eChapters

1. Botanical Name : Phyllanthus acidus (L) skeels.

2. Family : Phyllanthaceae

3. Common Name : Star Gooseberry

4. Name in Indian languages : Jangli Aonla (Hindi), Aria Nellikai (Tamil), Narakli (Oriya), Nora (Bengali), Kiru nelli(Kannada).

5. Description

Star gooseberry is a small tree of 4 to 8m height. The tree’s dense and bushy crown is composed of thickish, tough main branches. It tree grows well in the tropics up to an altitude of 1500 - 1800 metres. It prefers hot, humid tropical conditions with a short dry season. The fruits are yellow and used as fresh or processed. The plants grow well in dry areas but require moist site for initial establishment otherwise, plants are drought tolerant.

1. Botanical Name : Physalis minima Linn.

2. Family : Solanaceae

3. Common Name : Ground Cherry, Sun berry

4. Name in Indian languages

Rasbhari, Chirpati (Hindi), Chirboti, Ran-popti (Marathi), Kupanti (Tamil), Notinotta (Malayalam), Kupanti (Telugu), Gadde hannu (Kannada), Bantepariya (Bengali), Popti (Gujarati).

5. Description

Sunberry is an erect, much-branched, annual plant growing around 50cm tall. The edible fruit is sometimes gathered from the wild and used locally. This is a popular wild fruit to pick and eat. The taste of the ripe berry is sweet and distinctive. The berries are ripe when the husk turns brown and the berry inside takes on a yellowish cast. The plant also has a range of medicinal uses. Physalis minima is commonly found on the bunds of the fields, wastelands, around the houses, on roadsides, etc. where the soil is porous and rich in organic matter. It is an annual herbaceous plant having a very delicate stem and leaves.

1. Botanical Name : Prunus armeniaca Linn.

2. Family : Roasaceae

3. Common Name : Wild apricot

4. Name in Indian languages

Zardalu, Sarha, Chulli (Himachali), Chuari, Zardalu (Hindi), Gurdalu, Cherkush (Kashmiri), Chuaru, Chola, Kushmaru (Kumaoni); Chul (Laddakhi), Zardalu (Punjabi).

5. Description

Wild apricot is a common fruit of the hills in northern India, comprising the major parts of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. The fruits are small but tasty.

6. Origin and distribution

This tree is indigenous to the Central Asia. It is widely distributed and is found in Europe, Western and Central Asia, Baluchistan, the north-west Himalayas and Western Tibet upto 2500 meters msl. It is found in the in mild-hills, ranging from 1,100 to 1,700 meters above the mean sea-level in Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu Kashmir. Most of the plants are seedlings, with varying flesh and kernel characters.

1. Botanical Name : Prunus nepalensis (Ser). Steud.

2. Family : Rosaceae

3. Common Name : Wild peach, Sohiong

4. Name in Indian languages

Jangaliaru, Arupate (Nepali), Arupaty (Bengali), Sohiong (Khasi), Sajong (Assamese).

1. Botanical Name : Prunus undulata Buch.-Ham.

2. Family : Rosaceae

3. Common Name : Dieng tyrkhung

4. Name in Indian languages

Dieng tyrkhung (Khasi).

5. Description

It is locally known as Dieng tyrkhung in Meghalaya and belongs to Rosaceae family. It is a rare species growing wild in Khasi and Jaintia Hills occurring in mountainous or hilly forests or river valleys. It is a small deciduous tree, upright and moderately branched. It can grow 5 - 16 metres tall. The fruits are harvested from the wild for local used as a food and source of materials. It thrives in a well-drained moisture-retentive loamy soil.

1. Botanical Name : Rhus semialata Murr

2. Family : Anacardiaceae

3. Common Name : Chinese Sumac, Chinese gall, Nutgall tree

4. Name in Indian languages

Tatri (Hindi), Heimaang (Manipuri), Bhaki amilo, Chuk Amilo, Dudhe Bhalaayo, Bhangil (Nepali), Sohmad/ Sohmluh (Khasi), Sohsama (Pnar).

5. Description

It is a deciduous shrub or small tree with an open, spreading crown. It usually grows up to 12 metres tall. The trunk can be 6-18cm in diameter. The plant has an extensive root system and spreads by means of suckers, often forming thickets. The tree has edible fruits. It has several having medicinal properties. It is good source of tannins and dye. Fruits are gathered from the wild and mainly used locally. Galls produced as a result of insect activity on the plant are widely used medicinally in East Asia.

1. Botanical Name : Rubus ellipticus Smith

2. Family : Rosaceae

3. Common Name : Himalayan Yellow Raspberry

4. Name in Indian languages

Jotelupoka (Assameese), Ache, Akki, Anchhu, Hinure (Himachali), Hinsalu, Anchhu (Hindi), Gouriphal, Hisara (Kashmiri), Esar, Hishalu, Jogiya hisalu (Kumaoni), Ainselu (Nepali), Akhi (Punjabi).

5. Description

It is one of the tastiest wild fruits of Himalayan hills. This plant grows in abundance throughout the mid hill region of Himalaya. The fruits are relished by all and are also offered for sale at many places. Rubus ellipticus is an evergreen shrub producing a cluster of stout, heavily armed, upright, biennial stems from a woody rootstock. It usually grows 100 - 300 cm tall, occasionally up to 450 cm. The stems only produce leaves, and do not flower, in their first year of growth, forming flowering branches in their second year and then dying after fruiting. The plant can rapidly form tall, dense thickets. The plant is harvested from the wild for local use as a food and a medicine. The fruit is sold in local markets in the Himalayan states.

1. Botanical Name : Rubus niveus Thunb.

2. Family : Rosaceae

3. Common Name : Mysore raspberry, Hill raspberry

4. Name in Indian languages

Huftoo, Kale hinure (Himachali), Kala hinsalu, Kali anchhi (Hindi), Kandiari, Kharmuch, Surgaqnch, Oche (Kashmiri), Kalawar, Kalahisalu (Kumaoni), Kaloaselu (Nepali), Gunacha, Kandiara (Punjabi), Gomulli, Mulli (Kannada), Dieng soh khawiong (Khasi), Heijampet (Manipuri), Gowriphal (Marathi).

