eChapters

India is a “Winter / Summer Home” for most of the Siberian birds such as Siberian Cranes, Greater Flamingo and Demoiselle Crane, also numerous species of birds from other regions of the world. These beautiful birds migrate to India every year during the winter and summer season for food, breeding and nesting. The migratory birds mainly arriving from Siberia and South East Asia move to the different wetland spots of the national parks/ wildlife sanctuaries etc. in India and are also seen in parts of the lakes and settling down in shallow or fresh water ponds. 

3.1. Introduction

Paper and paper-based packaging is the traditional form of packaging used for various food products due to its various advantageous characteristics. It is less expensive, flexible, lightweight, durable, recyclable and available in various shapes, sizes and colour to meet customer needs. Hence it occupies a vast market in food packaging from primary (i.e., packaging which is first used after manufacture) to secondary (i.e. processing aids of primary packages) packaging and the production of paper has doubled in the last three decades. In the year 2020, china was the leading producer for paper and paper based packaging followed by USA and Japan (Figure 1).

2.1 Simple Random Sampling

The simplest and common most method of sampling is simple random sampling. In this procedure, the sample is drawn unit by unit with equal probability of selection for each unit at each draw. It is sometimes referred to as unrestricted random sampling.

2.1.1 Definition

“A sampling procedure which gives equal chance to all possible samples each of size n which can be drawn from a population of size N, is called simple random sampling.”

Urban agriculture involves various aspects of growing plants and taking up other activities. Those include terrace gardening, vertical gardening, green walls, hydroponics, etc. Although several other types of garden present in urban areas, the gardens suitable for residental premises are discussed in chapter.

Terrace Garden

Terrace garden is generally established on a terrace or rooftop of a house having limited land space for gardening. This type of gardening is gaining momentum in the cities. These gardens can be created on different buildings like residential flats, individual houses, public buildings, commercial establishments and factories. The growth and development of the plants give immense pleasure to the garden owner. Plucking a fresh cucumber on the terrace provides a different pleasure, which is beyond the physical value of the fruit. The experience of consuming a fresh watermelon from own garden has unique satisfaction. As there is minimum or no space for growing plants in urban areas, the terrace can be transformed to an attractive garden. Irrespective of size of the terrace, it can be converted to a beautiful garden with proper planning. There are multiple ways for revamping the terrace depending on available time and resources.

Vegetables belonging to the family Brassicaceae (Syn: Cruciferae) are known as Cole crops. These are the most widely grown vegetables in temperate and sub-tropical zones. The word ‘Cole’ comes from abbreviation of word ‘caulis’ meaning stem. Cole crops are a group of highly differentiated plants originated from a wild plant Brassica oleracea var. oleracea (=B. sylvestris L.) commonly known as “Wild cliff cabbage” or “colewort”, through mutation, human selection or adaptation. Cole crops include cabbage, cauliflower, knol khol, Brussels sprouts, Chinese cabbage, sprouting broccoli, kale etc. of which cabbage and cauliflower are the most popular and widely grown.

Mediterranean region is the centre of origin of Cole crops. From there, it spread to Europe and other temperate and sub-tropical regions. Cabbage, knol khol and curly kale were the first known cultivated types. Cauliflower became widely known in the 18^th century and Brussels sprouts in 19^th century. In the thirties of 20^th century, sprouting broccoli started cultivation particularly in the USA.

Linnaeus in 1753 included all forms of Cole crops in one species, Brassica oleracea. Later the works of many, including Neuwhof (1969) resulted in putting them into different forms as given below:

B. oleracea var. capitata L. - Cabbage

As per United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), organic farming is defined as a system which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic inputs (such as fertilizers, pesticides, hormones, feed additives etc.) to a maximum extent and feasible rely upon crop rotations, crop residues, animal manure, off farm organic waste, mineral grade rock additives and biological system of nutrient mobilization and plant protection. FAO suggested that organic agriculture is a unique production management system which promotes and entrance agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity and this is accomplished by using on-farm agronomic, biological and mechanical methods is exclusion of all synthetic off-farm inputs.

10.2. Breeding Objectives 10.2.1. Tomato • To develop early , high yielding and consumer preference varieties / hybrids. • Large round fruit with adequate firmness and shelf-life, uniform fruit sizes shape, red colour and freedom from external blemishes or abnormalities for fresh market. • Large fruit size, high fruit quality and continuous production for home garden tomatoes. • Deep, uniformly red coloured tomatoes , pH below 4.4, high total soluble solid (4.5-7) and high alcohol solids (AIS) in processing tomatoes. • To evolve varieties / hybrid resistant to diseases like fusarium wilt, verticillum wilt, late blight, early blight, septoria leaf spot, anthracnose, bacterial wilt, bacterial canker and tomato leaf curl virus. • To develop varieties/ hybrids resistant to root-knot nematodes. • To breed varieties/ hybrids suitable for abiotic stresses like low Day (K10o C) and high temperatures (day 35+2o C) excess and moisture deficient, salt etc. • To develop varieties/ hybrids for prolonged storage and transportation

At the outset, I need to state that I am not a horticultural specialist and whatever horticulture knowledge have, is gained on the job and I am a plant genetic resources specialist with an interest in biodiversity and have worked across Asia. Today we will be mainly talking about tropical fruits and, in particular, tropical fruit tree genetic resources. If you look at tree fruits as a group, it includes a large number of species, unlike in field crops, e.g., rice, wheat, maize, etc., where just a few species are involved in each crop. Here we are talking about a group of species under each fruit tree. While talking about them, certain generalizations have to be made. Also, there are many unexploited species which are waiting to be discovered for human usage and exploitation, and there is hardly any genetic information available about them.

