eChapters

Common name    :    English- Royal jasmin         
        Hindi- Chameli
        Odia- Niali/Banamali

Family    :    Oleaceae

Habit & Distribution 
It is a shrub (Fig. 55 a), commonly found in forests and distributed in Central and Southern India.

General Characters
The plant is nearly erect, not twining or climbing. Branchlets are hairy. Leaves are simple, opposite, variable in size up to 18 cm long and 10 cm broad with long pointed end. Flowers are white, fragrant, three forked clusters with flowers stalk of 5 mm long. Berry is mostly simple, 1-1.5 cm long, ellipsoid and black when ripe. The plant flowers during March-May and bears fruits during June-July.

Common name    :    English- Bellyache bush         
        Hindi- Ratanjoti 
        Odia- Baigoba/Baigewa

Family    :    Euphorbiaceae

Habit & Distribution
It is a shrub (Fig. 56 a), very commonly found in waste ground, village hedges, roadsides and scrub forests. The plant is cultivated and naturalized in several parts of India.

General Characters
The plant is a small dark colored glandular hairy shrub, 0.8-1.8 m in height. The leaves are 6-12 cm in diameter, palmatly 3-5 lobed, entire with 3-5 cm long petiole. Flowers are red with yellow centre. The petioles and stipules have glandular hairs. It flowers and bears fruits during July-October.

Common name    :    English- Peregrina/Spicy jatropha
     
Family    :    Euphorbiaceae

Habit & Distribution
The plant is a shrub, usually planted in gardens.

General Characters
It is a small erect and branched shrub (Fig. 57 a). The leaves are entire, elliptic-oval, may be fiddle shaped with 7 inches long. The flowers are red and pink and about 2.5 cm across and borne in many flowered clusters at branch end. Fruit is rounded-trigonous. The plant bears flowers and fruits in most parts of the year.

Common name    :    Odia- Laoo
        English-Calbash     
        Hindi- Lauki

Family    :    Cucurbitaceae

Habit & Distribution
The plant is a climber (Fig. 58 a), commonly cultivated and distributed throughout India.

General Characters
It is an annual vigorous herb, running or climbing vine with large leaves and with lush appearance. Leaves are simple, 17-20 cm diameter, short and softly hairy with kidney or heart shaped outlines. Flowers are white, up to 4 inches in diameter with spreading petals. Fruits are of various shapes, in different varieties, like bottole or dumbbell shaped, rounded or elongated. The plant flowers during July-January and bears fruits during cold season.

Common name    :    English- Wild sage 
        Hindi- Raimuniya 
        Odia- Naguari

Family    :    Verbenaceae
 
Habit & Distribution 
It is a shrub (Fig. 59 a), commonly found in roadsides, wasteland, damp site etc. It is distributed throughout India.

General Characters
The plant is an evergreen shrub grows up to 6 ft height and may spread 8 ft in width. The leaves are ovate-oblong, about 2-5 inches long with rounded tooth edges and a textured surface. Stem and leaves surfaces are covered with rough hairs and emit an unpleasant aroma when crushed. Flowers usually white-pink or orange-yellow in colour and are held in clusters that are typically 1-2 inches across. Fruits are small, globose, fleshy, purplish black berries after ripe. The plant bears flowers and fruits in all round the year.

Common name    :    English- Angled luffa
        Hindi- Karvitori
        Odia- Pita taradi

Family    :    Cucurbitaceae

Habit & Distribution 
The plant is a climber (Fig. 60 a), widely cultivated and also found in wild. It is cultivated throughout India.

General Characters
It is an annual climber with smooth and angled stem. The leaves are 5-7 lobed or angled, 7.5-15 cm across and covered with short hairs. Flowers are yellow in colour with male and female in the same axil. The fruits are ribbed and cylindricaly shaped and 1-2 feet in length. The plant bears flowers and fruits during August-November.

Common name    :    English- Mango
        Hindi- Aam
        Odia- Amba 
            
Family    :    Anacardiaceae

Habit & Distribution
It is a tree (Fig. 61 a) grows wild in valleys and widely cultivated throughout tropical India.

