eChapters

Jaggery or Gur: Unrefined brown coloured sugar produced mainly in India by evaporation of sugar cane juices. Or a crude brown sugar made from the sap of coconut or palmyra palm trees, sold in round cakes or lumps.
Jam: A fruit preserve made by mixing fruit or boiling it with sugar and water and adding extra gelling agent if required, usually pectin. The high sugar concentration inhibits but does not totally prevent proliferation of microorganisms, so jam is usually bottled hot in sterile jars with a seal, or sterilized after bottling.
Jasmine: Natural flavourings with warm, spicy characteristics derived from flowers and leaves of jasmine (Jasminus spp.). Predominant flavour compounds and aroma compounds include jasmonates, jasmones, benzyl acetate, indol and eugenol.
Jellied milk: Milk to which is added sugar, flavourings, thickening agents and gelling agents. It is also known as jellified milk.
Jellies: Small, soft sweets, usually fruit flavoured, of gelatinous texture, made in various shapes and often coated with sugar. The singular term, jelly, is used to refer to jam-like products, usually clear, that are made from strained fruits containing pectins which are boiled with sugar. Also refers to soft, semi- transparent foods prepared from gelatin which are sweetened, flavoured, cooled in a mould and eaten as desserts.

Quality assurance: Planned and systematic actions necessary to provide adequate confidence that goods or services will satisfy given requirements. For the food industry, this is a customer-focused management system, whose aim is to guarantee food safety and con- sistent product quality by application of production, processing and handling standards. Proactive food safety programmes, in particular those based
on Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) principles, are the foundation of many food quality as- surance systems.
Quality control: A system of maintaining standards in manufactured products by testing a sample against the specification.
Quantitative descriptive analysis: Comprehensive system used in sensory analysis that covers sample collection, assessor screening, vocabulary development, testing and data analysis. Quantitative descriptive analysis (commonly abbreviated to QDA) uses small numbers of highly trained assessors. Once the training sessions have established satisfactory panel performance, and removal of ambiguities and misunderstandings, the test samples can be evaluated. This is carried out in replicated sessions using experimental designs that minimize biases. Three major steps are required: development of standardized vocabulary; quantification of selected sensory
characteristics; and analysis of results by parametric statistics.

UHT milk: Milk heated by UHT treatment to prolong shelf life.it is also known as long life milk.
Ultra High Temperature (UHT) treatment: A heat treatment (direct or indirect) used to sterilize foods prior to packaging in which to kill all microorganisms that would otherwise spoil the product. Following UHT treatment, foods are filled into pre-sterilized containers in a sterile atmosphere. Food products processed by UHT treatment include liquid products (e.g. milk, some fruit juices, cream, yoghurt, wines, salad dressings), foods with discrete particles (e.g. infant foods, tomato products, some fruit juices and vegetable juices, soups), and foods containing larger particles (e.g. stews).
Ultracentrifugation: Centrifugation in centrifuges which have the ability to develop centrifugal fields of up to 100,000 times that of the gravitational field. Ultracentrifugation is generally used for analytical purposes, such as the determination of physico-chemical properties of food polysaccharides using sedimentation analysis.
Ultrafiltration: Selective membrane separation process, driven by a pressure gradient, in which suspended solids, colloids, emulsified solids such as fat-protein complexes, and dissolved macromolecules with molecular weight in the range 10,000-100,000 Da are retained by the membranes. Molecules that do not pass through the membranes constitute the retentate. Lower molecular weight dissolved materials that pass through the membrane under a driving force of relatively low hydrostatic pressure (1-10 bar) are the permeate. Ultrafiltration is generally used in the concentration and fractionation of large molecules from materials such as cheese whey and milk.

Xanthan gums: Gums produced by the bacterium Xanthomonas campestris. These gums are exo-polysaccharides composed of repeating pentasaccharide units comprising a cellulose backbone and trisaccharide side chains of D-mannose and D-glucuronic acid residues. The gums also contain variable quantities of pyruvic acid. It used widely in the food industry as thickeners due to their ability to produce highly viscous, highly stable aqueous solutions. Other uses include as emulsifiers, stabilizers and binding agents, and to provide body, e.g. in low fat foods.
Xanthophylls: Group of neutral yellow or brown carotenoid pigments that are oxygenated derivatives of carotenes and distributed widely in plants. It is useful as food colorants.
X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy: Spectroscopy technique in which the sample is irradiated with X-rays, causing emission of a characteristic X-ray photon and fluorescence, which is measured using a spectrophotometer.
X-rays: Penetrating electromagnetic radiation of very short wavelength, able to pass through many materials. X-rays are produced by bombarding a target, usually made of tungsten, with high-speed electrons. The shorter the wavelength of the X-ray, the greater is its energy and its penetrating power. Longer wavelengths, near the UVray band of the electromagnetic spectrum, are known as soft X-rays. The shorter wavelengths, closer to and overlapping the gamma-ray range, are called hard X-rays. A mixture of many different wavelengths is known as white X-rays, as opposed to monochromatic X-rays, which represent only a single wavelength. X-rays are used in the food industry for a wide range of analytical purposes, including detection of foreign.

Yakult: Yakult Original is a fermented milk drink that contains over 650 crores of beneficial bacteria called Lactobacillus casei Shirota (SHIROTA strain). It has a unique sweet and tangy taste and is enjoyed by people of all ages. It is one of the probiotic foods that is drunk to help maintain the health of the gastrointestinal tract. It has benefits like (i) Improves Digestion: The Unique bacteria in Yakult Original helps to balance the gut microbiota, aiding digestion and promoting regular bowel movements. (ii) Boosts Immunity: Regular consumption can enhance the body’s natural defences by stimulating the immune system. (iii) Supports Gut Health: By increasing the number of good bacteria in the gut, Yakult Original helps maintain a healthy digestive system.
Yeast biomass: Quantitative estimate of the total population of yeasts present in a given habitat, in terms of mass, volume or energy.
Yeast extracts: Water soluble fraction of autolysed yeasts. During autolysis, yeast enzymes hydrolyse cytoplasmic proteins and carbohydrates. Insoluble cell wall material (cellulose) is removed, e.g. by centrifugation, to leave a clear extract of water soluble cellular material that is rich in amino acids and other nutrients. Yeast extracts are used as flavourings, as a source of nutrients for microbial fermentation, and as a source of B group vitamins for fortification of foods.

