eChapters

1. INTRODUCTION

‘Fertigation’ is the technique of supplying dissolved fertilizer to crops through an irrigation system (Haynes, 1985). When efficient irrigation system combined with both nutrients and water, it can lead to obtain higher yield and preferable quality desired marketable produce.

Often, side-dressings of straight solid fertilizers are found to be the management constraints. Most of the growers have the experience of how much the applied fertilizer is either washed from the soil in run-off or leached below the root zone.

Continuous small applications of soluble nutrients have the benefits like labour, due to fertilizer being placed uniformly around the plant roots and allow savings/economy rapid uptake of nutrients by the plant.

ABSTRACT

A number of secondary metabolites are produced by cyanobacteria involving the non-ribosomal peptide biosynthetic pathway. Some of these compounds have potential biotechnological applications, whereas others (the cyanotoxins) are undesired due to their toxicity to animals. The occurrence of toxic cyanobacterial blooms in freshwater bodies that are used as source for human consumption, recreation and irrigation are frequent nowadays due to increasing artificial eutrophication of these environments. It is important to monitor toxin-producing strains in order to prevent the adverse effects caused by their toxins to human and animal health. Thus, the development of rapid and sensitive methods for the detection of cyanotoxins is important as they could be useful to monitor water supplies and contribute for watershed monitoring strategies. Current methods include cell counting, microscopic identification and toxin analysis by biochemical and analytical techniques. However, in recent years, molecular biology techniques, such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR), have been used to amplify specific regions within biosynthetic genes for rapid and sensitive identification of toxic cyanobacteria. The aim of this chapter is to provide an update of cyanotoxin biosynthesis and discuss the advances and limitations of molecular biology regarding its application as indicative of cyanotoxin production.

ABSTRACT

The continuing depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer mainly due to release of man-made atmospheric pollutants such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have resulted in the increase of solar ultraviolet-B radiation (UV-B; 280-315 nm) reaching to the Earth’s surface. UV-B is a small (less than 1% of total energy) but highly active component of the solar spectrum that can penetrate to biologically significant depths in lakes, ponds, rivers and oceans. It has been demonstrated that UV-B can cause wide ranging effects including mutagenesis, destruction of proteins/enzymes, inhibition of a number of vital metabolic processes and formation of thymine dimers in DNA leading to death of a number of organisms. A number of microbes including strict photoautotrophs always grow in lighted habitats and thereby always sense and face the stress of solar UV-B radiation. Similarly, humans are also exposed to varying levels of UV-B radiation depending upon the altitudes and latitudes of the location. A wide ranging effect of UV-B such as cataracts, skin cancer, immunosupression etc. has been reported in human. Damaging effects of increased UV-B radiation has also been shown in a number of microbes. These effects include inhibition of growth and survival, decrease in photosynthetic pigments, loss of PS II and RuBISCO activity, inactivation of nitrogenase enzyme and inhibitory effects on several other metabolic processes. Among photosynthetic pigments, phycobiliproteins seem to be the primary target of action since phycobilisomes are completely disintegrated after UV-B exposure. In this contribution an attempt has been made to put in perspective the main effects of UV-B radiation on microbes and human health.

ABSTRACT

Frankia is a gram-positive, microaerophilic, actinomycete that enters into symbiotic associations with a number of woody dicotyledonous plants called actinorhizal plants. Frankia can fix atmospheric nitrogen through such associations. The actinorhizal-Frankia association is beneficial for the environment, since it increases the fertility of soils. Extensive studies on the biochemical and molecular aspects helped in the classification of Frankia. PCR-RFLP studies of the 16S rRNA and the nif regions of Frankia revealed considerable information regarding the diversity of Frankia strains, isolated from different parts of the world. The completion of three whole genomes of Frankia has bolstered the study of the molecular organization of the genome. Comparative genomics study of the three complete genomes revealed that, the strains reflected the biogeographical history of the host plants they infected. Striking similarity in the codon usage patterns highlights the fact that they may have evolved as a unit. In the present review we highlighted the taxonomy of Frankia and the host plants, the Frankia-actinorhizal association, regulation of infectivity, biochemical and molecular characterization, phylogeny and genomics of Frankia and stressed the need for metabolomic study of the Frankia-actinorhizal association.