Nanomaterials have emerged as promising candidates for revolutionizing sensing and detection technologies, offering unprecedented capabilities in sensitivity, selectivity, and miniaturization. The current chapter provides a concise overview of recent advancements in the utilization of nanomaterials for sensing and detection applications. It encompasses a diverse range of nanomaterials, including nanoparticles, nanotubes, and nanowires, each exhibiting unique properties that enable enhanced performance in sensing applications. The integration of nanomaterials into sensing platforms has demonstrated remarkable progress in various fields, such as environmental monitoring, healthcare diagnostics & security applications.

Agroforestry is a land use system that involves two or more plant species at least one of which must be a woody perennial. When perennial woody and herbaceous components are grown together on the same piece of land their performance would largely depend on their ability to share various growth resources in a given environmental situation. Due to difference in growth pattern and resource requirement of the components in agroforestry situation, a close interactive relation is obvious. Thus, careful management practices for the components are required to establish a successful agroforestry system. The characteristics of the trees and crops, and their interactions, can be modified with good management practices in order to take advantage of the positive characteristics and minimize the effects of the negative ones. Effective and efficient agroforestry management may be divided into two groups; tree management and agricultural crop management.

Trees have been used in cropping systems since the beginning of agriculture. Throughout the world, at one period or another in its history, it has been the practice to cultivate tree species and agricultural crops in intimate combination. In the tropics, human beings underwent a transition from hunting/gathering to the use of domesticated plants and livestock. As a part of the process, they cut down trees, cleared the debris by burning and sowed crops in the ashenriched soil. It was the ‘slash-and-burn’ agriculture, a primary forerunner of the present-day agroforestry and a practice that might have originated in the Neolithic period, around 7000 BC. There are innumerable examples of traditional land-use practices involving combined production of trees and agricultural species on the same piece of land in many parts of the world. Trees were an integral part of these farming systems and they were deliberately retained on farmlands to support agriculture. These practices are now known as agroforestry. However, the ultimate objective of these practices was not tree production but food production.

3.1 Overview of pyrolysis technology

Pyrolysis is a process derived from the Ancient Greek words “pyro” meaning f ire and “lysis” meaning separation, which means separating by using heat or fire. This is a thermochemical conversion process that converts biomass into a useful intermediate liquid product, which can be further transformed into a hydrocarbon biofuel, oxygenated fuel additive, or substitute for petrochemicals. Pyrolysis is similar or overlapping with other thermochemical processes such as cracking, carbonization, torrefaction, destructive distillation, dry distillation, and thermolysis. It is not related to gasification, which involves chemical reactions with a gasification medium.

Even though the great Indian author Surpala mentioned in his epic ‘Vriksha ayurveda’ (Science of Tree growing) about the value of incorporation of earthworms in soil for better propagation of pomegranate plants in 10th century AD, but Sir Charles Darwin’s recognition to earthworms as ‘Farmer’s friends’ in 1837 in fact, inspired researchers throughout the world to study the role of earthworms in soil ecosystem.

Earthworms are defined as soft, bilaterally symmetrical, tubular segmented worms which contain clitella gland, prostomium lobe in front of mouth and anus at the posterior end. The entire body is divided externally into a series of distinct segments. Scientifically these terrestrial worms are classified under phylum ‘Annelida’ due to presence of annuli or ring segments and class ‘Oligochaeta’ due to presence of few setae or hair like structure on all segments except the first and last ones.

Definition of Disaster

A disaster can be defined as a sudden or catastrophic event that causes significant damage, destruction, and disruption to human life, property, or the environment. Disasters can be natural, such as earthquakes, hurricanes, floods, wildfires, or they can be human-made, including industrial accidents, terrorist attacks, or technological failures.

Disasters often result in the loss of lives, injuries, displacement of people, infrastructure damage, and the interruption of essential services like electricity, water, and communication systems. They can have long-lasting impacts on communities, economies, and the environment.

Governments, organizations, and communities implement disaster preparedness, response, and recovery strategies to mitigate the effects of disasters, protect lives and property, and facilitate the rebuilding and restoration of affected areas.

The main micro and macro nutrients associated with microgreens are Fe, Zn, K, Ca, N, P, S, Mn, Se and others. Microgreens are a fantastic source of biological phytochemicals, which can significantly improve both human health and disease. In addition to these mineral components, the key bioactive compounds including ascorbic acid, phylloquinone, tocopherol, beta-carotene, phenolic antioxidants, carotenoids, anthocyanins, glucosinolates and sugar content are said to be present in higher concentrations in microgreens. The numerous bioactive phytochemicals (Table 2) that are present in the various types of microgreens are covered in more detail in the ensuing subsections:

• General Consideration

 • Post-mortem examination of large animals

 • Post-mortem examination of poultry

 • Steps in post-mortem examination

 • Writing of post-mortem report

 • Collection, preservation and dispatch of specimens for laboratory

diagnosis

• Allergic Tests

 • Single intradermal test

 • Tuberculin test

 • Johnin test

 • Double intradermal test

 • Comparative test

• Mallein test

 • Immunofluorescence Techniques

 • Direct method

• Indirect method

 • Immunoperoxidase Techniques

 • Detection of antigen

The term “fish” most commonly refers to Agnatha (jawless fishes), Chondrichthyes (sharks and rays), Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fishes) and Actinopterygii (ray f inned fishes). Although the ichthyologist Regan (1910) defined a fish species as a product of interrelated communities with common “morphospecies”, in the early 20th century, it should be emphasized that the concept of species classification varied across scientists.

