GDP, agriculture is still the largest economic sector and plays a significant role in the overall socioeconomic development of India. Nearly 80 percent of the farm population operates smallholdings, the average size of holding being 1.16 ha. Out of a total geographical area of 329 m ha, about 142 m ha constitute the net sown area. Nearly 63 percent of this area is rainfed and its contribution to the overall production is 44%.

Coconut is the most beautiful and useful of palms known to mankind. Coconut is unique, producing a host of products and by products with distinctive applications at home and in industry. It is essentially an oil seed crop providing all amenities for human life, which include food, energetic beverage, medicine, fibre, wood, shell and a variety of raw materials for production of array of products of commercial importance. In view of its versatile uses and affinity to Indian culture, it is rightly called the “tree of heaven” or “Kalpavriksha”.

5.1 Present Status

Export of pomegranate has decreased in quantity from 36,027.43 tons in 2012-13 to 20,997.02 tons in 2014-15, whereas in value term it show an increase trend during the same period. There is tremendous potential for exports of pomegranate from India and it is fact that India is largest producer of pomegranates in the world. Moreover, India produces finest edible quality of pomegranates which are available almost throughout the year. The major Markets of India’s pomegranate during the year 2014-15 were UAE, Nepal, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Netherland.

The extreme temperatures those are consequences of present-day global climate changes are considered as major abiotic stresses for crop plants. Different studies clearly show that temperatures exceeding the limits of adaptation substantially influence the metabolism, viability, physiology, and yield of many plants. Plants exposed to extreme temperatures often show a common response in the form of oxidative stress. However, the extent of damage caused by extreme temperatures depends greatly on the duration of the adverse temperature, the genotypes of the exposed plants, and their stage of growth. There is ample need to develop temperature tolerance in crop plants by exploring suitable strategies. Numerous research findings support the notion that induction and regulation of antioxidant defenses are necessary for obtaining substantial tolerance against environmental stress. The development of genetically engineered plants, by the introduction and/or overexpression of selected genes, would to be one feasible strategy. However, plant adaptation to either high temperature or low temperature is a multigenic response which is very complex in nature. Thus the task of identifying the traits those correlate with stress tolerance is incredibly difficult for researchers. Plant response to continuous light depends on plant tolerance and can be modified by alteration in temperature, light intensity, CO2 level, and other environmental factors.

Extension Reform Strategies Global Perspective

In an effort to respond to the new paradigm, countries worldwide have adopted a variety of institutional reforms. These reforms are either market-oriented or non-market-oriented (Smith 1997). This distinction, provides an imperfect but hopefully useful framework for considering these reforms as individual, non-overlapping constructs. Following the discussion of Figure 3, a dynamic view of extension institutional reforms is presented in Figure 4 which suggests possible interconnections among the various constructs. Inferences drawn from the two Figures will shape the discussion in the final section.

The recent adoption by FAO and the World Bank of a fundamental vision and guiding principles for developing agricultural knowledge systems forms the focus of this section. This vision and these principles are reviewed in relation to the plethora of the ongoing agricultural and rural extension reforms.

7. 1 General

The major portion of water in a crop field gets lost through evaporation and transpiration. Evaporation is the process by which water is changed from the liquid state to vapor state. It takes place from the adjacent soil, water surface or from the surfaces of leaves of the plants. Transpiration is the removal of water vapour through plant body. Evapotranspiration (ET) is the sum of evaporation and transpiration. The process of evaporation and transpiration goes on simultaneously and difficult to separate them in a crop field.

The term consumptive use is used to refer evapotranspiration together with the water used in the metabolic activities of the crop plants. The actual amount of water used in metabolic activities is insignificant (less then 1% to ET). Therefore, the consumptive use and evapotranspiration are often used as synonymous term. It includes the water consumed by the plants for metabolic activities or transpiration plus the water evaporated from the land and water surfaces of the cropped area.

The factors affecting the rate of evaporation are the vapour pressure at the water surface and air above, air and water temperatures, wind speed, atmosphere pressure and size of the water body. Other factors remaining same, the rate of evaporation increases with an increase in the water temperature. Higher wind velocity causes greater scope for evaporation. Decrease in atmospheric pressure increases evaporation. The solute dissolved in water causes reduction in the rate of evaporation than that of pure water. The evaporation from soil surface occurs in same way to free water surface when the soil particles are surrounded by thin film of water and pore spaces are partially filled. However, in such situation greater resistance has to overcome for evaporation from the soil particles than while evaporating from a free water surface. The evaporation process practically stops when the moisture content in soil goes below a threshold value.

TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS

2.1 Mango
 

Mango is considered to be an allopolyploid. The chromosome number is 2n =40. The polyembryonic seedlings of cv. Vellaikolumban, earlier reported to be 2n= 80 was later shown to be a diploid. In Canary Island, a putative tetraploid viz Gomera-1 has been identified.

Floral biology

Flower starts opening early in the morning from 4-7 a.m. and maximum flowers open between 9.30-10.30 a.m. and complete 11 a.m. Dehiscence of anthers takes place at 11.30 a.m. and it continues up to 3.45 p.m. The pollen grains are oval, or triangular or oblong. Stigma becomes receptive even 18 hours before flower opening. Mode of pollination is entomophily; nectar is present to attract the insects.

The flowering duration is usually of short i.e. 2 to 3 weeks. The mango inflorescence or panicle bears mainly two types of flowers - male and perfect. The number of flowers per panicle varies between 1000 to 6000 depending upon the variety and climatic factors. The percentage of perfect flowers varies between 0.74 per cent in Rumani, 16.41 to 55.7 per cent in Neelum and up to 69.8 per cent in Langra.

1. Introduction

Olive (Olea eurpaea L.) is an evergreen species commonly grown in the Mediterranean basin. The oil extracted from the fruit is a predominant component of the ‘Mediterranean diet’, which has documented heart- and cancer-protective benefits. These derive from the lipid composition and from biologically active molecules that accumulate during olive fruit development. The oil can reach up to 30% of the total fruit fresh weight at full ripening and is highly present in the mesocarp and at lower levels in seeds. Oil increase reaches a plateau in pulp after varaison. A marked triacylglycerol accumulation in seed and pulp occurs after endocarp lignification, when about 40 mg of oil per fruit per week can be synthesized. The fatty acid profile of the oil accumulating in the fruit is important in relation to its nutritional properties. The main fatty acid is oleic acid (C18:1), which represents about 75% of total fatty acids, followed by linoleic (C18:2), palmitic (C16:0), stearic (C18:0) and linolenic (C18:3) acids (Martinelli and Dandekar, 2014).

The olive, Olea europaea L, is the only species of the botanical family Oleaceae with edible fruit. The tree blooms with small white flowers in May, and fruit set begins almost immediately afterward in May or June. Ripening is complete toward the end of November or December, depending on the variety. Its cultivation began more than 6000 years ago in the Middle East, and spread west on both sides of the Mediterranean Sea.