Zein: Prolamin which accounts for approximately half of the total storage proteins in corn. Contains minimal concentrations of lysine and tryptophan, but is rich in leucine.
Zeolites: Crystalline, hydrated alkali-aluminium silicates. Useful as catalysts for production of invert sugar from sucrose, downstream processing of flavour compounds, detoxification of contaminated foods and feeds, and as molecular sieves.
Zero energy cool chamber (ZECC): Zero energy cool chambers is an on-farm rural oriented storage structure which operates on the principle of evaporative cooling and has been constructed using locally available raw materials such as bricks, sand, bamboo, rice straw, vetiver grass, jute cloth etc. The chamber has been constructed above the ground and comprises of a double-walled structure made up of bricks. The cavity of the double wall is filled with riverbed sand. The upper part of the chamber was covered with vetiver grass mat on a bamboo frame. Zero energy cool chamber (ZECC) is a double wall structure having space between the walls which is filled with porous water absorbing materials. These pads are kept constantly wet by applying water. When unsaturated air passes through wet pad, transfer of mass and heat takes place and the energy for the evaporation process comes from the air stream. Losses can be minimized by using best post-harvest handling techniques during storage, transportation and distribution to market. There are various technologies available to create and maintain optimal temperature, relative humidity and atmospheric composition for harvested fruits and vegetables during storage.

The separation of essential oils responsible for odour/fine smell from different plantparts by gentle heating is known by centuries ago. A large number of such components being volatile are called as ‘Essential oils’. Presently, it also covers many of the less volatile constituents. The essential oils (extracts of the plant) with different types of flavours/odours are aromatic components, which can be separated by steam/hydro-distillation or extraction by solvents.
Essential oils largely contain terpenic compounds, made up of two or more isoprenyl units (C-5). Besides, a large number of other compounds which have nothing to do with isoprene units, have also been reported by various workers. Essential oils are of quite use in perfumes, flavour and aroma-therapy industries and their economic production is very much essential from farmers’ point of view. The optimum stage of harvest is very crucial for high quality and quantity of the essential oil from different parts of the plants (leaves, inflorescence, entire herb, roots, seeds, rhizomes etc.).
The quality of the essential oils largely depends on the kinds of the metals (copper, aluminium, mild steel, stainless steel) used in distillation unit, as some of the essential oils react with free acids present in the oil and thus imparting off-smell of aroma and colouration. Presently, distillation units made up of stainless steel are preferred which has no reaction to phenolic, acids, etc., and oils produced are very clean, less coloured and of high quality preferred by the cosmetic and perfumery industries engaged in formulation of various types of essence and scents.

Aromatic plants are one of the major natural resources of our country occurring in diverse eco-system. Lately, many people due to rare chances of side effects prefer herbal medicines/remedies and their safer products. Aromatic plants sector of our country is not well organized which needs to be given special attention in States as well as National level. At present in India, total trade of Ayurveda and other herbal
products is estimated to be around 5000 crores, which indicates that medicinal and aromatic plants have good potential. Presently, 90 percent of traded medicinal plants are generally collected from wild and rest from cultivation. These are either used fresh or in the form of crude drug, either dried whole plant or their part/parts such as root, stem, wood, bark, leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds and their products. The major producers of medicinal products in the world are China, Brazil, Bulgaria, Poland and India.
Though India has rich medicinal and aromatic plant diversity, yet China is the largest exporter of medicinal plants earning huge amount (US $ 5 million) from herbal trade due to large scale cultivation, standardization of quality control, safe and regular suppliers to the international market. Despite being home for several Traditional System of Medicines and aroma industries, the export of herbal based products from India is below US $ 100 million. According to WHO estimates, the herbal and aroma market is growing at the rate of 7 percent annually. The major export market for India is USA, Japan, Germany, France, Australia etc.

1. Introduction
All glassware used for bacteriological work must be meticulously cleaned and sterilized. Used and soiled glassware should be thoroughly washed to remove dirt and solid residues before drying and undergoing sterilization.
2. Cleaning of New Glassware
Borosilicate glass (e.g., Pyrex) and factory-washed soda glass require only standard washing before use. However, new, unwashed soda glass needs additional treatment to neutralize alkali content.
• Place the items (e.g., test tubes, Petri dishes, and flasks) in a suitable container, cover with a 1% tri-sodium phosphate solution, and bring to a boil.
• Remove the items, rinse with tap water, and immerse them in a 1% hydrochloric acid solution to neutralize alkalinity.
• Rinse thoroughly with tap water, followed by distilled water. Allow the glassware to dry before sterilization.
3. Cleaning of Used Glassware and Other Apparatus
• Autoclave all glassware contaminated by microorganisms (121°C for 15–20 minutes). This liquefies solid media, facilitating removal.
• Rinse the empty glassware with tap water, then warm water (50–55°C).
• Soak in a detergent solution (e.g., 1% washing soda or tri-sodium phosphate solution) and scrub with a brush.
• Rinse thoroughly with tap water to remove detergent traces, followed by distilled water.

Introduction
Ocular micrometer and stage micrometer are used to measure the size of microorganisms. The Ocular micrometer consists of a circular disk of glass which has graduations engraved on surface. A stage micrometer or objective micrometer has scribed lines on it that are exactly 0.01mm (10 micrometer) apart. Ocular micrometer is calibrated for the objective first. To calibrate the ocular micrometer for a given objective, the two scales are superimposed and determined how many of the ocular gradation coincide with one graduation on the stage micrometer scales. Thus, the distance between the graduations on the ocular micrometer can be determined and so the size of the organism can be determined.
Materials
1. Ocular micrometer
2. Stage micrometer
3. Microscope
4. Stained slides of yeast or bacteria

Introduction
This method consists of mixing the microorganisms in a small amount of India ink or nigrosine and spreading the mixture over a clean slide. These two pigments are not really bacterial stain and do not penetrate the microorganisms. These pigments make the background dark thus making organisms transparent against dark background. This method is useful for determining cell morphology and accurate size as no shrinkage of cells due to heat.
Materials
1. Bacterial culture (B. subtilis)
2. Microscopic slides (Clean, Grease Free)
3. Inoculating needle
4. Cedar wood oil
5. Microscope
6. Xylene

Fruit firmness is an important indicator of maturity. During ripening, fruits may soften and become too soft at the overripe stage. The changes are detected by pressing the fruit in between hands or by using devices like a pressure tester or texture analyzer to measure the texture of fruits and vegetables. Commonly used pressure testers to measure the firmness of fruits and vegetables are the Magness–Taylor Pressure Tester and Penetrometer. Principle: For the measurement of pressure, the maximum force required to rupture the sample is measured by pushing a cylindrical metal probe into the sample to a given depth. The Magness-Taylor pressure tester can be used to determine the softening of fruits during maturity. In this instrument 10 lb or 30 lb force springs are available. Each of them is provided with one or two punches of 5/16 or 7/16 inch in diameter. The plunger of larger diameter is used on softer material, while; the smaller one is used for firmer material.
Procedure
1. Select the pressure tester according to type of fruit
2. Remove a thin portion of the skin in case of waxy fruits