Aristotle (335-332 BC) provided the earliest classification of fish and described 117 Mediterranean fish species obtained from the Aegean Sea close to Greece.

Fishes use their sense organs to detect their bodies and their environment. Sense organs include the eyes, the lateral lines, the nostrils, the olfactory organs and the taste organs. Each of these sense organs is equipped with sensory nerve endings. Most fish possess highly developed sense organs to detect smell, sight, hearing, taste, touch, temperature, etc.

27.1 Olfaction in Fishes

27.1.1 Introduction

Introduction

Overview of the Chapter’s Focus on Agroecology and Soil Sustainability

The ecology and biodiversity of our globe are being threatened by human activity, notably unsustainable agriculture methods. This chapter explores the vital function of agroecology, the intersection of ecological and agricultural concepts, in promoting sustainable farming systems. Soil sustainability, essential for effective and resilient agrarian operations, is critical to this strategy. Here, we give an overview of these key terms and talk about the pressing need to switch to sustainable agriculture methods to preserve the  health of the soil, increase food security, and create adaptable environments.

1. Introduction to Water Resources in Agriculture

Water, the quintessential life force for agriculture, intricately intertwines its significance throughout the fabric of global farming practices.

1.1 Significance of Water in Agricultural Practices

1.1.1 Sustenance of Plant Life

• Beyond its role as a life sustainer, water emerges as the very essence that propels plant development. It acts as the vital catalyst for photosynthesis, the engine of plant growth. This intricate process is the heart of the plant’s ability to convert sunlight into energy, driving robust development from seed germination to harvest.

Introduction

Cucurbits, a versatile and economically significant group of plants within the Cucurbitaceae family, encompass a wide array of popular vegetables such as cucumbers, pumpkins, squash, zucchinis, and melons. These cucurbit crops are not only vital components of global diets but also key players in agriculture. Also, cucurbits are used as fibre source and for utensil preparations, decorations, and ceremonial and medicinal purposes (McGrath 2004). However, their productivity and quality are frequently compromised by a range of diseases. In this chapter, we embark on a comprehensive exploration of the diseases that afflict cucurbits, including their names, symptoms, causative agents, etiology, disease cycles, favourable conditions, and strategies for effective management.

Introduction

Food adulteration compromises quality of foods and causes human health hazards is a menace mankind had been facing since ages. Spice adulteration scandals in the year 2004, Horse gate scandal in Europe during 2013 are famous examples of food fraud. Various forms of food adulteration and cheating such as substitution of cheaper food components in place of original product, addition of non-permitted substances, and false claims by misbranding or mislabeling are prevalent from time immemorial (Spink et al 2019).

A. Non-thermal Processing

Non-thermal processing encompasses a diverse range of food preservation and treatment techniques that do not rely on heat as the primary means of achieving microbial inactivation or quality preservation. Unlike conventional thermal methods such as pasteurization and sterilization, which involve exposing food to elevated temperatures for a specified duration, non-thermal processing methods operate at or near ambient temperatures. These innovative technologies offer several advantages, including the preservation of sensory attributes, retention of nutritional quality, and minimization of detrimental effects on food texture and f lavour (fig 1).

3.1. Introduction

Rice is grown in varying geographical locations and climatic situations. Most of the rice area lies between the equator and 400 N latitude and between 700 and 1400 E longitude. It grows well from tropical to sub-tropical warm and temperate climatic regions up to 400 S and 500 N of the equator. However, the highest yields are obtained in the region between 300 and 450 N of the equator. The average yield generally increases as the countries are situated further away from the equator (Chatterjee and Maiti, 1985). In India, rice grows in regions from 80 N to 350 N latitudes under widely varying conditions of the land, rainfall, altitude and climatic conditions. It is grown at the sea level in river deltas as in parts of Kerala, as deepwater in states of West Bengal, Assam and Bihar; at high altitudes of 914 to 1524 m or even more as in Kashmir, and in the slopes of the Himalayas. A temperature range of 200 C to 37.70 C is required throughout the life period of rice crop.

8.1. Biofloc aquaculture

Among the innovations in the field of aquaculture, biofloc technology (BFT) has attracted great attention due to its ability to foster the goals of sustainable aquaculture (Khanjani et al., 2022a). If implemented correctly, BFT capitalizes on the existing organisms in water to significantly reduce water use and environmental impact and increase biosafety at farms (Avnimelech, 2012).