5. Description

Mysore raspberry is a shrub growing to 1-2.5 m tall. The stems are whitish velvety at first, becoming smooth green to purple later. Leaves are compound with 5-11 leaflets. The leaflets are dark green above, densely pale grey to white velvety beneath. The flowers are five dark pink to red petals. The fruit is densely grey velvety, dark red at first, ripening to black. The fruits are commonly harvested from forest for local use as a food and is also used as a medicine. Mysore raspberry is grows wild throughout the temperate Himalayan region. This species is successfully introduced North America. It resembles the raspberry.

1. Botanical Name : Salvadora oleoides Decne

2. Family : Salvadoraceae

3. Common Name: Pilu

4. Name in Indian languages

Pilava pilu, Mityar, Mitijal, Mithivan, Pilu, Chootapilu, Bahapilu, Diar, Jhal, Godpilu (Hindi), Khakan, Pilava, Pilu, Mityal (Gujarati), Kalawa, Kohu, Karkol (Tamil).

5. Description

Peelu (Salvadora oleoides) is an evergreen shrub or tree with a dense crown of numerous, drooping branches. It is small to medium sized evergreen tree with dense foliage. It can grow 6 - 9 metres tall. The main trunk is quite often twisted or bent. It can be up to 2 metres in diameter. The tree is harvested from the wild for local use as a medicine and source of materials. Apart from edible fruits, other parts of the tree also have economic value. Leaves are very good feed for animals especially goats and camels while the twigs are used for cleaning the teeth. The other plant parts such as root bark and leaves etc have value in folk medicine. It is highly resistant against abiotic stresses such as drought and salinity.

1. Botanical Name : Semecarpus anacadium L.f.

2. Family : Anacardiaceae

3. Common Name : Marking Nut

4. Name in Indian languages

Bhilawan (Hindi), Bhillava (Marathi), Kavaka (Tamil), Ceenkkuru (Malayalam), Bhallatamu (Telugu), Gerannina mara (Kannada), Bhallataka (Bengali), Bonebhalia (Oriya), Amberi (Konkani), Bhala (Assamese), Bhilamu (Gujarati), Bhallatakah (Sanskrit), Bhalaayo (Nepali).

5. Description

Marking nut tree is a small to medium-sized tree that can reach a height of 25 metres, but is usually smaller. Possibly best known for its use in making a permanent marking ink. This multi-purpose tree also provides food, medicines, oil etc. It has high priority and applicability in indigenous system of medicine. It is often cultivated as an ornamental plant in the tropic.

1. Botanical Name : Zizyphus nummularia Burm. f.

2. Family : Rhamnaceae

3. Common Name : Jhar Ber

4. Name in Indian languages

Jhar ber, Bordi, Jharberi (Hindi), Bhubadari (Bengali), Mulluhannu (Kannada), Junglebor (Marathi), Bhu-kartaka (Sanskrit), Narielandai (Tamil), Nelaregu, (Telugu), Poast jharberi (Urdu).

5. Description

Jhar ber (Ziziphus nummularia) is a most commonly occurring branched thorny shrub species in the Indian desert with a height of 1-2 m. It occupies almost all the habitats including crop lands and grazing lands. It is found growing naturally on farm lands and spreads through root suckers and also by seeds. It forms an integral part of rain fed farming system in arid zones of Rajasthan. Underground suckers of jhar ber remain dormant during summer season but they sprout with monsoon rain and complete the life cycle including vegetative growth, flowering and fruiting by November-December. The bushes are headed back at ground level after the kharif cropping season is over.

The articulations of the neck are between the bones of the cervical vertebrae. The atlanto occipital articulation and the atlanto axial articulation are the special vertebral articulations while the articulations between the rest of the cervical vertebrae are common vertebral articulations.

Atlanto-occipital articulation

Type of joint: This is a condyloid type of hinge joint (Ginglymus).

Articular surfaces: The atlanto-occipital joint (Figure 2-3 B) is formed between the condyles of the occipital bone and the condyloid cavities of the atlas vertebra.

Pituitary gland (Hypophysis cerebi)

The pituitary gland (hypophysis cerebri) lies at the base of the skull and is housed within a bony structure called the sella turcica in the body of the besisphenoid bone. It is a small pea shaped gland which is attached to the hypothalamus by the pituitary stalk. The pituitary gland has two distinct parts called the lobes. These are the anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) and the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis). The anterior lobe which is also called as anterior pituitary consists of five types of cells, each of which secretes different hormone or hormones. The types of cells, the hormones secreted by each type and the functions performed by them are narrated below.

The thyrotrophs secrete thyroxin called as Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH). It stimulates production of thyroid hormone.

The gonadotrophs secrete leuteinizing hormone (LH) and Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH). The LH stimulates the production of oestrogen and progesterone by the ovaries in female and testosterone by the testes in male. The FSH stimulates the production of oestrogen and the growth of egg cells (oocytes) in the ovaries in female and sperm cells (spermatozoa) in the testes in male.

The corticotrophs secrete the Adreno-Cortico-Trophic Hormone (ACTH) which stimulates the production of cortisol and adrenogenic hormones by the adrenal cortex.

The somatotrophs secret Growth Hormone (GH). The GH is a growth promoting hormone which regulates the growth and differentiation of the skeletal system.

The lactotrophs secrete the Prolactine Hormone. The prolactine hormone is responsible for initiation of milk secretion by the acinar cells of the mammary gland.

The venous blood from the head and neck is carried by two jugular veins (Figure 2-11 B), the internal and external jugular veins on each side. Both of these extend from the base of the head to the thoracic inlet and are located on the ventrolateral part of the neck. The internal jugular vein is smaller while the external jugular is larger one.

The internal jugular vein is formed by the union of the thyroid, laryngeal and occipital veins beneath the wing of the atlas between the mandibular salivary gland and the rectus capitis ventralis major muscle. It passes down the neck in company with the common carotid artery, vagus and sympathetic nerves enclosed within a carotid sheath, receives in its course the muscular venous branches, tracheal vein and the oesophageal vein and terminates by joining the external jugular vein just in front of the thoracic inlet.