General Characters
The plant is a large, erect and ever green tree gowing up to 30-80 ft in height with a broad and rounded canopy. The leaves are variable in size and shape, usually lanceolate, entire, acute to acuminate with 10-20 cm in size. The flowers are greenish-yellow, small and polygamous with 5 lobed calyx which are ovate-oblong or elliptic in shape and remain spreading. There is a great variation in the size, colour and flavour of the fruits. They may be nearly round, oval, ovoid-oblong or somewhat kidney shaped and usually yellow in colour when ripe. The plant bears flowers during January-March and fruits during April-May.

Common name    :    English- Tiger’s claw/Devil’s claw
        Hindi- Ulat kanta
        Odia- Bagha nakhi

Family    :    Martyniaceae

Habit & Distribution
The plant is a herb (Fig. 62 a), commonly occur in roadsides, waste lands, and also naturalized. It is widely distributed in India.

General Characters
It is an erect, often branched herb that grows up to 2 m in height. Leaves are kidney shaped to circular, mostly 6-15 cm wide, both surfaces are equally hairy, margins with shallow lobes and leaf stalk is 9-14 cm long. Flowers are bell shaped purplish white with dark purple markings. Fruit is capsule, more or less ovoid, 2 valved, with the style splitting into 2 curved, lignified and spiny processes with curved claw of about 1 cm. The plant bears flowers and fruits during August-January.

Common name    :    English- Touch me not/sensitive plant
        Hindi- Lajwanti
        Odia- Lajakuli 
            
Family    :    Mimosaceae

Habit & Distribution
The plant is a common weed mostly found in roadsides, waste places, damp sites, agricultural lands etc. It is widely distributed throughout the better parts of India. (Fig. 63 a)

General Characters
It is a small prostrate or ascending herb with prickly stems and grows up to a height of 50 cm with a spread of 30 cm. The leaves are bipinnate, fern like and pale green, closing when disturbed. The flowers are pale pink or purple in colour, round to ovoid heads (8-10 mm in diameter) and the flower heads arise from the leaf axils. The plant bears flowers and fruits during August-May.

Common name    :    English- Spanish cherry
        Hindi- Maulsari
        Odia- Baula
        
Family    :    Sapotaceae 

Habit & Distribution
The plant is a small tree (Fig. 64 a), frequently planted elsewhere also in gardens. It is distributed throughout India.

General Characters
It is a small tree with small shiny thick narrow, pointed leaves, straight trunk and spreading branches. The leaves are elliptic or oblong, 6.2-10 cm long. Flowers are small star shaped, white, yellowish white in color with a crown rising from the centre. The fragrance of flowers is very graciously scented. The fruit turns yellow-orange when ripens and are eaten fresh. The plant flowers during April-May and bears fruits during August-September.

Common name    :    English - Banana
        Hindi - Kela
        Odia - Kadali

Family    :    Musaceae

Habit & Distribution
The plant is a large herb (Fig. 65 a), indigenous to Odisha, Bihar and Eastern Himalayas. The plant is cultivated throughout India.

General Characters
Banana is a tropical small size tree, with large leaves with overlapping bases from the trunk. The leaves are oblong and 1.2-1.5 m in length. The stem reaches a height of about 10-30 feet. Flower develop from the centre of crown. Only female flowers develop into a banana fruit that vary in length from 4 to12 inches. Each banana plant bears fruits only once. The plant bears flowers and fruits in most parts of the year.

Common name    :    English- Bur flower
        Hindi- Kadamb
        Odia- Kadamba

Family    :    Rubiaceae
 
Habit & Distribution
It is a tree (Fig. 66 a), seen growing widely in deep moist, alluvial sites and often in forests along river banks. It is widely distributed throughout India.

General Characters
The plant is a large straight deciduous tree that reaches to 45 m height. The leaves are large simple, elliptic-oblong, entire and 13-32 cm in length. Flowers are orange colored, small, in dense, globose heads that appear like solid, hairy orange balls. The fruits are small capsules, packed closely together. It bears flowers on May-July and fruits during August-October.