Measurements of sugars in the fruit can indicate the stage of maturity. Total soluble solid (TSS) contents can give a reliable measure of the sugar and other water-soluble components in fruits, vegetables, and their products such as juice, squash, jam, preserve, candy, sauce, ketchup, etc., In climacteric fruits, carbohydrates accumulate during maturation in the form of starch, and as the fruit ripens the starch is broken down into sugar. In non-climacteric fruits, sugar tends to accumulate during maturation. The presence of sugars, acid, ascorbic acid, and other water-soluble components in the fruit, vegetable, and their products are measured as total soluble solids.
Principle
Soluble solids can be determined using a refractometer which measures the refractive index or a brix hydrometer which measures specific gravity. A Brix hydrometer is used to determine the percentage of brix in syrup while an Abbe refractometer gives both refractive index as well as degree brix. The Refractive index of the test solution is measured at 20°C using a refractometer and the soluble solid content is calculated by the use of tables correlating the refractive index with soluble solids.

The inorganic residue remaining after the destruction/burning of organic matter in foodstuffs is called ash. Ash contents in food commodities roughly represent the mineral contents, however, some minerals are likely to be lost due to volatilization or some interaction between constituents during ashing. Estimation of ash content is also used as a measure to judge the quality of fruit products. The presence of high ash content or low alkalinity of the suggests the presence of adulterants in the sample. Similarly, the presence of a high amount of acid-insoluble ash indicates the presence of sand and other silicious matter in the food products.
Principle
Organic matter is burnt off at as low a temperature as possible. Heating is done in stages, first to char the product thoroughly and finally to ash it at 550ºC in a muffle furnace. The inorganic material left after burning organic matter is cooled and weighed.
Apparatus
* Silica Crucibles
* Muffle furnace
* Desiccator
* Balance

The use of salt (Sodium Chloride) in food products is an important method of preservation. It not only imparts taste to the products but also helps in checking spoilage of fruit products. Salt is added to pickles, sauces, chutneys, ketchup, and many other products. Food Safety & Standards Regulation has specified the maximum limit of salt in different products. Therefore, the estimation of salt content in food products is considered as an important attribute in food quality control.
Direct Titration Method
Direct titration (Mohr’s) method is used for the determination of salt content in food products as a routine quality control. In this method, the sample is titrated against a standard solution of silver nitrate for the estimation of salt.
Reagents
0.1 N NaOH, Phenolphthalein 1% indicator solution
0.1N Silver nitrate (AgNO3)
5% Potassium Chromate

Starch is the storage form of carbohydrates in plants which is abundantly found in roots, tubers, stems, fruits, and cereals. It is a polysaccharide made up of glucose monomers with a chemical formula of (C6H10O5)n. Starch is composed ofamylose and amylopectin. The linear polymer amylose is the most basic form of starch while amylopectin is the branched form. Foods that are high in starch content are a good source of nutrition. Food starches are used in the food industry as thickeners and stabilizers. During the ripening of fruits, the starch is converted into sugars. Therefore, the presence of starch in fruits is used as an indication of maturity and ripening.
Principle: For estimation of starch contents, the sugars present in the sample are leached out and starch is hydrolyzed using either acid or enzymatic hydrolysis. Stach is then calculated as invert sugars.
Starch content by Acid Hydrolysis method
Reagents: Ethanol 95%, /50%,Concentrated HCl, Concentrated H2SO4, 1N NaOH solution, Phenolphthalein indicator, 10% alcoholic solution of Alphanaphthol.

Fruit pulps are semi-finished products that are used for manufacturing finished value-added products like jam, ready-to-serve beverages, squash, appetizers etc. According to Food Laws, pulp refers to an unfermented but fermentable product, pulpy, turbid or clear, obtained by a mechanical process from sound ripe fruits/vegetables. These are preserved either by heat processing or by using chemical preservatives. The maximum preservative permitted under Indian Food Laws is 1000 ppm sulphur dioxide added in the form of potassium metabisulphite.
Mango, guava, apple, pineapple, papaya, bael, guava, peach, plum, apricot etc., are the most suitable fruits for making pulp for use in finished product preparation.
Procedure
i. Select fully mature and ripe fruit like mango, guava, apple, peach, apricot, kiwi, etc., and wash thoroughly.

Cordial is a sparkling, clear, sweetened fruit juice beverage from which pulp/ fibrous material has been removed completely. It contains at least 25% fruit juice, 30% total soluble solids (TSS), 1.5% acid and 350 ppm sulphur dioxide. Lemon and lime are the most suitable fruits for making cordial.
Recipe: The recipe for the preparation of cordial as a general guideline is as under:
Extract the juice from lime or lemon as in squash and store in glass bottles after adding potassium metabisulphite @ 1.0 g/kg of the juice. Allow the juice to settle for a month. Decant the clear juice without disturbing sediments and strain it through a fine muslin cloth. Prepare syrup by mixing sugar with water, boil, strain and allow to cool. On cooling, mix juice in syrup and strain the cordial through muslin cloth if necessary. Add KMS and fill into bottles. Stor in a cool and dry place.

Project Formulation and Finance
Project Formulation and Finance involves two key aspects of project
management: developing the project’s structure and ensuring it has the necessary financial resources. Here’s a closer look at each part:
1. Project Formulation: This is the initial phase where you define the project, including its scope, objectives, and outcomes. It involves identifying stakeholders, setting goals, and determining the resources required. Effective project formulation ensures that the project is feasible, aligns with organizational strategy, and addresses the stakeholders’ needs.
2. Project Finance: This aspect focuses on securing the financial resources needed to execute the project. It includes planning the budget, analyzing investment requirements, and managing financial risks. Financing strategies might involve obtaining funds through loans, equity, grants, or other financial instruments. This phase also covers the assessment of financial viability and the preparation of financial forecasts to ensure that the project is economically sustainable.