9.1. Introduction

Human dependence on natural processes for the goods and services provided by nature, especially food, fuel and fibre, has been a known fact. In recent times, the value of less tangible services, such as climate control, water f iltration, and soil fertility, as well as recreational and cultural services has been emphasized also. Ecosystem services underpin human existence, health, and prosperity. It has been beneficial to humans through the transformations of resources (or environmental assets, including land, water, vegetation, and the atmosphere) into a flow of essential goods and services like clean air, water, and food (Costanza et al., 1997). Ecosystem services are those functions of ecosystems- including agroecosystems that are useful to humans or supportive of human well-being (Kremen, 2005). Services provided by ecosystems receive little notice for their support to human civilization often leading to poor management of the ecosystems. Land use systems influence ecosystem functions, which determine the supply of ecosystem services. Land and water resources are under considerable pressure from the expansion of cultivated and residential lands. Diverse land use in agrarian landscapes not only fosters biodiversity, but also provides potential ecosystem services such as air cleaning by vegetation, natural water filtration by plant roots, natural pest suppression, soil conservation, nutrient retention, and crop pollination by insects, etc. Lowland floodplains or waterlogged land areas are generally more conscious of the benefits provided by ecosystem services. It is important to create awareness among the people on provisioning services provided by ecosystems, such as crops, biofuel, fresh water, natural medicine, wildlife, and several cultural services. Managing ecosystem services, which link human well-being to conservation outcomes, is essential for achieving the sustainable development goals (SDGs) of the United Nations (Zhang, 2017).

Introduction

Strategy is a critical aspect of any organization, as it helps to align resources, capabilities, and competencies to achieve the goals and objectives of the organization.

Strategic Management Process: The strategic management process com prises four essential stages: analysis, formulation, implementation, and evaluation. Each stage plays a crucial role in attaining desired outcomes and maintaining the organization's competitiveness.

Analysis Stage: During the analysis stage, the organization thoroughly examines its internal and external environments. The internal analysis assesses the organization's strengths and weaknesses, while the external analysis explores the opportunities and threats present in the market.

Formulation Stage: The formulation stage involves developing strategies to achieve the goals and objectives of the organization. This stage involves selecting the most appropriate strategy based on the results of the analysis.

1. Which period is known as the ‘operation flood era’?

  a) 1971 and 1996     b) 1978 and 1999

  c) 1969 and 1974    d) 1974 and 1978

 2. In which year Indian government launched ‘operation flood program’?

   a) 1970     b) 1950

 c) 1960   d) 1972

 3. Which is the largest milk producer in the world?

   a) China   b) Germany

 c) Russia   d) India

 4.  ‘White Revolution’ in concerned with .........

   a) Egg production   b) Meat production

 c) Grain production  d) Milk production

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the randomized block design (RBD), detailing its theoretical concept, layout, and a detailed segment on pooled ANOVA concepts. It explains the mathematical models for RBD and how to interpret the results from ANOVA tables in this context. The chapter also offers step-by-step guidance for analyzing RBD, Factorial RBD, and pooled RBD ANOVA using R.

Randomized Block Design

The RBD is a widely used experimental design in statistics and research, particularly when dealing with certain specific conditions:

• Homogeneity within blocks: RBD is ideal when there is inherent variability in the experimental units, but this variability can be grouped into homogenous blocks. Each block contains a complete set of treatments, and the blocks themselves account for the variability.

• Principles of experimental design: RBD adheres to the core principles of experimental design, namely randomization, replication, and local control. Randomization is used within blocks to assign treatments, ensuring that the comparison of treatments is fair.

• Replication across blocks: In RBD, each treatment is replicated across different blocks. This replication enhances the reliability and robustness of the experimental results.

• Managing uncontrolled variability: RBD is particularly effective in field experiments or situations where external variability (e.g., soil type, light conditions) cannot be completely controlled. By grouping similar units into blocks, RBD effectively reduces the impact of this uncontrolled variability on the treatment effects.

• Improvement in experimental accuracy: The use of blocks to organize the experimental units usually leads to a reduction in the error variance compared to CRD. This enhances the accuracy and precision of the experiment.

1.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION

There is a folk tale from India which is mentioned under relevant situations. This tale teaches how different perspectives lead to different points of view. The tale of the blind men and an elephant originated in the ancient India, from where it has been widely spread to different parts of the world. This famous ancient tale mentions about six blind men who had never come in contact with an elephant during their lifetime and who know and visualize what the elephant appear like by touching it and feeling. In the tale it is highlighted that every blind man touches a different part of the elephant's huge body, but only one part, such as the leg, ear, tail, body or the tusk. These blind men then go on to narrate about the elephant on the basis of their touch and feeling and their recount of the elephant varied widely from each other. They were told that elephants could trample forests, carry huge loads and is very big in size. The six blind men were taken to the elephant and asked how it look like (Fig.1.1). The first blind man reached out and touched the side of the huge animal. "An elephant is smooth and solid like a wall!" he declared. "It must be very strong and powerful." The second blind man put his hand on the elephant's trunk. "An elephant is like a giant snake," he said. The third blind man felt the elephant's pointed tusk. "I was right," he decided. "This creature is as sharp and deadly as a spear." The fourth blind man touched one of the elephant's big ear and announced "I believe an elephant is like a huge fan or may be a magic carpet that can fly over mountains and treetops". The fifth blind man touched one of the four legs. "What we have here," he said, "is pillar of a house." The sixth blind man gave a tug on the elephant's coarse tail. "Why, this is nothing more than a piece of old rope and it appeared to him dangerous, indeed”.

Results and discussion: concept Result is the outcome, consequences or conclusion of a problem, probe or experiment organized after a period of time. This conclusion can be one result, multiple results or no result as such. The length of time taken to find a result can vary from less than a second to many years. In this chapter, the result of the Research has been elaborated and also discussed later. The purpose of the discussion/revelation is to interpret and describe the significance of our findings in light of what was already known about the research problem being investigated, and to explain any new understanding or insights about the problem after we have taken the findings into consideration. The discussion will always connect to the introduction by way of the research questions or hypothesis we posed and the literature we reviewed, but it does not simply repeat or rearrange the introduction and the discussion always explain how our study has moved towards the research problem.