Common name    :    English- Shoo-fly plant
        Hindi- Popti

Family    :    Solanaceae
 
Habit & Distribution
The plant is a herb (Fig. 67 a), commonly found in fallow land, naturalized in waste places and near dwellings. It is distributed throughout India.

General Characters
It s an erect annual plant reaches up to 3-8 feet in height and are about half as wide. The leaves are large, alternate, reaching up to 1 feet long and somewhat resembles Datura leaves. Flowers are pale blue or blue purple with white centre. Fruits are berry, brown or yellow when matures, up to 2 cm in diameter. The plant flowers and bears fruits during October-February.

Common name    :    English- Water lily
        Hindi- Kanval
        Odia- Kain

Family    :    Nymphaeaceae
 
Habit & Distribution 
The plant (Fig. 68 a) is an aquatic perennial herb, commonly found in lakes and ponds. It is distributed throughout the warmer parts of India.

General Characters
It is an aquatic plant having erect perennial root stocks that anchor it to the mud in the bottom of the water bodies. Leaves vary from being elliptic-oval to almost circular 15-26 cm across, fine hairs on upper side and always remain at floating stage. Flowers are mostly white, occasionally pink or red reaching up to 15 cm in diameter. The plant flowers and bears fruits throughout the year.

Common name    :    English- Sage Leaved Alangium
        Hindi- Ankol
        Odia- Ankula/Dhalanga
Family    :    Cornaceae
Habit & Distribution 
The plant is a tree (Fig. 69 a), commonly found in dry regions in plains and low hills and also found on roadsides. The plant is widely distributed throughout India.
General Characters
The plant is a tall thorny tree native to India. It grows to a height of about 3 to 10 meters. The bark is ash colored, rough and faintly fissured. The leaves are elliptic oblong or elliptic lanceolate. The flowers are greenish white, fascicled, and axillary. The berries are ovoid, ellipsoid, glabrous, smooth and violet to purple in colour. The plant flowers and bears fruits during February -June.

Common name    :    English-Rice
        Hindi-Chawal
        Odia-Dhana
    
Family    :    Poaceae

Habit & Distribution 
The plant (Fig. 70 a) is a annual herb, and several varieties of this plant are largely cultivated all over the world, especially in Asian countries.

General Characters
It is a semi aquatic monocot plant. The plant grows up to 3-5 ft in height. It has long, slender leaves, 50-100 cm long and 2-2.5 cm broad. Flowers are produced in branches arching to pendulous inflorescence 30-50 long. The edible seed is a grain, 0.5-1.2 cm long and 2-3 mm thick. The plant flowers and bear fruits during September-January and also in April-May.

Common name    :    English- Kewda/Screw pine
        Hindi- Gagan dhul
        Odia- Kia

Family    :    Pandanaceae
 
Habit & Distribution 
It is a shrub (Fig. 71 a), wild in deltaic swamps of Mahanadi and other sandy coastal areas. Seen both in wild and cultivated in India.

General Characters
It is a bushy shrub, reaches up to 3-4 m in height. The leaves are closely spiral, spiny and leathery with fragrance. Flowers are pedicellate with stamens spirally arranged on the floral axis. Flowers have a sweet and perfumed odor.

Common name    :    English-Yellow flamebouyant
        Hindi- Peela gulmohar 
        Odia- Radhachuda

Family    :    Fabaceae

Habit & Distribution
It is a tree (Fig. 72 a), frequently planted in gardens, road sides etc. and widely distributed throughout India.

General Characters
The plant is a deciduous tree growing up to 15-25 m height with a trunk diameter of about 1m. The leaves are bipinnate, 30-60 cm long, with 16-20 pinnae, each pinna with 20-40 oval leaflets. The flowers are yellow, 2.5-4 cm diameter, produced in large compound racemes up to 5-10 cm long and 2.5 cm broad, red at first, ripening black and contain 1-4 seeds. The plant flowers during March-May and bears fruits during April-December.

Common name    :    English- Date palm 
        Hindi- Khajur
        Odia- Khajuri

Family    :    Arecaceae
 
Habit & Distribution 
The plant is a tree (Fig. 73 a). It is commonly, wild or cultivated throughout India. It thrives from the plains to the coast in low-laying waste lands, scrub forest and water logged areas.