Among various immunodiagnostic tools enzyme immunoassay becomes increasingly popular for the detection of humoral immune response (seroconversion) or microbial antigens for the purpose of diagnosis. Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) is widely used in studies of infectious diseases.Despite several merits of ELISA, it has some limitations such as requirement of ELISA reader to obtain accurate measurements. To overcome this, the dot immunobinding assay was developed .In Dot Immunoassay nitrocellulose membrane is used as an adsorbent matrix instead of plastic surface.The antigen is dotted onto the nitrocellulose membrane and the membrane then incubated with test antibody, and secondly with enzyme conjugated antibody directed against the first antibody.In case of positve
reaction, (specific antigen –antibody reaction) color dot is developed against the white background at the site of antigen deposition.In case of negative reaction, no color development takes place at the site of antigen deposition .
Principle
• In direct ELISA antibody is directly attached to solid phase and targeted by added antigen (detecting antigen).
• These added antigens are targeted by antispecies antibodies linked to enzyme termed as conjugates.
• The bound enzyme is developed by the addition of substrate /chromogen, then stopped and finally read using a spectrophotometer

There are 6 nutrients which are very important to animal body – carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, vitamins and water.
Carbohydrates: These are polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone as in monosaccharide or polymers in oligo or polysaccharides. The question arises whether carbohydrate is a dietary essential !!! Carbohydrate may not be dietary essential, but it is definitely metabolically essentially. The organic compounds – fats, proteins are oxidized only in the presence of carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are the structural components of DNA, RNA, and some other vital organic molecules. Although less than 1% is present in the human body [because, constantly being formed and broken down in metabolism], yet without the presence of this carbohydrate, the existence of living creature is at stake. Carbohydrate in the form of glucose primarily provides energy in the body and excess amount of carbohydrate is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscle. More than 50 % of the energy value of the diet is provided by carbohydrate.
Glucose + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H20 Δ E (675 k. cal).
Lipids: These are important constituents of plant and animal tissue and these can be extractable from biological materials with the usual fat solubles, for example – Ether, Chloroform, Benzene, Carbon tetrachloride, Acetone etcetra. The lipid metabolism is in dynamic state. There is constant mobilization and transportation of fatty acids from the depots. Some portion of absorbed fatty acids are degraded in the same way, while others are combined with glycerol transported back to depots. All these reactions are so balanced, that mixtures of fatty acids in the depots, blood and organs tend to remain at equilibrium
condition.

Nutrition involves various bio – chemical and physiological activities which transform feed elements into body elements. These feed elements are nutrients which are digested, absorbed, utilized to build and renew the components of the animal body. As a result, animal grows and produce – milk, eggs, wool with the help of energy so produced in the body. After weaning, most of our farm animals obtain all of their feed supply from plants. Barring carnivores, the plant kingdom is the original and essential source of all animal life, because plants are able to utilize the energy of the sun to build substances which nourish
the animal. Plants make use of carbon dioxide, water and mineral salts to form carbohydrates, fats and proteins, which are utilized in the life processes of animal body. Thus, plants store and animals dissipate energy.

Carbohydrates exhibit protein sparing action, because proteins are mainly required for tissue – building, that is, general wear and tear in the body. If there is any emergency, say animal is deficient in calories of the diet, then it will use adipose and protein tissues. It is said that proteins and fats are burnt (or oxidized) in the flame of carbohydrate. It means that certain intermediary compounds of glucose oxidation through Krebs cycle, are absolutely necessary for oxidation of proteins and fats. Again, in any emergency, if glucose level of the body goes down, fats and proteins are taken over and they get metabolized faster than the body can take care of the intermediate products. However, ketone bodies – acetone, acetoacetate β – hydroxy butyrate appear in urine. In addition to above, monosaccharides are very important (vital)m structural components of many compounds which regulate metabolism. Among these are DNA, RNA for transfer of genetic information of the cell, which contain ribose and deoxy ribose sugars. Glucuronic acid occurs in the liver and this combines with toxic chemicals and bacterial by – products and hence, acts as detoxifying agent. Hyaluronic acid (a disaccharide) forms matrix of connective tissue. Heparin, a mucopolysaccharide, is very important anti – coagulant. Chondroitin sulfates are present in cartilage, bone, skin and tendon. Glycosides are widely distributed throughout the plant kingdom and a number of them have been used as drugs for animals. 
Lipids: these are the most concentrated form of the stored energy in animal kingdom, because they provide 2.25 times per unit more energy than carbohydrate. They provide insulation for vital organs protecting them from mechanical shock and also maintain body temperature. The cell membranes have phospholipids, for example – Erythrocytes. Prostaglandins exhibit hormonal activities. Essential fatty acids – linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic acids show deficiency symptoms in their absence. Lipid also delays hunger, because it requires longer time to pass through stomach than carbohydrate or protein. They also help in lubrication.

Role of water
Water is the principal constituent of living plants as well as animal body. With the maturity of seed, water content decreases. Animal body is composed of two thirds of water – intra and extra cellular fluids, and that a feed is any substance used by the body for building tissue, it is obvious that water is very important nutrient. Experiments have shown that animals may live for 100 days without organic feed, but they may die within 5 to 10 days, when deprived off water. Cell rigidity and elasticity imparts a definite form to body, which may be changed by the liquid content of the cell. Due to its high dielectric constant, oppositely charged ions co – exist in water without much interference. Hydrolysis is an important chemical process in digestion and other metabolism, where H+ and OH- ions of water are introduced into bigger molecules and these bigger molecules are broken down into smaller units.
Lubrication is yet another important function where water prevents friction or drying in joints, conjunctiva, mouth, pleura surrounding lungs, other soft organs. Body heat regulation is carried out due to certain properties – for example, due to high specific heat conducting power, water can carry away heat from the site of production and distributing it throughout the body. Yet another due to such property, highest latent heat of evaporation from skin, lungs or tongue. Oxygen and carbon di oxide are soluble in water, hence gaseous exchange takes place in the tissues, for example, fish. The “aqueous humour” of eye helps to keep up the ‘shape’ and ‘elasticity’ of the eye – ball and acts as refractive medium.

There are 3 types of systems for expressing the energy value of feeds and many examples have been depicted in each of these systems the world over, but here, one example has been taken up in each of these categories. [a] Digestive Nutrient Type: For example, Total Digestible Nutrient (TDN) system: Digestibility coefficients of various organic nutrients like – carbohydrate, fat and protein are determined by digestibility trials, which can be involved for total digestible nutrients as a measure of nutritive value of feeds. Hence only faecal energy loss has been considered barring losses from other channels. Hence, roughages are overestimated by such calculations. Otherwise, this method is simple, economical and has some basis for animals to be fed on such standard. The TDN value is expressed in % age as following - % TDN = % digestible crude protein + % digestible crude fibre + % digestible nitrogen free extractives + [% digestible ether extract x 2.25]. where Nitrogen Free Extractives = 100 – [crude protein % + ether extract % + crude fibre % + ash %] on dry matter basis.
[b] Production value type: For example, Starch Equivalent (S.E.) system originated from Germany, hence followed in those areas of Europe and takes into account almost all the losses involved in digestion of feed. The method is based on Carbon – Nitrogen balance studies without the help of any costly equipment, but faced some criticism too. The animals were kept in big animal calorimeter, where different sources of energy losses could be determined to the best of their ability. When it was ensured that the ration on which the animals were neither gaining nor losing weight (by measuring the intake and outgo of both carbon and nitrogen), then pure starch, straw pulp, that is, cellulose, wheat gluten (protein) and oil were added to this diet and determined the carbon and nitrogen separately again. Feeds for productive purposes are measured in terms of starch values. S.E. = Weight of fat stored per unit of feed / weight of fat stored per unit of starch x 100. That is, amount of feed required to produce as much animal fat as is being produced by unit amount of starch, when fed in addition to maintenance. For example, if linseed cake has got SE of 75, which means that 100 kgs of linseed cake can produce as much fat as 75 kgs of pure starch, when fed in addition to maintenance ration.