The external jugular vein is the larger of the two jugular veins and is formed by the union of the superficial temporal and the maxillary veins just behind the caudal border of the mandible and on the deep face of the parotid salivary gland below the temporomandibular joint. It becomes superficial by emerging through the parotid gland, passes down the neck subcutaneously in the jugular furrow, receives the internal jugular vein forming a common jugular vein in front of the thoracic inlet. It receives along its course, the external maxillary vein, parotid veins, auricular veins, small veins from the muscles of the cervical region and the cephalic vein at its termination. While in the jugular groove it is bounded dorsally by the brachiocephalicus muscle, ventrally by sternocephalicus and medially by the sternomastoid part of the sternocephalicus muscle. The vein is covered by skin and fascia and is separated from common carotid artery, vagosympathetic trunk, recurrent laryngeal nerve and internal jugular vein by the upper border of the sternomastoid muscle.

The right and left common jugular veins unite and form the jugular confluence which joins the cranial vena cava ventral to the trachea slightly to the right of the median plane at the level of the cranial border of the first rib.

Horse

The optic and oculomotor nerves in horse are thinner than those in ox. The oculomotor nerve leaves the cranial cavity with the ophthalmic and abducent nerves through the orbital foramen and the trochlear nerve leaves the cranial cavity through a small foramen immediately above the orbital fissure in horse as against the foramen orbitorotundum in ox. The ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve leaves the cranium through the orbital fissure, the maxillary branch through the foramen ovale and the mandibular branch through the foramen rotundum. As against this, the ophthalmic and maxillary branches in ox emerge through the foramen orbitorotundum and the mandibular branch through the foramen ovale. The lacrimal nerve, a branch of the ophthalmic, runs rostrad on the rectus dorsalis and levator palpebrae superioris and ramifies chiefly in the lacrimal gland and the upper eyelid. One of its branches communicates with the orbital branch of the maxillary nerve, penetrates the periorbita, gains the temporal region behind the supraorbital process, forms a plexus with the branches of the frontal and auriculopalpebral nerves and divides to distribute fibres to the skin of the temporal region. The continuation of the maxillary nerve as infraorbital nerve gives out the caudal maxillary alveolar and middle maxillary alveolar branches to supply the molar and premolar teeth and before emerging through the infraorbital foramen gives out the rostral maxillary alveolar branch for the incisor and canine teeth.

Horse

The bony cage of thorax is longer but narrower in horse than that in ox. It is compressed laterally

The thoracic vertebrae are eighteen in number. Their bodies are shorter. The spinous process of the first one is shorter and it is curved backward. The height of the spinous process increases up to third and fourth and there after it diminishes gradually up to fifteenth beyond which it is almost same. The backward inclination of the spinous process is most pronounced in the second. The spine of the sixth vertebra is straightly vertical and that of the last two vertebrae is directed slightly forward.

The ribs are in eighteen pairs. First eight pairs are sternal and the remaining ten pairs are asternal. These are shorter, narrower and more curved. The length of the ribs increases up to sixth and then it diminishes. The cranial borders of the ribs from second to sixth are sharp and from ninth to eighteenth they are rounded and thick. The lower edges of the ribs are excavated for receiving the costal cartilages. The first rib inclines little forwards, the second rib is vertical and the rests slope backwards.

The first pair of costal cartilages articulates at their distal ends with each other and with the sternum. The upper ends of the cartilages form synarthroidial joints with the ribs.

The sternum of horse is composed of seven sternebrae. It is canoe or boat shaped and presents three faces, three borders and two extremities. It is compressed laterally in front and dorsoventrally behind. The dorsal surface is narrow and triangular. It is concave craniocaudally. The lateral surfaces are convex above and slightly concave below. The lateral borders separate the dorsal surface from the lateral surfaces and they give attachment to two lateral sternal ligaments. The ventral border is the direct continuation of the cariniform cartilage of the cranial extremity of the sternum. It is thin, sharp and convex from before backwards. It is very prominent and can be felt by palpation in live animal. It is also called as sternal crest or keel. The cranial extremity presents a laterally compressed cariniform cartilage which presents a deep notch dorsally for articulation with the first pair of costal cartilages. The first sternebra is fused with second and the manubrium is made up of cariniform cartilage and the first sternebra.

Horse

The muscles of lumbar spine in horse are more or less similar to those of ox. Of the sublumbar muscles, the psoas minor lies under the bodies of the lumbar and last three thoracic vertebrae. It arises from dorsal ends of sixteenth and seventeenth ribs and eighteenth thoracic vertebra and the first five lumbar vertebrae.

The psoas major arises from dorsal ends of last two ribs and the ventral faces of the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae. It is much wider than that of ox and covers the quadratus lumborum entirely.

The origin of iliacus muscle is limited to sacrum and ilium only. It has no lumbar origin and it is not so intimately united with psoas major muscle.

The quadratus lumborum is less developed.

The intertransversarii lumborum is absent between the fifth and sixth lumbar transverse processes.

The muscles of abdominal wall in horse do not have any striking differences, except that the obliquus abdominis externus is thicker and more extensive. The muscular portion of this muscle reaches the external angle of ilium and as high as lumbar transverse processes.

Horse

The caudal vena cava in horse is largely embedded in the substance of the liver on its diaphragmatic surface. Here its free surface is covered only by the peritoneum. After crossing the liver, the caudal vena cava continues caudally along the right side of the abdominal aorta. During its course it gives off several branches from the dorsal and lateral surface.

The lumbar veins (parietal) are five or six pairs in number. The last one or two of these often join the internal iliac veins.

The renal veins are thin walled. The right renal vein is shorter than the left one.

The phrenic veins are two or three in number. The circumflex iliac veins join either the caudal vena cava or the internal iliac vein.

The portal vein is formed by the union of cranial and caudal mesenteric and the splenic veins in the cranial part of the sublumbar region at about the level of second lumbar vertebra. It passes cranially and to the right of the median plane continues through the portal ring of the pancreas and reaches to the portal fissure of the liver. Before entering the portal ring of the pancreas, the portal vein receives right gastroepiploic vein, right gastric vein and cranial pancreaticoduodenal vein. The cranial mesenteric, caudal mesenteric and the splenic veins are formed by the tributaries from the veins which are satellites of the branches of the respective arteries. After its entry into the hepatic portal, the portal vein divides into three principal branches. These include the right branch for right lobe, the middle branch also for the right lobe and the left branch for the left and the quadrate lobe.

The lymph nodes of the abdomen and pelvis are in two major divisions, lymph nodes of the wall of the abdomen and pelvis and those of the viscera of abdomen and pelvis. The lymph from all the lymph nodes is collected by different lymph ducts which carry and pour their contents (lymph) in the cisterna chyli near the hiatus aorticus on the abdominal surface of the diaphragm.