General Characters
It is a moderate sized dioecious tree which grows up to 4-10 m. in height and 30 cm diameter with a large crown and rough trunk covered with persistent leaf bases. The leaves are 3 m. long, gently recurved on 1 m petioles with spines near the base. The leaf crown grows to 5 m wide and 7-10 m tall containing up to 100 leaves. The inflorescence grows to 1 m with white flowers. The single seeded fruit ripens to orange-yellow. The plant flowers and bears fruits during May-October.

Common name    :    English- Wild leadwort
        Hindi- Chitrak 
        Odia- Ogni 

Family    :    Plumbaginaceae 

Habit & Distribution
The plant is a shrub (Fig. 74 a), frequent in open places, scrub forests and among bushes. It is widely distributed throughout India.

Gerneral Characters
The plant is an evergreen shrub that reaches about 6 feet in native. The leaves are dark green, spreading and ovate in shape. Flowers are white, terminal, often panicled and grow as dense racemes. Individual flowers are up to ½ inch across. The plant flowers and bears fruits during September-April.

Common name    :    English- False Asoka 
        Hindi- Ashok 
        Odia- Debadaru

Family    :    Annonaceae
 
Habit & Distribution 
The plant (Fig. 75 a) is usually planted in gardens, roadside avenues and also cultivated throughout India.

General characters
The plant is a tall evergreen tree having slender and glabrous branches, growing up to a height of 25 feet. The leaves are narrowly lanceolate, glossy green, long with attractive wavy edges. Flowers are yellowish-green, star like structures that give the tree a peculiar hazy appearance. Seeds are smooth and shining. The plant flowers in March-April and bears fruits during July-August.

Common name    :    Shaving brush tree

Family    :    Malvaceae

Habit & Distribution 
The plant is a large tree (Fig. 76 a), usually seen in open forests often scattered through fields and over plains, besides on open rocky hillsides. It is distributed throughout Indian.

General characters
It is large deciduous tree, which grows up to 30-40 feet in height. The leaves at first are bright red turning fine green as they mature. Flowers are having silky rose-pink stamens topped with yellow pollen. The wood is interesting as well, showing strippings of greens, yellows, brown and white. The plant flowers during October-February.

        Odia- Jada/Gab

Common name    :    English- Castor bean
        Hindi- Arandi 
        Odia- Jada/Gab
        
Family    :    Euphorbiaceae
 
Habit & Distribution
The plant is a shrub or small tree (Fig. 77 a), often found in wastelands, fields, gardens and near villages. Also cultivated as a cash crop. It is widely distributed throughout the dry parts of India.
 
General Characters
The plant is a fast growing, sucking perennial tree that reaches the size up to 12 m. The leaves are 15-45 cm long, stalked, alternate and palmate with 5-12 deep lobes. The flowers are borne in terminal panicle like inflorescences of green or shades of red monoecious flowers without petals. The fruit is spiny, greenish capsule containing large and oval bean like seeds. The plant flowers and bears fruits during most parts of the year.

Common name    :    English- Rose
        Hindi-Gulab
        Odia- Golap

Family    :    Rosaceae
 
Habit & Distribution 
It is a shrub (Fig. 78 a), commonly planted in gardens and also cultivated.

General Characters
The plant is a woody, perennial shrub. The leaves are borne alternately on the stem. In most species, they are 5-15 cms long, elliptic-lanceolate, pinnate with 3-11 leaflets. Flowers are usually white or pink, though in a species yellow or red with 5 cm across. The aggregate fruit of the rose is a berry like structure called a rosehip. The plant flowers during February-March.

Common name    :    English- Fever root
        Hindi- Ruwel

Family    :    Acanthaceae
 
Habit & Distribution
It is a herb (fig. 79 a), often found in wastelands, cultivated land, waysides etc. sometimes in gardens also. The plant is widely naturalized in India.

General Characters
The plant is a tropical perennial herb, growing up to a height of 6.5 inches with hairy stem. The leaves are simple, opposite and elliptic-obovate with 4.10-1.8-4 cm in size. Flowers are blue or violet with 3-4 cm in long. The ripe fruits in a pod carry 7-8 seeds each in it. The plant flowers and bears fruits during June-February.