Crude protein of feeds contain true protein and non – protein nitrogen. True protein is made up of amino acids and for maximum efficiency, feed must have essential acids in correct proportion, correct balance as well as non – essential amino acids should also be in sufficient amounts. About digestion in simple stomached animals, the true protein is degraded to oligopeptides (less than 10 peptides) in the stomach, subsequently to mono peptide amino acids in the small intestine. Thereafter amino acids are assimilated in the small intestine.
But in ruminants, the situation is complex in the sense that feed proteins get digested in the rumen, but even amino acids are also broken down by the microbes, and thereafter, amino and carboxylic groups are released. Secondly, synthesis of new amino acids or proteins takes place for formation of their own microbial body coat. Because of these reasons, the approach for protein evaluation or expression is different in ruminant animal. Further, non-protein portion of the feed cannot be utilized effectively by non – ruminants like swine and poultry. These animals are usually fed with oil cakes, cereals and
cereal by products, which are poor in non-protein compounds, however, young succulent fodders, clover etcetera are rich in such compounds. In the laboratory, crude protein may be estimated by kjeldahl’s method and true protein may be precipitated from non – protein nitrogen fraction by treating with cupric hydroxide or trichloro acetic acid. The precipitate is filtered off and subjected to kjeldahl’s process. For experimental evaluation of non – ruminants: albino or wistar rats, rabbits, guinea pigs or poultry birds are taken. Casein (milk protein) or albumen (egg protein) are fed to these animals for a period of 4
weeks and any of the following methods are undertaken to look for the protein quality based on response of animals.

Common feeds and fodders: An edible material which is ingested, digested, absorbed, assimilated by the animals for their benefit, is known as feed. As per the National Research Council, Dry forages and roughages are cut and cured. These are bulky feeds with low digestibility. Crude fibre is > 18 % and TDN is < than 60 % because of high cell wall content. Some of the common feed stuffs are: dry grass (hay), wheat straw, paddy straw, oat straw etcetera. Stovers [aerial part without ears and husk (maize) or aerial parts without heads (sorghum). Hulls and shells too. Pasture range plants, tree leaves and forages are either harvested or without harvesting (fresh) are also very good for feeding, for example: pasture grass, range plants, tree leaves, green forages. Concentrates have < than 18 % crude fibre and > than 60 % TDN. Feeds rich in protein (plant origin) are: Cotton seeds / cakes, Mustard cake, Groundnut cake. Whereas animal origin protein sources are: Skim milk, Fish meal, Blood meal. Feeds rich in carbohydrates (energy) in grains are: Maize, Oat, Barley. Whereas grain by – products are: Wheat bran, Rice bran, Gram husk, Pulse chuni.
Points to ponder
• Animals are sometimes said “to feed” or to eat, therefore to mean = “food for animal”. The old English root is fedan = “nourish, sustain or foster”.
• Fodders are harvested and taken to animals; whereas, Forages are browsed on by animals, while still on the land.
• Feed manufacturing refers to the process of producing animal feed from raw agricultural products; whereas, Fodder produced by manufacturing is formulated to meet specific animal nutritionrequirements for (i) different species of animals, (ii) different life stages. The idea is: to transfer the seed energy and the plant’s energy to the animal.

32 – 33. Agronomic practices for fodder production: Feeding green forages to animal is economic and better for animal health and production. To get green forage throughout the year, it is necessary to sow the crop at proper time and also to harvest it at a proper stage. According to season, following agronomical practices may be followed:
(a) Rabi crops: Berseem, Lucerne, Oat, Mustard, Sugarcane tops
(b) Zaid crops: Chari, Maize, Sorghum, Cow pea, Guar.
(c) Kharif crops: Maize, Sorghum, Cow pea, Sudan grass, Napier, Para grass.
Berseem and Lucerne (legumes) are best forages for milk production. Berseem is called as king and Lucerne as queen of the fodder crops. Maize, Sorghum, Oat (non – legumes) at flowering stage are good forages. Hybrid Napier, Guinea grass, Para grass and other green grasses are palatable, but poorer in nutritive value than legumes and many non – leguminous forages. Straws and
stovers are poor quality roughages. Average voluntary intake of legumes is 2.0 kg; Non legumes and other grasses have 2.25 kg; while of straws, stovers is only 1.5 kg Dry Matter / 100 kg body weight.

Roughage contains > than 18 % crude fibre and < than 60% Total Digestible Nutrients (T.D.N.). Leguminous fodders contain more Digestible Crude Protein (D.C.P.). Some common dry legumes are: Pea straw, Arhar straw, Lucerne hay. And some common green legumes are: Berseem (clover), Cow pea, Lucerne (alfa alfa). Non – leguminous fodders contain less D.C.P. Some common dry non – legumes are: Wheat straw, Paddy straw, Oat hay, Grass hay. Whereas, some common green legumes are: Sorghum, Maize, Oat, Napier.

Fodders and grasses can be preserved either as hay (dried fodder) or as silage (wet fodder), depending on weather conditions and available resources. These are fed in some (high input) farms to bridge seasonal scarcity periods.
Hay making: * The crop is harvested for hay making at its pre – flowering stage, when its growth is levelling off and its feeding value is still high; * Hay is best made during the rain free days; * Crops with thick and juicy stems should be dried after chaffing and conditioning, which will speed up the drying process and slow down the loss of nutrients; * Hay should be raked only a few times during the drying process in order to avoid the shattering of leaves and bleaching of the hay; * Legumes should be raked in the morning hours to avoid leaf shattering; * After drying and curing, bailing and / or stacking should be
done as early as possible. Storage under a roof is preferred; * For hay bailing, maximum permissible water concentration is 15%. Storage of hay before sufficient drying may cause fire due to spontaneous combustion; * Storage of hay with higher moisture concentration may result in mould growth, making the hay unfit for feeding.
Silage making: * Crops and plant materials rich in soluble sugars, such as – maize, sorghum, oats, sugarcane tops, hybrid Napier grass and other grasses are highly suitable for ensiling; * The dry matter concentration of the forage at the time of ensiling should be around 15 – 30 %, but higher is possibe; * Chaffing of the material for ensiling increases its compactness, thus eliminates the air space to the maximum content; * Green to semi – green forage, which may use the O2 present for respiration, results in high quality silage; * The silo should be air tight after filling; * Fermentation starts withing hours after closing the silo, and accelerates over the next 2 to 3 days. It terminates after about 3 weeks. Organic acids, primarily – lactic acid and acetic acid, ethanol and gasses such as CO2, CH4, NO2, and NH3 are produced during the fermentation process; * Due to production of acid, the pH of the biomass is reduced to a level below 4, resulting in the termination of all biological activities, after which material remains conserved under aerobic conditions.