Plant body consists of numerous microscopic box like components called cells. The word cell has been derived from the Latin word cellula, meaning a small room. The descriptive term for this smallest living biological structure was coined by Robert Hooke in a book he published in 1665. When he compared the cork cells, he saw through his microscope to the small rooms monks lived in. The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life, which is classified as a living thing and is often called the building block of life (Maton et al., 1997). It is defined as a mass of protoplasm surrounded by a membrane- the plasma membrane- within which complicated chemical reactions are going on.

In the last chapter, we have broadly introduced the concept of tracer hydrology and also the concepts of isotopes as tracers, their characteristics and measurement techniques. In this chapter let us see the basis of application of each group of isotope tracers, injected and environmental.

What are the different groups of isotope tracers used in hydrology and how are they classified?

The knowledge on the fate of pesticides, after application in the environment is useful to research workers associated with their safe and effective use. It is important to know whether a xenobioticwillpersist orwill be inactivated. Frequently persistence is desirable for sustained control. However, for many cases, rapid detoxificationof the compound may be required to avoid cumulative effects. Most of the pesticides are not very soluble in water andtheir oxidation orhydrolysis (or both)leads to formation of polar groups. Such reactions are called primary metabolic reactions, often, but not always. Theproducts ofthese primary reactions undergo secondary changes whereby they are conjugated with endogenous substances to form molecules that are more readily excreted. In higher animals, these changes facilitate the transportation of metabolites of pesticides in blood, which in turn leads to their eventual excretion.

Agriculture in India is not of recent origin, but has a long history dating back to Neolithic age (7500–6500 B.C). It changed the life style of early man from nomadic hunter of wild berries and roots to cultivator of land. Agriculture is benefited from the wisdom and teachings of great saints. The wisdom gained and practices adopted have been passed down through generations. The traditional farmers have developed the nature friendly farming systems and practices such as mixed farming, mixed cropping, crop rotation etc. The great epics of ancient India convey the depth of knowledge possessed by the older generations of the farmers of India. The modern society has lost sight of the importance of the traditional knowledge, which had been subjected to a process of refinement through generations of experience. The ecological considerations shown by the traditional farmers in their farming activities are now a days is reflected in the resurgence of organic agriculture.

Historical Perspective of Organic Farming

The available ancient literature includes the four Vedas, nine Brahnanas, Aranyakas, Sutra literature, Susruta Samhita, Charaka Samhita, Upanishads, the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata, eighteen Puranas, Buddhist and Jain literature, and texts such as Krishi-Parashara, Kautilya’s, Artha-sastra, Panini’s Ashtadhyahi, Sangam literature of Tamils, Manusmirit, Varahamihira’s Brahat Samhita, Amarkosha, Kashyapiya-Krishisukti and Surapala’s Vriskshayurveda. This literature was most likely to have been composed between 6000 B.C. and 1000 A.D. The information related to the biodiversity and agriculture (including animal husbandry) is available in these texts. Rig-Veda is the most ancient literary work of India. It believed that Gods were the foremost among agriculturists. According to ‘Amarakosha’, Aryans were agriculturists. Manu and Kautilya prescribed agriculture, cattle rearing and commerce as essential subjects, which the king must learn. According to Patanjali the economy of the country depended on agriculture and cattle-breeding. Plenty of information is available in ‘Puranas’, which reveals that ancient Indians had intimate knowledge on all agricultural operations. Some of the well known ancient classics of India are namely, Kautilya’s‘Arthashastra’; Panini’s ‘Astadhyayi’; Patanjali’s ‘Mahabhasya’; Varahamihira’s ‘Brahat Samhita’; Amarsimha’s ‘Amarkosha’ and Encyclopedic works of Manasollasa. These classics testify the knowledge and wisdom of the people of ancient period. Technical book dealing exclusively with agriculture was Sage Parashara’s ‘Krishiparashara’ in 1000 A.D. Other important texts are Agni Purana and Krishi Sukti attributed to Kashyap (500 A.D.).