Common name    :    English- Sugarcane
        Hindi- Ganna
        Odia- Akho

Family    :    Poaceae

Habit & Distribution 
It is a tall herb (Fig. 80 a), widely cultivated in Odisha and also throughout the hotter parts of India.

General Characters
The plant is a giant grass. The stem is erect, jointed, 3-5 m tall, 2-3 cm thick with plenty of juice. Leaves are elongate, rigid, mostly 4-6 cm wide, with a very thick midrib. The flowers are white, appear in plume like panicles, 20-60 cm long. The plant flowers and bears fruits during November-January.

Common name    :    English- Tropical soda apple
        Odia- Denga bheji/Bheji baigana

Family    :    Solanaceae

Habit & Distribution
It is a perennial shrub (Fig. 81 a), is commonly found in grassland, thickets and disturbed places such as roadsides and river banks.

General Characters
The plant is an erect perennial shrub, reaches up to 50-150 cm high with shortly pubescent stems and branches with recurved prickles up to 5 mm long. The leaves are broadly ovate up to 20 cm long and 15 cm wide, generally dark green in colour, and glossy above. The flowers are white, 1.5 cm across arranged in clusters. The fruit is a globose berry, mottled green when young and yellow at maturity, with 2-3 cm across. The plant flowers and bears fruits throughout the year.

Common name    :    English- Marigold
        Hindi- Genda 
        Odia- Gendu

Family    :    Asteraceae

Habit & Distribution
It is a herb (Fig. 82 a) commonly cultivated in gardens. It is a very popular flowering plant commonly found in India and other countries.

General Characters
The plant is a very popular aromatic annual herb with 50-100 cm in height. The leaves are pinnately divided, in to oblong or lanceolate. Flowers are yellow, orange in colour, and large head with 3-5 inches across. The plant flowers mainly during cold season.

Common name    :    English- Tamarind
        Hindi- Imli 
        Odia- Tentuli

Family    :    Fabaceae

Habit & Distribution 
The plant is a large tree (Fig. 83 a), fairly common, planted or self sown. It is widely distributed throughout India, also cultivated and self-sown.

General Characters
It is a large tree which grows up to 30-50 m height with spreading crown up to 12 m in diameter. The leaves are up to 5 cm long and composed of numerous small leaflets. Leaflets are 10-20 pairs, small and close. The flowers are about 1 cm across, pale yellow with purple or red veins. Fruits are brown, short haired, sausage like, contain an acidic pulp that surrounds the seeds, extremely sour. The plant flowers during April-June and bears fruits during December-March.

Common name    :    English- Teak
        Hindi- Sagun
        Odia- Sagwan 

Family    :    Verbenaceae

Habit & Distribution 
The plant is a tree (Fig. 84 a), naturally confined to south-western part of Orissa, also widely planted all over the state. The plant commonly distributed in central India to Orissa, also widely planted.

General Characters
It is a large deciduous and very popular timber tree. Leaves of the tree are large, opposite with 30-60 cm long and 15-30 cm broad. The flowers appear in large numbers in lax clusters at the end of branches with white colour. The fruit is about 15 mm across, spongy and enclosed in persistent calyx. The plant flowers during July-August and bears fruit during December-April. 

Common name    :    English- Indian Tinospora
        Hindi- Gulbel
        Odia- Gulochi

Family    :    Menispermaceae
 
Habit & Distribution
It is a shrub/climber (Fig. 85 a), frequently found in forests and widely distributed throught tropical India.

General Characters
The plant is a climber, with stems about 5 cm diameters with light grey and papery bark. The leaves are about 7.5-14 cm long, broadly ovate or orbicular, deeply heart shaped at the base. Flowers are racemes which are 7-14 cm in long, greenish yellow in colour and arranged in 3+3 sepals in 2 layers, the outer one are small, the inner one are large. Fruits are red, globose to subglobose with 6-8 mm across. The plant flowers during August-December and bears fruits during March-May.