For animal rearing it is pertinent to know the technique of keeping and preserving the feed required for the livestock. Apart from the rich pasturage, one may have the longevity of their feeds is immense concern for many. Animal feeds are an amalgam of diverse ingredients, including vegetable oil, sunflower oil. There are also animal fats, like – lard, tallow etcetera, which are included in the fodder. These elements give fodder the targeted input to animal husbandry. The prime factor that occurs and becomes a challenge for many livestock rearing, the cost for their feeds, which would provide quality and quantity in their output. Once the feed is rightly chosen for the animal, that one is rearing, the next challenge arises. Here is somehow animal feeds can be preserved safely, thereby increasing the longevity of the feeds - * Stay safe from the Sun; * Metal cans; * Storage bunkers; * Sliding metal roof bunkers;
* Commodity sheds; * Plastic containers or drums; * Re – usable freezer; * Wood bins.
Important dots
• All feed and ingredients have to be stored in a cool place [ideally below 77 0 F or (77 0F –32) X 5/9 = 25 0C), although this is not possible at outside locations under summer situations].
• Feed has to be kept dry to prevent fungal or bacterial growth.
• Prevention of entry for rodents or insects is essential.
• Stable form of vitamins is important to use.
• Anti – oxidants are important for preserving fats, oils in ingredients and feed.
• Expiry dates are important on the containers, for all feed materials for their shelf – life (for ground grains = 1 month after milling)
• For fats and oils: Opened container: 1 month; un – opened or stabilized: 1 - year post mixing.

The topic deals with methods to increase the amount of water stored in the soil profile by trapping or holding rain water where it falls, or where there is some small movement as surface run – off. Principles: Choice of method. There is no simple way of classifying methods of water conservation. One suggestion is to do it by comparing rainfall with crop requirements, giving 3 conditions: (a) Where precipitation is less than crop requirements; here the strategy includes land treatments to increase run – off onto cropped areas, following for water conservation, and the use of drought – tolerant crops with suitable management practices. (b) Where precipitation is to crop requirements, here the strategy is local conservation of precipitation maximizing storage within the soil profile, and storage of excess run – off for subsequent use. (c) Where precipitation is in excess of crop requirements; in this case the strategies are to reduce rainfall erosion, to drain surplus run – off and store it for subsequent use.
Some design principles: The effect of scale, methods for crop land: Broad bed and furrow system (BBF), Ridging and tied ridging, Conservation bench terraces (CBT; also known as Zingg terrace, and flat channel terrace); Contour furrows (also known as contour bunds and desert strip farming); Water spreading (the use of run–off areas): Natural run – off; Collected and diverted run – off; Inundation methods, Flood diversion; Surface drainage; Other sources of water: Snow, dew, mist . [Figure 4].

The term animal waste comprises, the fresh excrement, including both solid and liquid excreta and urine. * It also includes the bedding material, animal washings, feed waste and straw which are having considerable manorial value. * The characteristics of the livestock wastes depend on fractions of the digestibility, composition of feed ration and species of animals and their physiology. * The waste ruminants have different composition than obtained from swine and poultry, which is having high nutritive value.
For fodder production, the animal waste can be utilized in many ways, that is, as pesticide and that is, as non – conventional source of source energy as pesticides bio – fertilizer to improve soil fertility for sustainable agriculture. This livestock waste can be recycled in following ways: Organic mulch, As pesticides, In organic farming, Biogas production, Composting, Vermicomposting, Profitable manure management by livestock fish integration.

Identification / familiarization of various feed ingredients: As per National Research Council (N. R. C.), there are 8 main groups of feedstuffs. (1) Dry forages and roughages; All forage and roughage cut and cured are included in this category. These are bulky feeds with low digestibility. Crude fibre is more than 18 % and Total digestible is less than 60 % because of high cell wall contents. For example: dry grass (hay), wheat straw, paddy straw, oat straw, stovers (aerial part without ears), husk (maize) or aerial part without heads (sorghum), hulls and shells. (2) Pasture range plants, tree leaves and forages; Roughage either harvested or without harvesting (fresh) are included in this group. For example: pasture grass, range plants, tree leaves, green forages (legume and non – legume). (3) Silage; only ensiled forages are included. For example: legume non – legume silages. (4) Energy or basal feeds; Feeds are of low protein content, having crude protein less than 20 %, crude fibre less than 18 % and Total digestible nutrients more than 60 %. For example: cereal grains, milk by – products, fruits, nuts, roots etcetera; (5) Protein supplements; Feeds are of high protein , more than 20 %, crude fibre less than 18 % and Total digestible nutrients more than 60 %. For example: animal, marine, avian, and plant products. Meat meal, fish meal, oil seeds, and their cakes etcetera; (6) Mineral supplements; These are natural or pure elements. For example: composite mineral mixture or specific mineral supplements; (7) Vitaminsupplements; These are natural or pu e forms. For example: composite vitamin  pre–mix or specific vitamin supplements; (8) Feed additives; these are for improving efficiency of utilization of feeds. Number of examples have been cited elsewhere in this book [theoretical part above].

Preparation and processing of samples for chemical analysis: The preparation of samples depends upon the purpose of analysis and the nature of the constituents that are to be determined. The preparation of samples for analysis is as important as the analytical procedure and hence, it should be done with utmost care. (A) Smpling of wet material: (1) Plant material; (2) Silage; (3) Cattle faeces; (4) Sheep / goat faeces; (5) Poultry excreta; (B) Sampling of air – dry material: (I) Hay or straw; (II) Concentrates.
Small quantities of feed samples are collected from several locations, all sides, in the middle and are mixed well after chaffing. Such mixture is subjected to quarter sampling, by spreading on levelled ground in circular form. This circle is now divided into 4 equal quarters. Any 2 diagonally opposite quarters are selected and other 2 are rejected. Selected portions are mixed properly and again spread on levelled ground in circular form. This mixture is again divided into 4 equal quarters and any 2 diagonally opposite quarters are selected, while remaining 2 are rejected. This procedure is repeated till required quantity of sample is obtained. This representative sample is brought to laboratory as early for drying in a hot air oven. Dried samples are ground to pass through 2 mm sieve in a Willey mill (large samples may be ground through hammer mill), as described in chapter 10. Sample is collected in an airtight plastic bag and stored in desiccator.