Different basic as well as advanced laboratory equipment need to be used in a laboratory while conducting experiments. Many of them like pH meter, laminar air-flow hood, viscometer, thermometer, magnetic stirrer, microwave ovens, incubators, sand-bath, water-bath, oil-bath, etc. are the basic and simple equipment which require to be used routinely while conducting experiments in a laboratory. However, basic knowledge of their operation, handling procedure, when to be used, how to be used, and more importantly what not to be done with it, etc. are essential for keeping them in serviceable condition as well as for the accuracy/precision in their operation. In this chapter, we will discuss about some of the routinely used laboratory equipment along, while some other sophisticated equipment will be discussed in other chapters.

pH Meter

A pH meter measures exactly the H+ concentration of a solution; thus indicates acidity or alkalinity of a solution with greater precision. Actually, it measures the difference in electrical potential between a pH electrode and a reference electrode, and display the results converted into the corresponding pH value. Electrode is the key part (rod-like structure, usually made of glass) of a pH meter, having a bulb at the bottom containing a sensor. The pH meters range from simple and inexpensive pen-like devices (portable/pocket pH meter) to complex and expensive laboratory instruments with computer interface (Figure 5.1).

Frequent calibration of a pH meter using the solutions of known pH (standard solution of pH 4.01, 7.00, 10.01, Figure 5.2), generally before each use, ensures the accuracy of the instrument. For very precise work the pH meter should be calibrated before each measurement. For normal use calibration should be performed at the beginning of each day. This is necessary because the glass electrode does not give a reproducible measurement over a longer period of time.

Introduction

The antibiotics are low molecular weight natural, semi-synthetic, or synthetic substance that kills or slows the growth of germs while causing little or no harm to the host is considered an antimicrobial (Walsh, 2000). Antibiotics are the type of medicine produced by some microorganisms that kill or slow the growth of other microorganisms. It includes any of a large group of chemical substances, as penicillin or streptomycin, produced by various microorganisms and fungi, having the capacity in dilute solutions to inhibit the growth of or to destroy bacteria and other microorganisms, used chiefly in the treatment of infectious diseases (De Vetten et al., 2003). However today, a large number of bacteria are resistant to various antibiotics. Antibiotic resistance occurs when a bacterium becomes able to survive and multiply despite the presence of an antibiotic that would normally control or kill it. In other words, the bacteria become “resistant” and continue to grow even at therapeutic levels of the antibiotic. While antibiotic resistance is a natural phenomenon, it is accelerated by the selective pressure exerted when an antibiotic is used. Bacteria that are naturally resistant to the antibiotic have a better chance of survival compared to those that are susceptible. As the susceptible bacteria are killed or inhibited, resistant strains are favored and continue to thrive (Holme et al., 2006). Some resistance arises without human influence, as bacteria can naturally produce antibiotics against other microorganisms, resulting in a low-level, natural selection for antibiotic resistance. However, the current surge in antibiotic resistant bacteria is largely attributed to the overuse and misuse of antibiotics. One of the main issues facing public health is antimicrobial resistance, particularly in developing nations where access to and use of medications are easier than in developed nations, leading to a disproportionately higher rate of inappropriate antibiotic use and higher resistance levels (Ganguly et al., 2011). Antimicrobial resistance will make it more difficult to control infections in the community and make health care services less effective (Bhatia et al., 2010). It is well known that India has one of the highest rates of infectious disease burdens in the world, and that the country’s high rates of malnutrition and inadequate sanitation make these circumstances worse (http://www. resistancestrategies.org/wpcontent/uploads/2011/03/Indiareport).

Introduction

Antimicrobials, viz. antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals and anthelmintics are substances widely used to prevent and treat infections in humans, fish & prawn, livestock animals, and crops. In a situation where microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, parasites or fungi become resistant to antimicrobial treatments to which they were previously susceptible, it is apprehended that antimicrobial resistance in the microbes has evolved. In fact, antibiotic resistant bacteria evade the effects of antibiotics and multiply in their own way leading to severe health consequences in human and animals. The menace is such that antimicrobial resistance (AMR) hinders treatment modalities targeted for infectious diseases. The hazards of antimicrobial resistance is frequently observed in various pathogenic and non-pathogenic organisms, viz. Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., Yersinia sp., E. coli serotype O157:H7, enterococci, Pasteurella sp., Actinobacillus sp. with varying severity (McEwen and Fedorka-Cray, 2002). Microorganisms that develop resistance to commonly used antimicrobials are referred to as superbugs. Globally it is a matter of great concern that it spreads rapidly and threatening the ability to treat common infectious diseases, resulting in prolonged illness, disability and death. Without any effective antimicrobial agent, treatment of infectious diseases, many medical procedures like cancer therapy, diabetes management, organ transplantation, and major surgery will not be possible. The microbes showing resistance to multiple antimicrobials are commonly known as multidrug resistance (MDR) organisms (Magiorakos et al., 2012).