Common name    :    English- False white teak
        Hindi- Pindar
        Odia- Jandakhai

Family    :    Euphorbiaceae
 
Habit & Distribution 
The plant is a tree (Fig. 86 a), commonly found along riverbanks, evergreen and semi-evergreen forests. It is distributed throughout India.

General Characters
It is a large deciduous tree, growing up to 10-20 m tall, with a smooth grey bark. The leaves are oppositely arranged ovate, 7-17 cm long and are heart- shaped at the base and have tapering tips. Leaf-stalks are 3-7 cm long. Flowers are small and greenish. Male flowers are borne in 7-19 cm long racemes and are carried on slender stalks. Female flowers are borne singly on long stalks. Fruit is round, with 2-4 compartments, 2-4 cm in diameter, smooth or hairy, exocarp thick and fleshy. The plant flowers and bears fruits during December-March.

Common name    :    English- Coat buttons
        Hindi- Khal-Muriya
        Odia- Bisalya karani

Family    :    Asteraceae
 
Habit & Distribution
The plant is a herb (Fig. 87 a), usually found in dry locations, especially sandy and rocky sites like roadsides, railways, dunes and waste places. It is widely distributed throughout India.
 
General Characters
The plant is a perennial herb that stands about 30-60 cm in height and has slightly hairy stem. The leaves are ovate or lanceolate with toothed edges. Flowers are small, creamy or white in colour having 5 petals that are notched in the outer edges. The centre of the flower is yellow. The plant flowers and bears fruits all the year round.

Common name    :    English- Burr Bush
        Hindi- Chikti
        Odia- Badya chana pata/tatatatia

Family    :    Tiliaceae

Habit & Distribution
The plant is a herb (Fig. 88 a), fairly common weed, distributed throughout tropical and subtropical India.

General Characters
It is an erect woody herb, grows up to 30-90 cm. leaves are simple, alternate, broadly ovate to sub orbicular. Flowers are yellow, small and clustered on leaf axils. Fruit is a subglobose and about 3-4 mm in diameter, covered with 75-100 hooked spines of 1.0 to 1.5 mm long. The plant flowers and bears fruits during July-January.

Common name    :    English- Rangoon creeper
        Hindi- Madhumalti
        Odia- Madhumalati

Family    :    Combretaceae
 
Habit & Distribution
It is a climbing shrub (Fig. 89 a), cultivated widely in gardens and distributed throughout India.

General Characters
The plant is a twining climber blooming profusely throughout summer and can reach up to 70 feet in tropical climate. The leaves are elliptic-oblong and 7-15 cm long. Flowers are scented, pink-white to reddish-white in colour and grow in pendent racemes with a very fast rate. The plant flowers and bears fruits in most parts of the year.

Common name    :    English- Common Cocklebur
        Hindi- Chhota dhatura/Ghagra
        Odia- Mendhaguli

Family    :    Asteraceae

Habit & Distribution
The plant is a herb (Fig. 90 a), found in cultivated lands, coastal dunes, water resources, roadsides, waste places and field edges. It is distributed throughout India.

General Characters
The plant has large and broad leaves, light and bright green in colour in an alternate pattern with irregular lobes. Stem turns maroon to black when mature, with hairy appearance. The flowers are white or green, numerous and covered with hooked bristles. The fruit is obovoid, 1.5-2.5 cm long and covered with hooked spines of 2-4 mm long. The plant flowers and bears fruits during August-September.

Kaolinite: An aluminosilicate mineral of the 1.1 crystal lattice group.

Ketchup: Strained concentrated extract of fruit/vegetable which is having spiced vinegar.

Keystone species: i) A species that other species depend upon for survival. ii) A species whose impacts on its community or ecosystem are large, and much larger than would be expected from its abundance. iii) A keystone species is one which has a disproportionately large impact on its ecosystem, and its presence affects many other organisms by helping determine the types and numbers of other species in the community. If a keystone species is removed the delicate balance of an ecosystem would be dramatically changed, and the ecosystem itself could collapse. Important pollinators, such as hummingbirds, bats or butterflies, can be keystone species, as so many other species are reliant on them for survival. Predators such as Jaguar, are often keystone species. Jaguars are present in very small numbers in Central and South America, but they play a critical role in keeping populations of other mammals in check. Identifying and protecting keystone species is important for the long term survival of an ecosystem.