Proximate analysis: Weende’s system is followed. Weende was a small village in Germany, near the University of Goettingen at that time (1860), when this system was developed by Hanneburg and Stohmann. Although it is neither true nor approximate, but somewhere in the middle, that is, proximate analysis of the various parameters for assessment purpose; it gives information about the quality of feeding stuff and still followed.

Estimation of calcium and phosphorus in feeds: Calcium is precipitated as calcium oxalate by adding ammonium oxalate to acid soluble extract prepared after running a sample for ash. Precipitates of calcium oxalate are dissolved in sulfuric acid and titrated with potassium permanganate to know the content of calcium.
Using N1V1 ≡ N2V2, 1.0 ml of 0.1 KMnO4 = 2.004 mg Calcium.
Calcium, g % = Burette reading difference X 2.004 X dilution factor X 100 / weight of the sample used for preparation of acid soluble mineral extract X 1000.
[dilution factor, (for example) = 250 / 25 (ml aliquot taken) = 10]
Phosphorous present in the sample is precipitated with ammonium molybdate and the precipitates are dissolved in NaOH solution. Excess sodium hydroxide is titrated with nitric acid to calculate the actual volume of NaOH used up which is direct proportion to the Phosphorous content.
1 ml of 0.1 N NaOH = 0.1347 mg Phosphorus
Phosphorus % = Actual volume of 0.1N NaOH solution used to dissolve precipitate X 0.1347 X dilution factor X100 / weight of sample used for acid soluble extract X 1000
[Here, dilution factor is 250 / 50 (aliquot taken) = 5]

Qualitative detection of undesirable constituents, adulterants in Feeds: The nutritive value of feed ingredients from the same origin may exhibit variation. The factors which are responsible for the variation are natural variation are natural variation, processing, adulteration and damage, deterioration. These days, due to shortage and high prices of feed ingredients, adulteration is one of the main problems. Feed quality can be examined by different techniques:
(a) Feed microscopy: Stereo or compound microscopy may be used for: (i) Screening method; (ii) Floatation technique.
(b) Chemical tests: For heavy metals, nitrates, phosphates, sulfates, free sulfur, salts: carbonate, chloride, salt, sugar, urea, blood, hoof or horn, leather meal, uric acid.

Familiarization with various fertilizers, manure and Agri – implements: Manure: * Nutrients are added to soil for healthy growth of plants. * Continuous growing of crops makes the soil poor in nutrients. * Manures are organic substances obtained from decomposition of plants animal wastes. * Manuring is done to replenish soil with nutrients.
Advantages of manuring: * Improves water retaining capacity of the soil. * Makes the soil porous and exchange of gases becomes easy. * Increases the number of friendly microbes. * Improves the texture of the soil. * Replenishes the soil with necessary nutrients.
Fertilizers: * These are chemical substances rich in nutrients. * These are produced in factories.
Advantages of fertilizers: * Help farmers to get better yield of crops.
Disadvantages of fertilizers: * Sources of water pollution. * Make the soil less fertile. * Artificial fertilizers often cause diseases.

Estimation of silage quality parameters: Process of making silage is called ensiling. The green fodder harvested at a proper stage is stored, packed and compressed in silo and it is then tightly covered to prevent the contact with air. Thus, the forage is preserved by controlled microbial anaerobic fermentation in a silo with minimum loss of nutrients for use as a succulent fodder during scarcity (lean) period. This form of preserved fodder is known as silage. Silage is prepared by obtaining enough acid content in ensiled feed which inhibit the microbial fermentation thereby preserving the green fodder. Following are
points to ponder:
1. Maize, sorghum, bajra crops having thick solid stems and rich in soluble carbohydrates, are best for silage preparation. Silage can also be prepared from oats, berseem etcetera, after wilting to 35 – 40 % dry matter.
2. Dry matter content in fodder crop for ensiling should be between 30 – 40 % (average 35 %) and should have sufficient soluble sugars for acid production during fermentation.
3. The crop is harvested in bloom stage, which is best for silage preparation.
4. If the crop is deficient in soluble carbohydrates, (for example, legumes), then a sugar industry by – product is added.
5. Silage having acidic flavour and pH 3.5 to 4.2 is considered to be excellent.
6. The crop should be properly trampled / pressed to remove the air out of silo.
7. The crop is chopped into small pieces for better microbial action due to increased surface are and sufficient acid production.

• Dairy farm
• Poultry farm
• Wormi compost
• Fodder bank
• Any other visit with the permission of chair.

Indian poultry industry has made a fastest and remarkable growth ever since its inception and is presently emerging as a sunrise sector with a growth rate of 6-8 percent per annum. Today India is third largest producer of chicken egg and fifth largest producer of broilers/chicken meat in the world (Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT), 2018), with estimated production of 103.3 billion numbers eggs and 4.06 million tonnes of poultry meat in year 2018-19. Poultry sector contributes Rs.1347.57 billion in total output of livestock sector which hold 12.91 percent share (Basic Animal Husbandry Statistics (BAHS, 2019). The Indian poultry market was worth Rs.1,750 billion in 2018 and was worth Rs. 2,049 billion in 2019. The market is further projected to reach Rs. 4,340 billion by 2024, growing at a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 16.2 percent during 2019-2024 (www.indianmirror.com). The major growth drivers for the sector are increasing incomes coupled by changing food habits, large un-penetrated market, growth in the processing sector, and awareness of the consumer about the safe and hygienic poultry products. The sector has provided direct employment to 40 lakh and indirect employment to 2.5 crore people (Khan, 2019). The annual per capita availability of poultry products has increased from 5 eggs and 400 gram chicken in 1950 to 79 eggs and 3.21 kg chicken in 2019. However, it is far below then recommended consumption of 180 eggs and 10.8 kg poultry meat per person per annum by Indian Council of Medical Research.

Poultry sector has been divided into two broad classes based on the management practices. First one is commercial poultry farming which is the well-organized sector. Second one is backyard poultry farming which plays supportive role for rural economy. The commercial farming practices can divide into two subclasses: layer and broiler industry. Commercial poultry farming provides primary source of income to the farmers and widely influenced by market driven forces. Backyard poultry farming comprises dual purpose birds as both layer and broiler. It supports the rural household with nutritional security, subsidiary income generation and provides the employment to women which
Egg production by backyard and commercial poultry farm
Out of total egg production of 103.3 billion numbers eggs, commercial poultry farming is producing 84.91 billion number eggs whereas, backyard poultry farming is producing 18.41 billion numbers contributing 82.2 percent and 17.8 percent of total production of egg respectively (BAHS, 2019). 