Introduction

Seafood undergoes rapid spoilage after capture or harvest due to their highly perishable nature. Spoilage refers to any change that renders seafood unacceptable for human consumption. Spoilage occurs as a consequence of various microbial, biochemical and chemical breakdown processes. Spoilage leads to quality changes in seafood. Quality change refers to any change that occur after harvest due to unpredictable catch, uncontrolled harvest, inadequate handling, processing and storage facilities. The initial quality loss is mainly due to the post-mortem autolytic activity (enzymatic process) and chemical degradation process (lipid oxidation); and later by microbial degradation. The quality problems occur as a result of poor-quality raw material, ice and water, microbiological contamination, presence of heavy metals and other storage aspects during processing.

Processing of fish means preparing raw fish into a marketable form. Pre processing is done prior to final processing. Pre-processing is often done on board fishing vessel or in a shore based plant. It includes operation such as washing, sorting, grading, butchering, etc of the harvested fish. The butchering involves removal of non-edible portions such as viscera, head, tails and fins from fish. The yield of fish meat varies from 30 to 70% depending on the butchering process. Butchering process includes beheading, gutting, filleting, peeling, deveining, shucking, etc. The discarded portion of fish meat are fish wastes, often used for animal feed or for conversion to bioactive functional foods. Final processing of fish includes processes such as heating, freezing, drying, salting, marinading, irradiation, or addition of chemicals. The processed seafood is categorized into five major groups – chilled, frozen, canned, cured and other value-added products in this chapter.

F0 value: It is used to express F-value when z =10oC / 18oF and the temperature is 121.1oC. It is the number of minutes at a specific temperature (250oC) required to destroy or kill a stated number of microorganisms and has specific z-value. It is also called reference value.

Facing or lining board: The layer of the paper on which the flute is embedded is called facing or lining board (Plate 258).

Facultative anaerobic: Organisms that grow either with or without oxygen.

Facultative parasites: Facultative parasites can adapt to live on dead organic matter and often have a wide host range and can easily be cultured on artificial media. These organisms may be aerobic or anaerobic but under changed conditions, they changes to anaerobic or aerobic.

Falling rate period: It is that part of the drying process during which the drying rate varies with time and the instantaneous drying rate per unit surface or weight of dry material continuously decreases. Falling rate takes place when most of the moisture has been evaporated during constant rate period. The falling rate period during dehydration take place in the final stage of dehydration when the food commodities have large amount of free water available for evaporation. Here, rate of removal of the moisture from the food to the surrounding is continuously decreasing / falling per unit time.

Pineapple is a tropical plant with edible multiple fruit consisting of coalesced berries. It is named after pine cone due its resemblance with its structure. It is the most economically important plant in the family of Bromeliaceae. It is widely grown throughout the world for its dual-purpose use in the form of fresh fruit and many processed products. It is a tropical fruit having excellent taste, juiciness, aroma and flavour which is preferred by many people. It is also rich source of fibre, potassium and vitamin C, vitamin B1 and vitamin B6. One of the important constituents in the fruit is proteolytic enzyme bromelein which is known to have significant use in treating conditions like inflammation, sinusitis, arthritis and early recovery from surgery (Joy, 2010). Bromelein is a digestive enzyme also used as meat tenderizer. Pineapple is cultivated in an area of 106.22 thousand ha and total production is 1,527.93 thousand tons (APEDA). Major producing states of pineapple were West Bengal, Assam and Karnataka. Pineapple is highly perishable fruit which transpires heavily and lose moisture thus have high susceptibility to spoilage microorganism (Hossain and Bepary, 2015). There are often several difficulties in production of pineapple with its physiologically active state even after harvest and non climacteric nature. Even though production is more, there are enormous post harvest losses for the fruit. The overall losses being encountered constitute 32.12 percent (6.82% at farm level, 3.09% at wholesale market and transportation, 5.44 % at retail market level, 5.64% during storage, 4.31% in processing unit and 6.82% at consumer level respectively) as reported by Ningobam, (2019).

2.1 Definition and Boundaries of Watershed Areas

Concept of Watershed Boundaries

The concept of watershed boundaries is fundamental to understanding the hydrological and ecological dynamics of a given landscape. Watershed boundaries, also known as drainage divides or catchment areas, delineate the geographical extent of a watershed, which is an area of land where all the water drains to a common outlet, such as a stream, river, lake, or ocean. Watershed boundaries represent the natural hydrological and ecological units of a landscape, reflecting the interconnectedness of water resources and ecosystems. Understanding the factors influencing their definition is essential for effective watershed management, resource planning, and environmental conservation. Exploring the delineation of watershed boundaries involves considering various factors that influence their definition:

a. Topography: Topography, particularly the elevation and slope of the land, plays a significant role in defining watershed boundaries. Watershed boundaries typically follow ridgelines or high points in the landscape, where water flows in different directions, ultimately converging into distinct drainage networks.

b. Hydrology: Hydrological characteristics, such as precipitation patterns, surface runoff, and groundwater flow, influence the delineation of watershed boundaries. Areas with higher rainfall or snowmelt may have larger watersheds with more extensive drainage areas, while areas with low precipitation may have smaller, more localized watersheds.