Qine: A character gradient. A gradual change in one or more characters between adjacent parts of a population. Such variation in a character is called “clinal variation.” See Ecotype; Race.

Quadrat: i) An ecological sampling unit of any kind. ii) A small field study unit or sample area, usually a square meter or a milliacre (1/1000th acre) in size, established for the purpose of detailed observation.

Quadrangle: A standard map size and scale used by the U.S. Geological Survey (TWS).

Quadrat, denuded: A quadrat from which the vegetation has been completely removed at least once.

Ultra freezing: Cryopreservation of seeds immersed in liquid nitrogen (LN₂) at a very low temperature, -196^ºC, can be used for many seeds provided the moisture content is relatively low, about 8 to 15 percent and the seeds are in sealed containers.

Unclassed forest: Forest land owned by Government but not constituted in to a reserved, village or protected forest.
 
Under bark: Measurement of the diameter or circumference of a trunk or branch made with the bark removed. See also Over bark.

Zero energy cool chamber : Zero energy cool chamber storage significantly delays the rate of increase in physiological loss of weight (PLW) of the fruits stored in cool chamber 30% (mango) to 70% (banana) lower than that of the fruits stored in ambient conditions. Cool chamber storage extended the storage life of mango by 3 to 6 days and that of banana by 5 to 8 days over those in ambient conditions.

Apricot is commonly known as Armenian plum. Its scientific name Prunus armeniaca derives from the assumption that apricot was known in Armenia during ancient times and has been cultivated there for so long that it is often thought to be native of that place. The cultivated apricot has its origin in North-Eastern China, whereas wild apricot, popularly known as ‘Zardalu’, appears to be indigenous to India. Generally, there are two types of apricot, namely, sweet kernel type and bitter kernel type.

Bael is commonly known as Bengal quince, Indian quince, golden apple, holy fruit, stone apple and bel. It is more prized for its medicinal virtues than its edible quality.  The deciduous tree with trifoliate aromatic leaves is traditionally used as sacred offering to ‘Lord Shiva’. Fruit is a hard-shelled berry and very well-known for its medicinal properties due to marmelosin content. The ripe fruit is tonic, restorative, laxative and good for heart and brain. The pulp is often processed as nectar or squash. A popular drink called “Sherbet” in India is made by beating the seeded pulp together with milk and sugar. A beverage is also made by combining bael fruit pulp with that of tamarind. These drinks are consumed perhaps less as food or refreshment than for their medicinal effects. For medicinal use, the young fruits, while still tender, are commonly sliced horizontally and sun-dried and sold in local markets. The fruit, roots and leaves have antibiotic activity. The root, leaves and bark are used in treating snakebites.

Ber is most commonly found in the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. Originally native to India, it is now widely naturalized in tropical region from Africa to Afghanistan, China, Malaysia, Australia and in some Pacific regions. The major production regions for Indian jujube are the arid and semi arid regions of India. It is also known as ‘King of Arid Fruits’ and ‘Poor Man’s Fruit’. In Philippines it is called manzana or manzanita (“apple” or “little apple”). Fully ripe fruits are less crisp and somewhat mealy; overripe fruits are wrinkled, the flesh buff-coloured, soft, spongy and musky. 

The breadfruit is believed to be native to New Guinea. It is grown throughout the tropics. Breadfruit is a staple food in many tropical regions. Raw breadfruit has a very light fragrant taste that is somewhat like a guava, but not as sweet. The texture of raw breadfruit is rather tough and rubbery. It is used more as a vegetable than as a fruit. It can be eaten ripe as a fruit or under-ripe as a vegetable. Soft or overripe breadfruit is best for making chips and biscuits. The dried fruit can be made into flour. Its flour is much richer than wheat flour in lysine and other essential amino acids. Breadfruit is high in calories and contains a good amount of vitamin C and potassium with smaller amounts of calcium, iron and magnesium. The wood is yellowish or yellow grey with dark markings or orange speckles; light in weight; not very hard but strong, elastic and termite resistant and is used for construction and furniture. Fiber from the bark is highly durable and is used for clothing in Malaysia.