Lymph nodes of the wall of abdomen and pelvis

The lumbar aortic lymph nodes are a chain of small lymph nodes situated along the caudal part of the abdominal aorta. These lymph nodes receive afferents from the peritoneum, sublumbar, spinal and abdominal muscles and the lumbar vertebrae. The efferents from these lymph nodes join each other and form two lumbar trunks which later on unite in a single lumbar lymphatic trunk that opens into the cisterna chyli.

The medial iliac lymph nodes are situated near the origins of the deep circumflex iliac and the internal external iliac arteries. The afferents for these lymph nodes are received from the internal iliac, tuberal, gluteal coxal, lateral iliac, subiliac, superficial inguinal and popliteal lymph nodes. The efferents from these lymph nodes either form a lumbar trunk or join any of the lumbar aortic lymph nodes.

Abdominal part

The sympathetic trunks enter the abdominal cavity between the psoas minor and the crus of the diaphragm of the corresponding side. They run caudally on the ventrolateral surfaces of the lumbar vertebrae and the ventral common vertebral ligament. The left trunk is ventrally related to the abdominal aorta and the right trunk to the caudal vena cava. The sympathetic trunks of the opposite sides in the cranial half of the lumbar part lie rather close to each other and as they pass caudally, they gradually divert from each other. The lumbar sympathetic ganglia are small spindle shaped usually six in number and are present one in each lumbar segment. The first two are larger than the rests. Each is connected with the ventral division of the corresponding lumbar spinal nerve by the ramus communicans. The interganglionic segments of the sympathetic trunk are usually single but some times they split.

Splanchnic nerves

The greater (major) splanchnic nerve is formed by the contribution of sympathetic nerve fibres from fifth or sixth thoracic to thirteenth thoracic sympathetic ganglia. It becomes larger and larger as it passes caudally along with the sympathetic trunk. It enters the abdomen at the level of the first lumbar vertebra gets separated from it, passes ventrally and laterally across the aorta (left trunk) and vena cava (right trunk) to join the coeliacomesenteric autonomic plexus on and around the coeliac and cranial mesenteric arteries.

The venous drainage of the fore limb of ox is conducted by two independent routes, the superficial and deep routes, in the fore limb. The major vein of the superficial route is the cephalic vein and that of the deep route is the axillary vein. The venous drainage of the fore limb begins at the digits and is carried by branches of both the routes intermingling or confluent with each other up to the level of elbow joint. From the elbow upwards the journey of the two paths is completely independent of each other. The superficial veins join the cephalic vein while the deep veins join the axillary vein to open into the cranial vena cava.

Superficial veins

The superficial veins begin in the form of distal deep and distal superficial palmer arch just above the fetlock joint. These venous arches are formed by the union of axial and abaxial digital veins. From these venous arches extend the dorsal metacarpal vein ascending first through the interdigital space and then winding around the large metacarpal bone. In this course it anastomoses with the branches of radial vein on the dorsomedial aspect of the carpometacarpal region and passes further upward as accessory cephalic vein.

Horse

The brachial plexus in horse is formed by ventral branches of the last three thoracic and first two thoracic spinal nerves similar to that in ox. The disposition and distribution of nerve branches extending from the plexus is almost similar to that of the ox except the following two.

The radial nerve after reaching the musculospiral groove gives out a cutaneous branch that passes through the lateral head of triceps and is distributed to the skin on the lateral aspect of forearm.

The main trunk of the radial nerve after crossing the carpus descends along the medial aspect of the palmer surface of metacarpus as palmer medial metacarpal nerve and further down on the medial digit as palmer medial digital nerve.

The ulnar nerve descends the carpus and after reaching the metacarpal region joins the lateral branch of the median nerve, descends first along the lateral aspect of the palmer surface of metacarpus as palmer lateral metacarpal nerve and then along the lateral (abaxial) aspect of the lateral digit as palmer lateral digital nerve.

Horse

The tensor fasciae latae is less extensive.

The superficial gluteus exists separately. It is ‘V’ shaped. It originates from the lateral angle of ilium (tuber coxae) and gluteal fascia and is inserted to the third trochanter. The middle gluteus is the largest of the three gluteal muscles and is very extensive. It originates from the aponeurosis of the longissimus dorsi, extends as far forwards up to first lumbar vertebra and is inserted in three heads, to the trochanter major, the crest ventral to trochanter major and the trochanteric ridge. The deep gluteus is smaller than the middle gluteus and is inserted to the convexity of the trochanter major.

The biceps femoris has an additional insertion to the femur on the rough surface near the trochanter tertius.

The semitendinosus arises from the transverse processes of the first two or three coccygeal vertebrae. The semimembranosus is larger and arises from the sacrosciatic ligament also.

The sartorius does not arise from the shaft of the ilium. The gracilis is not so extensively fused to its fellow at the origin.

The obturator internus has an iliac part- the pisiformis. Its tendon passes through the lesser sciatic foramen and hence does not unite with that of the obturator externus.

Articularis genu is absent

The venous drainage of hind limb begins from two digital venous plexuses, one for each digit, situated in the corium of the foot. From each of these plexuses extend three digital veins namely the dorsal common digital vein, the medial digital vein and the lateral digital vein. The digital veins in their upward course converge and form the metatarsal veins which in their turn continue upward in the leg region as tibial and popliteal veins and then in the thigh region as femoral vein which finally joins the external iliac vein as the chief vein of the hind limb.

Digital veins

The dorsal common digital vein arises from the corresponding digital plexus in the form of proper digital vein.The two proper digital veins ascend along the medial face of the corresponding digit and unite at about the middle of the interdigital space below the metatarso-phalangeal articulation (fetlock joint) and form the dorsal common digital vein. The later, thus formed, ascends through the interdigital space, crosses vertically the metatarso-phalangeal articulation and after reaching the distal extremity of the metatarsal bone continues upward as dorsal metatarsal vein.

The medial digital vein after arising from the digital venous plexus ascends along the caudomedial aspect of the medial digit in company with the satellite artery, shares a branch each from the dorsal common digital and lateral digital veins, ascends the medial face of the fetlock joint and is then continued up as the medial plantar metatarsal vein.