Organic liquid formulations (OLFs) are agricultural inputs derived from natural sources, designed for use in organic farming. These formulations, consisting of liquid solutions or suspensions containing organic compounds, nutrients, and beneficial microorganisms, play a crucial role in enhancing soil fertility, plant nutrition, and pest management, while promoting environmental sustainability and ecosystem health. Despite their eco friendly nature, OLFs demand careful consideration for their environmental impact and safety. They biodegrade readily, reducing long-term persistence and are less harmful to non-target organisms. While OLFs offer numerous benefits, they also face limitations in potency and effectiveness compared to synthetic pesticides, often requiring more frequent applications and leading to increased labor costs. Their impact can vary with pest species and environmental conditions, and they generally provide gradual rather than immediate pest control. Availability and accessibility can be limited, posing challenges for some farmers. This chapter explores the role of OLFs in achieving success in organic farming, highlighting their benefits and limitations, and emphasizing the importance of Integrated Pest Management strategies and careful consideration of various factors to optimize their use in promoting sustainable agriculture.

The unsustainable, faulty, environmentally detrimental modern agricultural practices and their plausible deleterious effects on one side and challenges like global climate change, ever shrinking land and water resources and loss of biodiversity on the other hand are the main problems that Agriculture is facing. Hence, there is a need to adopt a set of ecofriendly and climate smart practices to achieve sustainable development goals (SDGs). Agroforestry and organic farming (farming without chemicals) are the two important concepts projected to mitigate the effects of climate change, enhance soil health, encourage crop diversification, promoting biodiversity and achieving climate resilience. We made an attempt to synthesize the available information on the role of agroforestry in promotion of organic farming.

1. Introduction

Agroforestry is a land use system that integrates trees, crops and animals in a way that is scientifically sound, ecologically desirable, practically feasible and socially acceptable to the farmers (Nair, 1979). It is a collective name for land use systems and technologies, where woody perennials (trees, shrubs, palms, bamboos, etc.) are deliberately used on the same piece of land management units as agriculture crops and/or animals in some form of spatial arrangement or temporal sequence. It includes both ecological and economical interactions among the different components. Nearly 43% of world’s agricultural land has at least 10% tree cover, which suggests that agroforestry is widespread and infact, it is present in all continents. Agroforestry accounts for nearly 45.4 m-ha globally and 23.25 m-ha of land in India (Rizvi et al., 2019; Anonymous, 2020).

In this chapter, the study’s findings are presented in a structured manner, accompanied by a discussion based on the analysis. The study aimed to present its findings in alignment with its objectives. Towards the end of this chapter, connections between the findings are established, explanations are provided, and an effort is made to uncover the underlying causes. The results and their corresponding discussion are organized according to the specific objectives of the study.

Result: Table 6.1 presents the distribution of 16 independent variables (x1-x16 ) and 3 dependent variables (y1 y3 ) in terms of their Minimum, Maximum, Mean, Variance, Standard deviation, and Coefficient of variation.

According to the study the maximum value for the independent variable Age at survey (x1 ) is 46.00, and minimum is 25.00. The study’s overall distribution was determined to have a mean of 32.938 with a variance of 22.895 and standard deviation 4.785. The high level of consistency is indicated by the variable’s coefficient of variation, which is 14.527%.

According to the study the maximum value for the independent variable Marital status (x2 ) is 18.00 and minimum is 0.00. The study’s overall distribution was determined to have a mean of 3.838 with a variance of 15.783 and standard deviation 3.973. The low level of consistency is indicated by the variable’s coefficient of variation, which is 103.527%.

India is the second largest producer of fruits However, the export potential of fruits and vegetables is very negligible. This is because of improper knowledge to the farmer about proper post-harvest infrastructure facilities. Fruits have a high-water content ranging from 70-95 per cent. They dry quickly under any normal atmospheric condition. These causes loss of rigidity and shrinkage of the cells cause wilting and shrivelling. Appropriate packaging ensures prolonged the shelf life of fruits and vegetables by preventing moisture loss and thereby wilting. Transportation is a critical phase in the fruit supply chain that can significantly affect the quality of fruits. Several factors during transportation can lead to quality degradation such as temperature/humidity fluctuations, mechanical damage, transit time etc. To mitigate the adverse effects of transportation on fruit quality, best practices ie, real-time monitoring, temperature and humidity control, loading/unloading techniques can be employed. Quality evaluation is a critical component in the fruit industry, encompassing a range of assessments to ensure fruits meet the desired standards for consumer satisfaction, shelf life, regulatory compliance, and market competitiveness. It involves a comprehensive approach that includes physical, chemical, and sensory assessments, supported by advanced technological tools, to maintain and enhance the quality of fruits throughout the supply chain. This book chapter deals with the effective packaging, transportation, and quality evaluation of fruits, ensuring that consumers receive fresh, high-quality produce.

Introduction Shrimp aquaculture is a rapidly growing sector worldwide due to transform the intensive cultural practices. The demand for shrimp in the global trade market has increased significantly. The commercially farmed shrimp species, Pacific white leg shrimp, P. vannamei, dominate the market compared to tiger shrimp, P. monodon. Achieving higher shrimp aquaculture production often involves employing high stocking densities and large volumes of feed. This intensification can lead to increased waste and the accumulation of toxic substances, resulting in water pollution, requiring costly management measures to address these issues (Liu et al., 2019; Abakari et al., 2021). Therefore, addressing waste management and water quality concerns is crucial for sustaining the productivity and profitability of shrimp aquaculture operations. In addition to these, several other associated problems – decline in available land resources, escalated environmental pollution, the spread of recurring diseases, the emergence of drug-resistant microorganisms, and the impacts of climate change – with the development of shrimp aquaculture were reported (Santos and Ramos, 2018). To avoid these issues, it is essential to regulate and implement sustainable shrimp aquaculture practices that can be achieved through species and system diversification and environmentally sustainable technologies. Adopting these BFT systems allows for a more sustainable and resilient aquaculture operation (Zhao et al., 2016; 2021).