Optimal quality organic produce that combines the desired textural properties, sensory shelf-life, and nutritional content results from the careful implementation of recommended production inputs and practices, careful handling at harvest, and appropriate postharvest handling and storage. This section will focus on an overview of general postharvest handling considerations unique to the marketing of registered or certified organic produce.

Maturity index for fruits and vegetables

The principles dictating at which stage of maturity a fruit or vegetable should be harvested are crucial to its subsequent storage and marketable life and quality. Post-harvest physiologists distinguish three stages in the life span of fruits and vegetables: maturation, ripening and senescence. Maturation is indicative of the fruit being ready for harvest. At this point, the edible part of the fruit or vegetable is fully developed in size, although it may not be ready for immediate consumption. Ripening follows or overlaps maturation, rendering the produce edible, as indicated by taste. Senescence is the last stage, characterized by natural degradation of the fruit or vegetable, as in loss of texture, flavour, etc. (senescence ends at the death of the tissue of the fruit). Some typical maturity indexes are described in following sections.

An experiment is a systematic process or activity which leads to collection of information on certain objects to give an answer to the objectives of the researcher.

The experiment in which certain absolute values like average, correlation coefficient, median, mode, etc are worked out to describe the population is known as absolute experiment.

The experiment in which the effects of different objects under consideration are compared is known as comparative experiment.

The variable whose change we wish to study is called as Response variable. For example- yield, mortality rate of insects etc.

The variable whose effect on the response variable we wish to study is termed as Factor. For example - variety, fertilizer, insecticide etc.

Here factor is the independent variable and response variable is the dependent variable.

The various levels of a factor whose effect on the response variable we wish to study are known as Treatment.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Owing to a varied agro-ecological and eco- edaphic condition prevalent in one or other part of the country, quite a large number of crops are grown in different parts of India. India is rich in bio-diversity with four hotspots out of twenty-five in the world. About 356 domesticated plant species having economic and botanical importance and 326 species with their wild relatives are found in Indian sub-continent. Besides the above, 9500 other plant species are also available. More than 50 different types of fruits, 50 different types of vegetables, 95 types of spices and condiments, medicinal and aromatic plants, plantation crops and ornamental crop plants have been recorded. To avoid confusion and identity, the horticultural plants are grouped into different categories based on similarity or dissimilarities. Grouping of the crop plants with similar characteristics is referred as classification.

Leafy vegetables are rich sources of provitamin-A, vitamin C and minerals like calcium, magnesium, iron, etc., They are the riches sources of roughes or fibres essential in human diet. The ICMR recommended dietary allowances of green leafy vegetables for adult women is 100g/day and men are 40g/day while for school children above 10 years it is 50g/day. Greens are rich in vitamins and minerals essential for healthy functioning of organs of body. Amaranth, beet leaf, spinach, fenugreek, etc., are the major leaf vegetables grown in India. In addition, a number of under-utilized annual crops are also grown as leaf vegetables in specific regions. Tender stems and leaves of a number of perennial crops are rich sources of vitamins and minerals and are used for cooking.

10.1. Amaranth (Amaranthus sp)

Amaranth is the most common leaf vegetable grown in India. Amarnath is an annual herb with erect growth and scarce to profusely branching habit. Stem is succulent and green or purple or mixed shades of these two. There are two sections in Amaranthus, viz., Amaranthus and Blitopsis. Majority of leaf cultivars grown in India belong to Amaranthus tricolor. Among the several kinds of greens Amaranthus occupy a special place because it has a large number of species grown in one or the other part of country.

Some of the important improved varieties released are CO-2 and CO-5 from TNAU, Coimbatore, Pusa Kiran, Pusa Kirti and Pusa Lal Choulia from IARI, New Delhi, Arka Arunima and Arka Suguna from IIHR, Bangalore. Amaranth are popular all over India by different names. While in northern parts it is popularly known as choulia, in south it is popularly called as keerai or cheera or koora or soppa. The general composition of amaranth is given below:

Abstract

Buffalo is the second major source of milk supply in the world. India, Pakistan, China, Egypt, Nepal, Myanmar, Italy, Sri Lanka, Iran, and Turkey are the top ten countries of highest buffalo milk production. In Asian countries, Riverine buffalo is mostly used milk purpose breed. Buffalo milk is a plentiful source of nutrients including fat, protein, essential fatty acids, essential amino acids, lactose and beneficial oligosaccharides, indispensable fat and water soluble vitamins, vital minerals. It contains more total solids, fat, protein, lactose and calcium as compared to cow milk. Buffalo milk possesses wide potential to be used in the production of a range of dairy products. On account of the differences in physico-chemical and biochemical properties between buffalo and cow milk, conventional processing technology and equipment for cow milk may not be suitable for buffalo milk processing. Changes and modifications must be considered for making certain products. This chapter aims to highlight the nutritional profile including amino acid profile, lipid profile and mineral composition; physico-chemical properties and potential of buffalo milk in the dairy sector.

Abattoir: An establishment where animals are butchered is known as abattoir. It is also known as slaughterhouse.

Abiotic: Abiotic means any factor which is not biological / a biological and especially there is no involvement of the organisms in synthesis of certain compounds.

 Abnormal milk: It is milk that is not smooth and homogenous but is flaky, ropy, stringy, slimy, water, discoloured or bad flavoured. It may be due to animal sickness or disease or due to excessive medicines given or uncleaned milk condition.

 Abomasum: It is the fourth stomach of the Ruminants which is lying close to the

Omasum or the third stomach, in which digestion gets completed by the supply of the digestive juice. It is also called Reed stomach, rennet stomach, rennet-bag, or reed

tripe and maw (Plate 1).

 Abrassive peeler: It is equipment comprising a rotating drum lined with carborandum (an abrasive material) in which certain vegetables like potato and ginger are tumbled and exposed to the abrasive action of the carborandum lining, thereby facilitating separation of peel from the vegetables (Plate 2).

Diagrammatic Presentation of Data

The quantitative data when classify are converted into averages and if the number of average is large then it is not possible to draw a conclusion from their large numbers of averages. Moreover quantitative data are dull, confusing, boring for many of us. Therefore, a statistical device to make such confusing data more attractive was developed i.e. if such complex data are presented by geometric f igures, pictures, graphs or curves then it will become more attractive and more impressive, is called as diagrammatic representation of data. These diagrams are nothing but the use of geometrical figures to improve the overall presentation and offer visual assistance for the reader.

Types of Diagrams

Generally, diagrams are made for a special series or a time series and they are divided into five different categories:

1) One dimensional diagrams

2) Two dimensional diagrams

3) Three dimensional diagrams

4) Pictograms

5) Cartograms

• General Consideration

• Post-mortem examination of large animals

• Post-mortem examination of poultry

• Steps in post-mortem examination

• Writing of post-mortem report

• Collection, preservation and dispatch of specimens for laboratory diagnosis

General Consideration

Necropsy is examination of animal after death also known as post mortem examination. It helps in diagnosis of diseases and their control. It is said that “Necropsy is a message of wisdom from dead to living”. Necropsy include systemic examination of dead animal, recording of pathological lesions, their interpretation to make diagnosis of disease. Sometimes it is difficult to arrive any conclusion merely based on gross examination of dead animal. Then one should seek the help of laboratory examinations such as Histopathology, Microbiology, Immunology and Toxicology for confirmation.

A study was conducted to assess utilization pattern of ICT based Information by the livestock owners in using information communication technology with special reference to enhanced livestock production, in Mathura district of Uttar Pradesh. A total of 80 farmers were selected for study. The results showed that cent percent of the farmers had availability and accessibility of mobile phones as well as television. Majority of the livestock farmers are regularly using ICT tools for information dissemination. Majority (85.00%) of respondents were saying scientific information of livestock is available on mobile followed by (25.00%) of respondents said this scientific information are available on computer. Apart from these (68.75%) of respondent usage of mobile as ICTs tools for getting health related information of animals. Mobile phone was the most frequently and widely used while radio was least used ICT tool among the livestock farmers being used for the purpose of getting information.