The lateral digital vein after arising from the digital venous plexus of the lateral digit passes upward in the interdigital space, communicates a branch to the dorsal common digital and medial digital veins and then ascends the lateral face of the fetlock joint and then is continued up as the lateral plantar metatarsal vein.

Soil texture refers to the relative distribution of sand, silt and clay on a sample of <2 mm size. It is an intrinsic soil property and basically refers to the particle size distribution in a soil. A number of physical characteristics and chemical properties of a soil are influenced by texture or particle size distribution. To estimate the content of sand, silt and clay particles, the soil samples are first brought into a dispersed state by mechanical and chemical treatments so that different binding agents are removed. In the dispersed soil samples, the soil particles settle down at a differential settling rate according to their size. In laboratory, the common methods for analysis for particle size distribution are : Buyoucos hydrometer method and International pipette method. In this chapter, the procedure of Buyoucos hydrometer method is described.

Principle

This method is based on the principle of variable rate of settling of particles as per their size and as described by Stokes’Law. Large particles shall settle fast. The measurement of density of the suspension is done at different times using a hydrometer (ASTM 152H-Type hydrometer is preferred). The measurement in this hydrometer is based on a standard temperature of 20 _oC and a particle density of 2.65 Mg m_-3 and the units are expressed in grams of soil per liter.The principal source of error in this procedure is the incomplete dispersion of soil clays as the clay particles are cemented by agents such as organic matter, CaCO and iron oxides. Incomplete dispersion results in low values for clay and high values for silt and sand. Thus, soils with higher organic matter (>1.0%) should be first treated with 6% hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) for removal of organic carbon. The rate of sedimentation is also affected by temperature and the density of the dispersing solution.

Wet sieving procedure separates soil into different size aggregates. However, for comparing the aggregate size distribution among management treatments and soil types, it is convenient to use indices. Mean weight diameter (MWD) and water stable aggregate percentage are some of the common indices used in aggregate stability studies.

Mean Weight Diameter (MWD)

This index was proposed by Van Bavel (1949) and is being used widely. The entire soil sample is passed through an 8 mm sieve prior to analysis and is subjected to wet sieving procedure as described before. The parameter which Van Bavel (1949) called the MWD is equal to the sum of the product of (a) the mean diameter (d ) of each size fraction and (b) the proportion of the total sample weight (w ) occurring in the corresponding size fraction. The summation is carried out over all ‘n’ size fraction including the one that passes through the finest sieve.

Estimation of plant available phosphorus content in soil has been attempted using several extractants. However, Bray’s reagent and Olsen’s reagent are the two common extractants used in India. Bray’s reagent (0.03 N NH₄F and N HCl) is used for acid soils, where, the fluoride ion complexes with Fe and Al in soil and thus releases the bound P. The Olsen’s reagent (0.5 M NaHCO₃) is used for neutral-alkaline soils.

This procedure uses Diethylene Tri-amine Penta Acetic acid (DTPA) as the chelating agent, which combines with free metal ions in soil solution and forms soluble complexes.

Enumeration of microbial flora present in soil is done by dilution plating technique. The technique is based on the fact of diluting the source inoculums to the extent that after plating the known volume of inoculums on appropriate media, the colonies will appear in countable range and each colony will be assumed to have been derived from a single cell/colony forming unit. Three numerically dominant groups of soil microbes are bacteria, actinobacteria and fungi. The most commonly used culture media for their enumeration include

Nutrient Agar-for heterotrophic bacteria,

Actinomycetes isolation Agar or Kenknight and Munaier’s agar for actinobacteria

Martin’s Rose Bengal Agar for fungi.

Principle

β-Glucosidase (BG) plays a major role in the degradation of soil organic matter and plant residues. It catalyzes the hydrolysis of β-d-glucopyranosides, the final, rate-limiting step in the degradation of cellulose, the most abundant polysaccharide providing simple sugars for the soil microbial population. BG has been shown to be sensitive to changes in soil and residue management as well as an early indicator of changes in SOC before these changes are reflected in total or organic C analyses. The method is based on colorimetric determination of the p-nirtrophenol released by β-glucosidase when soil is incubated with buffered PNG solution and toluene.

A series of efforts have been made to initiate the work on post-harvest grain technology in India. H.M. Lefroy, the 1^st Imperial Entomologist appointed by the British Government in India in 1905 had given a tentative list of storage insects in 1906. This list of storage insects was further supplemented by T.B. Fletcher in 1914. The problems of grain storage were discussed at Pusa, Bihar at the Entomological meetings held during the years 1917, 1919 and 1923.

The Department of Food was established in 1942 by the Government of India. The executive wing of the Food Department was responsible for the purchase, movement, transport and distribution of food grains. Central Food Technology Research Institute (CFTRI) at Mysore was established in 1950 with a mandate to train personnel and evolve technology relating to food processing and preservation. The Central Warehousing Corporation was set up on 2^nd March, 1957 under Agricultural Produce (Warehousing and Development) Act 1956. On 1^st January, 1965 Food Corporation of India was established.

In 1958, the Department of Food started a centre at Hapur known as Grain Storage Research and Training Centre with the main objective to train the personnel of State Government engaged in food procurement, storage and distribution. This centre was upgraded during 1968-1973 with the technical and financial assistance of UNDP and this centre was redesignated as Indian Grain Storage Institute (IGSI). Two field stations at Ludhiana and Bapatla (later shifted to Hyderabad in March 1979) were established in 1968-69. Subsequently, three stations of IGSI at Jabalpur (October, 1980), Udaipur (February, 1981) and Jorhat (May, 1981) were also established. The overall objective was to minimize losses of food grains by development of modernized grain storage practices for the farmers, traders, cooperatives and large storage of food grains in the country and also to evolve the methodology to be adopted by the Save Grain Compaign which has its headquarters in the Department of Food.

Agricultural crops are being affected by a wide range of organisms such as insects, mites, fungi, bacteria etc. Another important and unseen enemy is known as plant parasitic nematodes. The study on nematodes is known as Nematology.