Carambola or starfruit is native to Indonesia. The fruit has ridges running down its sides (usually five) which in cross-section resembles a star, hence its also known as starfruit. It has a waxy, golden yellow to green coloured skin with a complicated flavour combination that includes plums, pineapples and lemons. Carambola consists of two main types of varieties viz.  sour and sweet. The sour types contain as much as 1 per cent acid and the sweet types have low acid (0.4 per cent) content with 5 per cent sugars.

The English name of cashewnut derives from the Portuguese name for the fruit of the cashew tree, Caju. It is native to the coastal areas of north-eastern Brazil. It was introduced in Goa by the Portuguese in the 16th century mainly to control soil erosion and to use in afforestation programmes but now it has become an important cash crop of Goa. The fruit of the cashew tree is an oval or pear-shaped accessory fruit known as ‘cashew apple’ sometimes called a pseudocarp or false fruit which develops from the receptacle of the cashew flower.  The cashew nut is a popular snack with a rich flavour that is often eaten on its own, lightly salted or sugared. Cashew nuts are also sold covered in chocolate. In Goa, the cashew apple is mashed and juice is extracted and kept for fermentation to prepare beverage called fenny. 

Hazelnut is also known as a cob nut or filbert nut according to species. The hazelnut was native to the Black Sea coast long before our era, where it was found growing wild. Turkey is one of the few countries in the world having a favourable climate for hazelnut production. Hazelnuts are extensively used in confectionery to make praline and also used in combination with chocolate for chocolate truffles and products such as Nutella. Hazelnut oil recovered from hazelnuts is strongly flavoured and used as cooking oil. Hazelnuts are a good source of energy with 60.5 per cent fat content. Hazelnuts have been ranked as one of the most nutritious nuts because they supply significant amounts of protein and fiber, vitamin E and B, minerals like iron, zinc, calcium, magnesium and potassium. 

Jackfruit is believed to be indigenous to the rain forests of the Western Ghats of India and the name “Jack fruit” is derived from the Portuguese word Jaca, which in turn, is derived from the Malayalam language term, Chakka. The jackfruit has played a significant role in Indian agriculture for centuries. Archeological findings in India have revealed that jackfruit was cultivated in India 3000 to 6000 years ago. During the season, each tree bears as many as 250 large fruits, supposed to be the largest tree-borne fruit in the world. The fruit varies widely in size, weigh from 3 to 30 kg and has oblong or round shape measuring 10 cm to 60 cm in length and above 25 to 75 cm in diameter. 

Jamun is tall evergreen tree indigenous to India.  According to Hindu tradition, Rama subsisted on the fruit in the forest for 14 years during his exile from Ajodhya, because of this, many Hindus regard jamun as a ‘Fruit of the Gods’. It is known by different names in different regions of India: these names are java plum, black plum, jambul and Indian blackberry. Though the fruits of jamun are liked by all and sell at a good price, but it has still not grown as an orchard tree and is generally known as an avenue tree or as a wind break. Jamun is a hardy fruit plant which can be grown under adverse soil and climatic conditions. It is one of the hardiest fruit tree and best suited for wastelands. It is drought tolerant and at the same time can tolerate water stagnation as well as marshy wetlands. 

The olive is native to the Mediterranean region, tropical and central Asia and various parts of Africa. Historically, olive tree was symbol of ‘Peace and Goodwill’. Olive oil has long been considered sacred; it was used to anoint kings and athletes in ancient Greece. It was burnt in the sacred lamps of temples as well as being the “eternal flame” of the original Olympic Games. Olive oil produces many health benefits when used in cooking or when poured over salads. The use of olive oil can improve digestion and can benefit heart metabolism through its low content of cholesterol. Experts claim that olive oil consumption can cause a person to grow shiny hair, prevent dandruff, wrinkles, dry skin and acne, strengthen nails, stop muscle aching, lower blood pressure and cancel out the effects of alcohol. The nutritional value of olives also includes the high vitamin E content. Olives also have high amounts of polyphenols and flavonoids which also act as antioxidants. Apart from this olives are good source of iron, copper, and dietary fiber.