This chapter is an extensive survey of all past studies relevant to the field of investigation which gives a knowledge of what others have found out in the related f ield of study. In any scientific investigation or research a comprehensive presentation of review of literature is a statutory requirement. Its main functions are to develop a better understanding of the problem to be investigated, delineate a new area of study and avoid unnecessary duplication, decide on the tools and techniques to be adopted including developing some new ones, also to relate the present study with the previous ones by finding out the areas of agreement and disagreement.

The review of literature of the present study is based on the major concepts related to the f ield of investigation. As direct references on all the item are not in abundance, certain specific references along with some indirect references have been incorporated in this chapter for the purpose of meaningful use.

Review of literature has been organized with a view to provide hard evidences as to clinically justify the reasons, logic, and contemplation leading to heuristically infer the different echelons of resilience issues.This is also catered to isolate the apparently less attempted genre of resilience study and analysis. Climate change, uncertainty, decline of soil organic carbon, fatigued genes on land, loss of biodiversity and fragile ecology of society have only been some of myriad of factors causing the loss of resilience, from ecology and from society as well.

Insecticide resistance is a growing concern for those who need insecticides for medical, veterinary, and agricultural control of insect pests. In response to the introduction of DDT resistance in 1947, the incidence of resistance has increased annually by an alarming amount. Resistance is “the inherited ability of a strain of some organism to survive doses of a toxicant that would kill the majority of individuals in a normal population of the same species” (WHO, 1957).

As a result of continued insecticide application, the proportion of resistant insects increases compared to that of susceptible and the population becomes increasingly difficult to control

Above photograph theoretical example illustrating the increase of insecticide resistance levels in a pest population. Some individuals (black) with genetic traits allowing them to survive insecticide applications can reproduce; if the selection pressure is frequent, they easily become the preponderant part of the population (Fig. 1).

An adaptation to a pesticide leads to reduced susceptibility to it among the pest population targeted by that pesticide. In nature, pests develop resistance to chemicals through natural selection. In the most resistant organisms, their genetic traits are passed on to their descendants. Since 1945, at least 500 species of pests have developed resistance to pesticides (Anonymous, 2007), but other sources estimate as many as 1000 species (Miller, 2004).

A management tool for anticipating the onset of diseases in plants is called plant disease forecasting. This management method makes use of data on the past, present, and predicted weather in a particular area to forecast the onset and severity of disease in the future. In this sense, a plant disease forecasting system notifies farmers ahead of time whether or not to modify their crop protection strategies to ward against pests. The disease forecasting method lowers financial costs, farmer production loss, and negative environmental effects when it is timely and precisely forecasted. These systems ought to be prepared for diseases like these, which don’t happen often but rather manifest destructively during opportune weather.

Requirements for Disease Forecasting

Systems for forecasting plant diseases are based on the “disease triangle,” which describes how the environment, host, and pathogen interact. Therefore, information on these variables is necessary for the accurate forecasting of a disease outbreak in the future. Following questions and answers cover various aspects of disease forecasting and pathometry, including their impact on integrated disease management, environmental considerations, and specific challenges in different agricultural settings.

The pandemic in 2019-2022 spread swiftly and became global in no time, caused by SARS-CoV-2. Vaccines were rapidly developed against the virus to restore public health and save global economy. Vaccines for immunisation drives were developed in a year of the pandemic becoming global and approved for ‘emergency use’ following expeditious development protocols. Vaccine development employed numerous nucleic acid, adenovirus and protein-based state-of-art molecular platforms, alongside the conventional attenuated and inactivated virus approaches. The majority of the attempts were successful and approved for use. All the approved vaccines were found safe and effective as per Phase I through Phase III clinical trials’ results. Mass immunisation drives demonstrably led to reduced hospitalisation, low disease severity and less mortality. Yet, there were initial vaccination hesitation across the world due to associated safety concerns about its possible long-term negative consequences. A part of it was attributed to technical reasons (as clinical trials were not fully complete with sturdy and convincing outcomes), and a majority was due to the misinformation that floated on the social media and other digital communications. Vaccine deployment across the globe was far from being equitable. Thus, immunisation was rapid in higher income (developed) nations with access to innovative advanced vaccines while low immunisation rates were seen in the low- and medium-income countries accessing majorly the vaccines based on simple technology. Given the scale and spread of the pandemic, scaled-up vaccine production and equitable distribution to limit viral spread and improve global health and socioeconomy were critical. This chapter attempts to dissect these scenarios and lessons learnt from these to prepare better for any such pandemic in future.

1. Forecasting Rain and Frost

i. Behavior of Ants and Goats:

• Ants: When ants come out of their nest carrying their pupae, it indicates that rain will come soon.

• Goats: Goats can sense approaching rain and signal it 2 to 3 days in advance through behavioral changes. They change their usual resting places, show little interest in taking food or water, and bawl and shout throughout the day.

2. Tree Fruiting Patterns:

• Neem Tree (Azadirachta indica): If the neem tree bears plenty of fruit.

• Baval Tree (Acacia nilotica): If the baval tree produces plenty of pods.

• These observations suggest that the total rainfall for the monsoon will be high.