Nematology is an important branch of biological science, which deals with a complex, diverse group of round worms known as Nematodes that occur worldwide in essentially all environments. Nematodes are also known as eelworms in Europe, nemas in the United States and round worms by zoologists. Many species are important parasites of plants and animals, whereas others are beneficial to agriculture and the environment. Nematodes that are parasites of man and animals are called helminths and the study is known as Helminthology. The name nematode was derived from Greek words nema (thread) and oides (resembling). This book focuses primarily on plant parasitic nematodes, their morphology, anatomy, nematological techniques, taxonomy, classification based on their feeding habits, symptom of damage to crops, interaction with other microorganisms, biology of important nematodes viz., Meloidogyne, Heterodera, Rotylenchulus, Tylenchulus and Radopholus and nematode pests of important crops and their management.

Annual crop losses due to these obligate parasites have been estimated to be about $78 billion worldwide and $8 billion for U.S. growers. The estimated annual crop loss in Tamil Nadu is around Rs. 200 crores.

The soil in a hectare of agroecosystem typically contains billions of plant parasitic as well as beneficial nematodes. The damage to plants caused by nematodes is often overlooked because the associated symptoms, including slow growth, stunting and yellowing can also be attributed to nutritional and water related disorders.

The nematode feeding on plant can be divided into above ground feeders and below ground feeders.

I. Above ground feeders

a) Feeding on flower buds, leaves and bulbs

Seed gall nematode : Anguina tritici

Leaf and bud nematode : Aphelenchoides

Stem and buld nematode : Ditylenchus

Most of the plant parasitic nematodes affect the root portion of plants except Anguina spp., Aphelenchus spp., Aphelenchoides spp., Ditylenchus spp., Bursaphelenchus cocophilus and B. xylophilus. Nematodes suck the sap of the plants with the help of stylet and causes leaf discolouration, stunted growth, reduced leaf size and fruits, lesions on roots, galls, reduced root system and finally wilting. Symptoms of nematode diseases can be classified as

Symptoms produced by above ground feeding nematodes
Symptoms produced by below ground feeding nematodes

Objectives

• Better understand the law of independent assortment.

History

The law was proposed by Gregor Johann Mendel with the other laws together called as ‘Mendelian laws of inheritance’, in 1866. He used pea plant as a model organism, and studied 7 characters.

Principle

The Law of Independent Assortment, also known as “Inheritance Law”, states that alleles of different genes assort independently of one another during gamete formation. Independent assortment for two genes can be explained by assuming that the two genes are located in two different chromosomes. The two alleles of a gene will be located in the two homologues of the concerned chromosome. Independent separation of these two pairs of chromosomes at anaphase I of meiosis will lead to the independent segregation of the genes located in them. Thus any allele of one gene is equally likely to combine with any allele of the other gene and pass into the same gamete. Independent segregation of two genes produces four different types of gametes in equal proportion. A random union among these gametes gives rise to sixteen possible zygotes. These zygotes yield a 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio, which is known as the typical dihybrid ratio. When two pairs of independent alleles enter into F₁ combination, both of them have their independent dominant effect. These alleles segregate when gametes are formed but the assortment occurs independently at random and quite freely.

Bulk population breeding developed by the Swede H. Nilsson Ehle in 1908 and later on supported and practiced by H. V. Harlan in barley breeding in 1940s is a breeding strategy in crop improvement in which natural selection is allowed to play its full role where the F2 generation is planted in a plot large enough to accommodate several hundreds of plants. Planting density and cultural practices are usually the normal ones followed for commercial crop planting. At maturity, the plot is harvested in bulk and the seeds are used to plant a similar plot in the next season. This process is repeated till at least F5 where the plants are space planted to allow individual plant evaluation for effective selection. During period of bulk propagation natural selection plays a key role in shifting gene frequencies in the bulk population. This role is of crucial importance as bulk handling is continued over a number of generations. Bulk population handling can be aided by artificial selection at any time during the period of bulk propagation. Aggressive and highly competitive but undesirable plants may be physically rogued out of the population to avoid increasing the frequency of undesirable genes. For example, determinate bush types of beans do not compete well against indeterminate, vine types. And if the breeder is interested only in determinate types, artificial selection against the indeterminate types is certainly called for. There is also good reason to apply artificial selection against seed colour, pubescence, awns or other characters that are undesirable in the variety to be developed but may be more or less neutral in survival. Bulk population handling often provides opportunities to make use of artificial aids to selection. For example, bulk harvesting when only part of plants are mature is an effective and inexpensive way to select for earliness. If particular sizes of seeds are required, screens or mechanical devices provide a rapid way of eliminating inferior types. Naturally occurring or artificially induced disease or insect infestation, of course, provide opportunities to rogue susceptible individuals from the bulk plot. In F6, the plants selected in F5 are progeny rowed and superior progenies are selected from where again few plants can be selected and seed bulked within a selected row. Depending upon seed requirement for yield trial in the following years, even the seed from selected entire row can be bulked. The follow up yield evaluation trials are as given in case of pedigree selection. This method is operationally best suited for seed crops such as small grains, beans and soybean and is almost totally unsuited for fruit crops and for most vegetable crops.

Eastern blotting is a technique to detect protein post translational modifications (PTM) and is an extension of the biochemical technique of western blotting. There are multiple versions of the method, but in general proteins or lipids are blotted from one or two-dimensional SDS-PAGE gel on to a PVDF or nitrocellulose membrane are analyzed for post-translational protein modifications using probes that may detect lipids, carbohydrate, phosphorylation or any other protein modification. Eastern blotting should be used to refer to methods that detect their targets through specific interaction of the PTM and the probe, distinguishing them from a standard Far-western blot. The most common application is lectin blotting, however, a variety of other probes can be used for detecting different PTMs.

History and Multiple Definitions

Definition of the term Eastern blotting is somewhat confused due to multiple sets of authors dubbing a new method as Eastern blotting, or a derivative therof. All of the definitions are a derivative of the technique of Western blotting developed by Towbin in 1979. The current definitions are summarized below in order of the first use of the name, however all are based on some earlier works. In some cases, the technique had been in practice for some time before the introduction of the term.

After the DNA is run on the gel, the polymorphic bands or the bands cosegregating with a target trait are tagged. The bands identification is either done by calculating their relative mobilities (Rm / Rf values in case of isoenzymes) or by calculating their molecular weights (in case of proteins and DNA).

There are several methods to calculate molecular weights of DNA bands on the gel. Graphical approach is one of them. The approaches include (1) use of computer software to generate molecular weights and (2) running unknown DNA fragments with the fragments of known molecular weights (standard markers available from private companies, see examples in the figure). An example is given here (see figure) to illustrate the method to calculate molecular weights of unknown DNA fragments. This method is usually called as Graphical Approach.