INTRODUCTION
An Agro-Processing Centre (APC) is a facility that processes agricultural products to enhance farmers’ income. APCs are capable of both primary and secondary processing, and they also serve as hubs for training, demonstrations, and offering custom services. These centres are designed to help farmers add value to their raw produce, allowing them to establish a stronger presence in the agriculture sector while mitigating the effects of climate change and market fluctuations.The success of any agro-processing venture heavily depends on careful planning and strategic decision-making in its initial stages. One of the most critical factors in ensuring the efficient operation of an agro-processing facility is site selection, which involves evaluating potential locations based on several key parameters such as accessibility, availability of raw materials, labor availability, infrastructure, and proximity to markets. A well-chosen site can significantly reduce transportation costs, ensure a steady supply of inputs, and enhance the overall profitability of the enterprise.
Once the site is selected, the next crucial step is plant layout. A thoughtful and efficient layout maximizes space utilization, streamlines workflows, minimizes waste, and optimizes the use of resources such as water and energy. The layout should facilitate smooth movement of raw materials through various processing stages and ensure the safety of both workers and products. An ideal plant layout not only improves operational efficiency but also adheres to industry standards and regulatory requirements.Additionally, preparing a comprehensive project report is essential for securing financial backing and guiding the implementation of the project. The project report serves as a detailed blueprint, outlining the objectives, scope, financial projections, market analysis, and risk assessments. It provides stakeholders, including investors and lenders, with a clear understanding of the project’s viability and potential returns. The process of preparing a project report

Cow Based Formulations describes traditional agricultural preparations made from cow-derived materials and other locally available ingredients for soil fertility, pest management, disease management, crop growth, and stress management. The chapter covers Ghana Jeevamrutham, Jeevamrutha, Amruthajalam, Amudham solutions, buttermilk-based preparations, and microbial formulations for improving soil fertility. It also presents Neemastram, Agniastram, Brahmastram, Dashparni Kashayam, and related preparations for pest management, followed by BeejAmrutham, Beejaraksha, herbal teas, and other disease-management inputs. Panchagavya, fish amino acid, egg amino acid, vermiwash, and cow dung–asafoetida solution broaden the discussion toward growth promotion and stress management in natural farming. using locally accessible agricultural resources today.

INTRODUCTION

Biodiversity  refers to varieties of life on the Earth including  animals, plants, microbes and genes within them, their habitats and ecosystems and all variations within a given ecosystem, biome or entire planet. Biodiversity is the basis of life on Earth, important for the functioning of ecosystems, provides us with products and services without which we cannot live. Consider our food range in India. It ranges from Indian bread (chapatti), rice and rice products and related curries and other varieties made out of different vegetables. These food items are made of wheat, paddy, maize, bajra, ragi, potato, tapioca, sweet potato,  yams and corns, pulses like pigeon pea, green and black gram, Bengal gram, soyabean, vegetables like tomato, brinjal, cucumber, pumpkin, drum stick, bitter gourd, snake gourd, bottle gourd and various gourds, French bean, amaranth and  so many leafy  vegetables, spices and condiments like chilly, cardamom, ginger, turmeric, pepper, nutmeg, clove, cinnamon, cumin, coriander, fenugreek etc. This is the diversity of food we have in India. Similarly, all other groups such as herbal medicine, ornamentals, timber and non-timber species are also very diverse.

4.1 Introduction

Discharge is also called as rate of flow. Discharge is defined as the volume of water flowing through a cross section in a unit time. It can be expressed as cubic metre per second (cumec), cubic feet per second (cusec), litre per sec (lps) etc. One cumec is equivalent to 35.5 cusecs or 1000 lps. The measurement of discharge is very important in everyday life starting from deciding the amount of irrigation to be supplied to a crop at a particular growth stage, or amount of water supply for domestic and industrial uses, for flood control and power generation etc. It plays a vital role in water resources planning. If a stage-discharge (also called as gauge-discharge) relationship for a particular gauging site is developed, then daily measurement of discharge in the gauging site is not required. Discharge can be estimated from the developed relationship of discharge versus stage if the measurement of stage is known.