Table 6.1 and table 6.2 shows the Gross Value Added (GVA) of poultry sector in Indian economy. The GVA from poultry sector in year 2017-18 at current price was Rs. 32844 Crore and Rs. 101913 for eggs and meat respectively.

Strengths
• Poultry farming generates early and regular income and has shorter generation interval.
• Poultry and poultry products constitute an important component of human diet. The consumption is also increasing at a rapid rate due to low fat content, easy availability and cost effectiveness.
• Poultry is the least cost alternative food source next to fish only and produces more animal protein from the same amount of feed. Two eggs provide 160 calories of energy constituting more than 20 percent of the daily requirement of Proteins, Vitamin A, D & B12, Riboflavin, Folic acid, Pantothenic acid, Phosphorus and Iodine along with fat.
• According to nutritional Advisory committee of India, at least half an egg should be made available to an average individual which workout to be 180 eggs/annum. Poultry farming require less area with high and quick return than any other animal husbandry and agriculture activities.
• Good infrastructure like road, rail, ports, airports, reliable electricity power and easily approachable to major cities of adjoining states.

Agriculture and allied sectors have adversely hit by the COVID-19 scare.The rumors of poultry birds likely the carrier of the virus circulated in social media had led to reduced demand of the chicken meat in several parts of the country in the month of February 2020 even before India reported the first case of COVID-19. The poultry industry in India hit hard because of nationwide lockdown to stop the rapid spread of COVID-19 virus. This lock-down had disrupted the entire supply chain. Before COVID-19 the prices for broiler was about Rs. 80 per kg and Rs. 4 for egg the price dropped to almost no value like Rs. 6 per kg and Rs. 1-1.50 per egg. As a result, the projected loss of the industry was about Rs 25000 crore. (Shukla & Bhattacharyya, 2020).
According to industry sources, the poultry industry which had witnessed steady growth rate in the last two decades because of rising consumer demand for protein rich food especially but, it has incurred huge losses since the beginning of the 2020. The loss incurred by Indian poultry industry is mainly attributed to sharp decline in demand because of disruption of supply chain during lock down. The financial condition of all the stakeholders in the poultry value chain – farmers, feed suppliers and retailers had become risky. The drop in demand and supply chain disruption especially hit the smaller farmers who had limited
resources. Thus, many farmers went for ‘contract farming’ offered by many large poultry players.

a) Transformation towards Commercial Agro: The poultry sector in India has experienced a revolutionary shift in structure and operation, which has led its transformation from a simple backyard activity to a major commercial agro based industry over a period of decades.
b) Layer Farming: The production of eggs has increased from 1.83 billion numbers in 1950-51 to 103.32 billion numbers in year 2018-19. The per capita availability reached at 79 eggs per annum in the year 2018-19 from 5 eggs per annum in year 1950-51. Andhra Pradesh, Tami Nadu and Telangana contributes about 55 percent share in total egg production.
c) Broiler Farming: Chicken meat contributes to 50 percent share in total meat production in year 2018-19 with the production of 4.06 million tonnes production. Broiler production is mainly concentrated in
Maharashtra, Haryana, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Broiler farming is mainly done through contract broiler farming. In that the integrator provides inputs such as chicks, feed, medicines and
vaccines. The contract farmer provides labour, shed, electricity, water, litter material, and other miscellaneous services or equipment that may be required. The integrator bears the transportation cost, investment and marketing risks. 

Forages can be classified according to the nutrient density in the dry matter.
Roughages: These are diets that have more than 18% crude fiber, more than 35% cell wall content, and less than 60% TDN on DMB. There are two types of roughage: dry roughage and green roughage. Roughages are classified as succulent or non-succulent according on their moisture content. Succulent feeds are ones with greater than 80% moisture. Non-succulent feed contains less amount of moisture. Roughages can also be classified based on legumes, for example, leguminous and non-leguminous roughages. Roughages are divided into three types based on their nutritional content (on DMB): maintenance, productive and non-maintenance.
Roughages: Feedstuffs having more than 18% crude fibre, more than 35% cell wall contents and less than 60% TDN on dry matter basis (DMB) are known as roughages. There are two kinds of roughages, dry roughage and green roughage. On the basis of moisture content the roughages can be classified into succulent and non-succulent. Succulent feeds are those which contain more than 80% moisture. Feed contains lesser amount of moisture is known as non-succulent. Roughages can also be classified on the basis of legumes. e.g. leguminous and non-leguminous roughages.
Roughages can be classified based on their nutritive value (on DMB) into maintenance type, productive type and non-maintenance type.

non-herbaceous plants that are accessible for animal foraging.
Flour: It is soft, finely ground meal of a grain which mainly consists of gluten and starch.
Fodder: Fodder covers various agricultural products specifically intended for the nourishment of domesticated animals. The term “fodder” is particularly associated with the provision of food to these animals, which may include plants that are harvested and delivered to them, as opposed to the food they gather independently through foraging. Any green plant or crop meant for animal feeding for supply of nutrients and bulk.
Forage crop: A crop of cultivated vegetation or portions of plants, excluding detached grains, that is grown specifically for grazing or harvesting to serve as animal feed. Forage and roughage these two terms are used interchangeably. Forages include hay, straw, silage and pasture while roughage include rice husk, groundnut shells.
Forage crops: It denotes the wild as well as cultivated green plants used for feeding of domestic animals like cattle, buffaloes, goat, sheep, horses, etc.
Forage: Forage includes consumable plant materials, including grasses, legumes, herbs and shrubs, as well as hays and silages. These materials are either grazed or ingested by livestock to meet their nutritional needs and dietary requirements within agricultural ecosystems.
Germ: It is the embryo of any seed. eg. Wheat germ meal (25% CP and 7% EE)
Gluten: When flour is washed to remove starch, a tough, viscid nitrogenous substance remains which is known as gluten. eg. Corn gluten.
Herbage: Herbage denotes the various plants, grasses, or vegetation that are specifically designated for the nourishment of livestock. This term generally encompasses the softer, green portions of plants that are appropriate for animal grazing.

Introduction
Background information on the study area and research objectives. Methodology: Description of the data collection and analysis methods. Results: Presentation of the survey findings, including tables, figures, and maps.
Discussion: Interpretation of the findings and their implications. Conclusions and recommendations: Summary of the key conclusions and recommendations for policy and development interventions.
Example Questions for a Farming Systems Survey General Household Information
What is the size of your household?
What is the highest level of education attained by the household head?
What is the primary occupation of the household head?
Land Use
How much lands do you own/rent/cultivate?
What crops did you grow on your land in the last year?
What is the area allocated to each crop?
Crop Production
What were your yields for each crop?
What inputs did you use (fertilizers, pesticides, seeds)?
What were your costs of production for each crop?