In practice, flowers are collected from wild plantations. Recently kewda has emerged as one of the important commercial commodities. A systematic cultivation practice is essential to develop a successful plantation and to increase the productivity.

Planting

Kewda suckers or crowns are generally planted during June-July. i.e. in the beginning of the monsoon, when the soil is not too wet. Planting in wet soil delayd the root formation and reduces the success level. Just after the first shower of rain or during the summer shower close to monsoon, kewda is planted.

In a full grown plant, stilt roots originate at a few feet above the ground to render a support for the huge canopy of the plant. Each part of the stem is capable enough for development of root initials, but it is retarded once the stem became old and leafless. The root initials develop at the terminal portion, where more leaves cluster, but they do not grow. Hence, the stem cuttings collected from the flowering or non-flowering shoots bear the rudimentary roots and when planted, they establish quickly.

In practice, the cuttings are collected and scattered on the ground for two to three days. Before planting, a few leaves closed to the base of the cuttings are removed to expose the root development sites. The cuttings are planted in trenches of 45 cm depth horizontally or at an angle of 30^o. The new leaves appear on the growing points one month after planting.

Kewda plants are usually planted on the field bunds for fencing and subsequently used for collection of flowers. A 30 years old plant can produce a crown of 6-7 m, for which it is difficult to develop a commercial plantation in a close spacing. It has been observed in the natural plantations that the plants may be spaced at 8-10 m distance to achieve a full length of plantation life. It is, therefore, suggested by the authors to follow a paired row method of planting maintaining a spacing of 4 m between plants and rows of a paired row and 6 m between two paired rows; which provides all facilities for plant growth upto 10-12 years and then pruning of a few branches are required. Hence, a plant population of 500 plants in the field and 150-200 plants on field bunds are maintained in a land of one hectare.

Kewda plant occurs wild in the entire coastal belt of Odisha , but abundant in Chhatrapur and Keluapalli areas of Ganjam district. There were about 3-4 lakhs trees of kewda in Ganjam district (Deshaprabhu, 1966). Main season of flowering starts from July-August and lasts for 2-3 months and a few flowers also come during November-December and March-May (Haines, 1961). Averagely, a plant produces 15-20 flowers per season depending on branching of the tree (Plate 32). A fully matured tree bears 30-40 spadices in a year (Deshaprabhu, 1966). Flowering is also dependant on rainfall, being better in years of high rainfall. Size of flower is bigger during rainy season. The spadices take a fortnight to mature, depending upon the weather condition. Ripe spadices, creamy in colour, give higher yield of perfume and of better quality than immature ones (Plate 33). The kewda flower of Ganjam district is also registered under the geographical indications (GI) of goods (Registration and Protection) act (Panigrahy, 2019).

The volatile oil in the flower determines the odour and flavour of kewda and it has been of particular fascination to the chemists. There are only a few reports on the chemical composition of kewda essential oil (rooh or otto) Dhingra et al. (1954) distilled the kewda flowers collected from five places of Ganjam (Odisha) and Ghazipur (Uttar Pradesh) districts. He found the oil yield to vary from 0.015 to 0.031% and the compounds identified were methyl ether of β- phenyl ethyl alcohol (65.97%), d-linalool (18.70%), dipentene (8.31%), phenyl ethyl acetate (3.48%) and citral (1.82%). The oil was of light to golden yellow in colour having the following physico-chemical properties viz., specific gravity (d20o) 0.932-0.958; refractive index (n20o) 1.485-1.491; optical rotation ([α]D) + 1.350 to + 2.080; acid value 1.4 – 6.7; ester value 15.9 – 40.9 and soluble in equal volume of 80 % alcohol (Deshaprabhu, 1966). Sadgopal (1959) also reported the major constituent of oil as methyl ether of β-phenyl ethyl alcohol (65 – 80%) and minor constituents as dipentene, α-linalool, phenyl ethyl alcohol, citral and some terpene esters.

According to Chandra (1985), the oil contained dipentene (6.0%), d -linalool (19.0%), phenyl ethyl acetate (4.6%), citral (1.8%), caproic acid (0.5%) and stearoptene (0.2%) besides the major constituent methyl ether of β-phenyl ethyl alcohol (67.0%).

Kewda plants are hardly attacked by the insect pests and diseases. However, a few fungal and bacterial diseases are found to reduce the yield of flowers significantly. Some important insect pests and diseases of this plant with their nature of damage and suggested control measures are discussed here as reported by Jagadev et al. (2001).

Pests

1. Bag worm

During the dry season, leaves are found to be attacked by bag worm (Manatha albipes; Fam. Psychidae; order- Lepidoptera) (Plate 36). The larva, a foliage feeder, feeds on the chlorophyll and veins of leaves leaving the mid-rib resulting in perforation of leaves. In case of heavy infestation, the leaves become dry. Extensive damage arrests the vegetative growth resulting in significant reduction of flowering. Thus, the insect is considered to be of economic importance, but till date neither the extent of economic loss caused to the crop nor its control measures have been worked out.