Introduction

Cereal crops are of global importance and the lifeline of the humane civilization. Nutritionally, they are important sources of dietary protein, carbohydrates, Vitamin B complex, Vitamin E, iron, trace minerals and fiber. Major cereal crops produced worldwide include wheat, rice, maize and millets. Among them, wheat, maize and rice together comprise at least 75% of the world’s grain production. More than 70 per cent of the cereal crop produced in developed countries is fed to livestock whereas, in developing countries, 68-98 per cent of the cereal crop is used for human consumption (Chaven and Kadam, 1989). Rice is the most important and widely cultivated crop in the world and is the staple food for about 60% of the world’s human population. It is basically a crop of humid tropics, but it varies widely in physiological adaptability, hence grown successfully both in tropical and temperate conditions. Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is the another important and widely cultivated food crop in the world and important rabi crop of our country. In India, wheat is the second stable food crop after rice which contains more protein than any other cereals. Maize is an important kharif cereal in hilly, sub-mountained and even in plain regions of our country where it forms staple diet of the people.

Introduction

The demand for butter as table spread has declined due to high cost, poor spreadability at low temperature, high saturated fat and cholesterol content, changing life style and increased demand for healthy products. Today food industry is actively involved in new product development, this includes new formulations and imitation of foods being designed to compete with or replace existing products based on their superiority in convenience, cost and quality. The wide acceptance of bread in regular diet among urban consumers (75 percent of all household) reflects around 8 percent rate of growth in bread consumption. With this increase, the requirement of a suitable spread to complement has also increased. Table spreads include a variety of spreadable semi-solid products such as fat spreads, cheese spread, peanut butter etc. Butter has also been blended with vegetable oils/fat to produce a product that retains dairy qualities of butter with enhanced spreadability.

Introduction

Labour markets, poverty and inequality in the growth process
 
The theoretical discussion on the changes in the incidence of poverty and inequality in the growth process of agrarian economies from low levels of income has been a major topic in development economics. The impact of growth is delineated through the labour market, and any predictions about the impact on poverty and inequality must be based on some implicit or explicit view of the structure of labour markets and their functioning.

Setting price is a critical component of successful marketing. Vegetable growers have a greater level of control than most other growers over marketable yields, input costs and price. The closer a grower is to the consumer, the more control over price the grower has. Buyers perceive price to represent value of the product. Underpricing, or pricing too low, gives the perception that the product is inferior, while setting the price too high often drives customers away. Many growers make the mistake of setting the price too low at the beginning of the marketing season when competition is less and demand is strong and then find it difficult to increase price later in the season. Before setting price, gauge the level of competition and the consumer demand for your product. For example, organic produce may have a stronger demand in urban areas, so prices can be set at a higher level. Also, early-season produce, such as tomatoes, has high demand with little competition in most markets, resulting in a higher price range.

Abstract
The western Himalayan region is rich in a variety of natural resources owing to the existence of a range of biophysical and climatic interactions. Mountain inhabitants have been living in harmony with these natural resources for generations to meet their subsistence needs out of these resources.  However, recent decades have witnessed a substantial imbalance between man and nature that has adversely affected the livelihood of native people. Several anthropogenic and natural factors are responsible for this change. Furthermore, the exposure of mountain societies to outside world has opened up a number of new livelihood options based on both natural resources and other forms of human capital. The local people have adopted some livelihood practices suiting to the changed conditions at the expense of the age-old agri-silvi-pastoral mode of livelihood. There is an emerging challenge for policy makers and planners to make developmental interventions and tailor made livelihood options suiting to the changed scenario. Several government and non-government organizations and other agencies initiated a number of programmes that focus on natural resource management vis-à-vis livelihood improvement in the region. However, for want of cause and effect analysis many of these programmes are not yielding the desired results. This chapter provides an overview of the traditionally important livelihood practices of the western Himalayan region and some of the emerging livelihood supporting activities based on natural resources of the region. A case study of Bhimtal lake catchment where transformation of traditional livelihood has taken place at a rapid pace due to the influence of tourism and urbanization has also been included to highlight the emerging scenario. The paper suggests some useful policy options for planning livelihoods in the western Himalayan region of the country.