Kewda plants are mostly propagated through vegetative means. The common propagating materials used are ground suckers. The planting materials are planted in paired-row method maintaining a spacing of 4m from plant to plant and row to row keeping a spacing of 6 m between paired rows. In a field of one hectare, a minimum plant population of 500 plants in the field and 150 plants on the field bunds with a total of 650 plants are maintained. A fertilizer dose of 30:15:15 kg NPK/ha and 4 cartloads (100 cft) of FYM/ha are applied. The planting of collected ground suckers is normally done in the field just before monsoon after thorough land preparation under rainfed condition.The earthing-up of the plants are done up to five years of planting for quick initiation of flowering at the age of 5 years after planting. During the first year, the operational cost per hectare comes to Rs.28,900/- and from 2^nd to 5^th years, it comes to Rs.6,600 per year and then the maintenance cost from 6^th year onwards comes to Rs.6,000/- per year. The details of the operational cost per hectare of kewda cultivation under rainfed condition of coastal Ganjam district is given at Table 23. Kewda plant comes to flower on the 5^th year of planting, but the annual net profit begins on the 6^th year of planting and the cumulative net profit starts on the 10^th year (Table 24). The economic viability of kewda plantations is observed from 10^th to 30^th year of planting and after 30^th year, the net profit declines. A farmer can earn an annual profit of Rs.61,000/- per hectare of kewda cultivation from 11^th to 15^th year, which goes on increasing and from 26^th to 30^th year, the annual net return reached to Rs.1,23,400/- with a cumulative return of Rs.4,04,970/- on the 30^th year of planting. Then at the age of 35^th year, it declines to Rs.1,07,800/ - and at 40^th year to Rs.87,000/- per annum (Table 24). Although the profit was calculated only on the basis of sale of flowers yield, some additional profit can be obtained from other plant parts like leaves and stilt roots. After distillation of one lakh flowers, the spent over flowers and plant parts can be utilized as fertilizer/manure by selling at a rate of Rs.1000/- per batch. In the two blocks (viz., Chhatrapur and Rangeilunda) of Ganjam district, about 7,000 women are engaged for collection of flowers, leaves and stilt roots and they prepare ropes and other household items from the roots and leaves. It has been observed that one female can prepare 12 bundles of ropes each of 12 m length and the sale rate of rope is about Rs.10/- per metre. The ropes are sent to the markets of Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh) and Chennai (Tamil Nadu) for sale. The profit can also be increased by incorporating some inter-crops like Casuarina, coconut, Agasti and medicinal crops like Patchouli etc. Further, kewda can be taken on the sand dunes and waste saline land of the coastal lines, where no other crops can be grown profitably. Hence, kewda needs better attention for its extensive cultivation with a foresight on the perfume industry.

Principles to create effects

Balance

It is a visual equilibrium of different garden elements.

Formal Garden : Balance is achieved by positioning plants, other landscape objects at equal distance from a real (or) imaginary plane (or) axis.

Informal Garden : Balancing is mainly a neutralizing effect. (eg.) Opposite colours in the colour wheel, contrasting texture, different numbers, shapes, forms, line and pattern are cleverly employed to neutralize one another.

Proportion

It refers to the share of the different parts (or) components to the whole. It refers to all ingredients being mixed in right measure, not essentially in equal measure.

1. Ornamental ferns

Adiantum capillus – Maiden hair fern

Asplenium nidus – Bird’s nest fern

Cheilanthes argentea – Silver fern

Davallia bullata – Squirrels foot fern

Nephrolepsis aureum - Boston fern

Polypodium aureum – Hare’s foot fern

Pteris cretica – Brake/ Ribbon fern

Drynaria quercifolia -Oak-leaf fern / basket fern

I. General information

1. Cacti plants suitable for rock garden are Opuntia, Cereus and Mamillaria
2. Succulents suitable for rock garden are Agave, Aloe, Euphorbia splendens, Sedum, Sempervivum, Stapelia, Yucca, Furcraea
3. Ferns suitable for rock garden are Drynaria, Nephrodium, Nephrolepis, Polypodium
4. Famous rock garden of India is located at Chandigarh
5. The founder of Rock garden in Chandigarh is Nek Chand
6. Annuals suitable for rock garden are

I. General information

1. Lotus stem is referred as naval cord of Lord Vishnu
2. Lotus flower is described as the throne of Brahma
3. Vishnu, Brahma and Laxshmi are associated with lotus
4. Poet Asvaghosa reported that Lord Buddha saw lotuses and flowering trees in Nandavana
5. Surface flowering plants of water garden are

Introduction

Agriculture has been the back bone of Indian economy and culture and it will be continued to remain as such for a long time in future. Parallel to this, energy security of a country is also very important and efforts have been given on renewable energy utilization since the fossil fuel based energy is depleting at a very fast rate. In agricultural fields, considerable amount of energy is used to do different field activities e.g. ploughing, irrigation through pumps, intercultural operations, spraying of agricultural chemicals for plant protection, harvesting, post-harvest processing etc. Therefore, there is also need to replace the conventional energy source with renewable sources to operate above mentioned agricultural activities.

Approximately, 35% of the crop production is damaged if pest and diseases are not controlled at right time. Uniform spraying of liquid formulations throughout the crop field is very important for effective control of pest and diseases. Using sprayer, liquid pesticide formulations are generally broken down to minute droplets of effective size for uniform distribution over a large surface area. Different types of sprayers are used in agricultural field based on different requirements.

It is a common knowledge that most of the farmers apply irrigation water until all the points in the field are fully wetted and covered with a thin sheet of water. Studies have indicated that a significant (20-25%) amount of irrigation water is lost during its application at the farm due to poor farm designing and unevenness of the fields. This problem is more pronounced in the case of rice fields. Unevenness of fields leads to inefficient use of irrigation water and also delays tillage and crop establishment options. Fields that are not levelled have uneven crop stands, increased weed burdens and uneven maturing of crops. All these factors tend to contribute to reduced yield and produce quality which reduce the potential farm income. Effective land levelling is meant to optimize wateruse efficiency, improve crop establishment, reduce the irrigation time and effort required to manage crop.

Reasonably levelled agriculture fields has advantage over uneven and undulating crop fields as unevenness of the soil surface has a significant impact on the seed germination, crop stand and its yield. Traditionally land levelling was being done throughout India by bullock drawn plough or tractors and applying different devices for levelling the field by visual assessment e.g. on small plots with hoes, or with draft animals and equipment such as ploughs and bars or scrapers or grading. Equipment such as grading blades and hydraulically operated levellers mounted on wheels are used with tractors. More advanced and sophisticated levelling equipment is operated with a laser emitter, a laser sensor or receiver, and a scraper pulled by a tractor. After the desired level or slope of the field and/or the difference of the high and low spots have been surveyed, the emitter is set to send a rotating laser beam creating a plane of laser light above the field surface. The laser light is used as the levelling reference. It directs the hydraulic system of the moving tractor and scraper, and thereby controls the levelling. Hence, laser levelling or laser land levelling is levelling the crop field within certain degree of desired slope using a guided laser beam throughout the field.

Sowing of Seed: It is a process of planting seeds of crops in well prepared or no till field or nursery beds/pots for raising crops in following methods:

Methods of Sowing: The sowing method is determined by the crop to be sown and resources on the disposal of farmer. There are 6 sowing methods which differ in their merits, demerits and adoption. Those are:

1.Broad casting

2.Broad or Line sowing

3.Dibbling

4.Transplanting

5.Planting

6.Putting seeds behind the plough.