Use of insect-resistant varieties in integrated pest management is an economically and ecologically sound alternative to synthetic pesticides. A large number of germplasm lines of different fruit crops have been evaluated for resistance to pests, and a few genotypes with resistance to insects, mites and nematodes have been identified. The resistance of “Winter Majetin” apple variety against woolly apple aphid, Eriosoma lanigerum (Hausmann) was the first report of innate resistance to insect pests in fruit crops. Another successful example was the resistance to grape phylloxera, Daktulosphaira vitifoliae (Fitch), in which the susceptible European scions (Vitis vinifera) were grafted onto the resistant American rootstocks (Vitis labrusca) in late 1800s. Various leaf characteristics, such as hairiness, pubescence, thickness of veins, sponginess, stomatal density and fruit characteristics such as rough skin, have been reported to confer resistance to insect pests. High content of phenols, flavonols, potassium, calcium, and low carbohydrate and nitrogen contents have also been reported to confer insect resistance in various fruit plants. The germplasm has been screened against various pests under natural as well as artificial infestations. In apple, rootstocks (MM-series) resistant to woolly apple aphid have been developed. Molecular markers for three genes that confer woolly apple aphid resistance are located on two linkage groups (LG). Low infestation of the woolly apple aphid has also been recorded in Golden Delicious variety which incidentally is the most preferred host of apple fruit moth. The scab resistant apple selections, HCR21T200, HCR23T125, S80ER21T72 and TSR16T223 have also been found to be resistant to the European red mite, Panonychus ulmi (Koch). Peach varieties such as Flaming Gold, Stark Early Giant, Early White Giant and Flavour Crest are moderately susceptible to the peach leaf curl aphid, Brachycaudus helichrysi (Kalt.). Peach cultivar, Matchless has been reported tolerant to flat headed stem borer, Sphenoptera lafertei Thomson. Early maturing varieties of peach are reported to escape the fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) damage while Nemaguard, and Nemared rootstocks are resistant to important nematode pests. Almond varieties, Briggs Hard Shell, Katha 85, Ribba Selection and Tree No. 55 have been reported free from peach curl aphid infestation.

Coldwater fishes exhibit enormous diversity and have great potential for generating livelihoods, mitigating poverty and unemployment. Coldwater fishery deserves attention for improving production by ensuring seed and feed supply. Other important issues in fisheries sector relate to marketing, value addition and farming. There is need to have separate action plan for low volume high values, and high volume low values fishes. Coldwater fishery sector can be strengthened using the available technologies such as hatchery and seed rearing, management protocol breeding and grow out protocols, fish specific feed formulations, exotic carp farming, and fish farming in polythene lined irrigation/ watershed tanks. The sustainable fishery development in hills requires attention on defining and granting appropriate ownership of resources, developing state of art infrastructure, initiation and implementation of fisheries conservation including focus on native and exotic species through enforcement of protective legislation. Strengthening of hill fishery education will play a central role. A “strength, weakness, opportunity and threat analysis” suggests an integrated approach by addressing the issues on genetic characterization and conservation, environmental impact analysis, development of niche specific aquaculture system, focus on post production and health management issues, implementation of demonstration programmes, enhancement of institutional capabilities, and development of human resources. Research areas relating to capture fisheries, culture fisheries, extension and transfer of technologies are also important.

It is well recognized that sustainable management and sustainable livelihoods are inseparable. If neglected and if the present trends are not corrected in time, everyone’s future is threated. On the other hand, there is increasing recognition of living examples and demonstrated evidences of how the eco agricultural practices can help provide a solution to some of the major problems of today and tomorrow. Also, the main stream international agencies are emphasizing that agro-ecological approaches are the way forward. What the policy makers, farmers and people would like to know is How !it has been our experience that in most countries of the developing world the answer to ‘How’ of eco-agricultural is being demanded!

Theory

Rural Development: The economic betterment of people as well as greater social transformation. The efforts for rural development comprises the direct and indirect involvement of people at the grass root level for development of agriculture/animal husbandry, industry, communication, education, health and allied sectors. 
Democratic Decentralization: To ensure people’s participation in rural development programmes, democratic decentralization has been the core principle of the government since 1957. In the process, people’s participation in all developmental activities has been the unique phenomena to find out the solutions of their problems.
Panchayat Raj: On the principle of democratic decentralization, Panchayat Raj institutions were launched in 1957 as per the recommendations of Balwant Rai Mehta Committee. Under this, the government has derived its authority from the people, and distribute to some extent to the people for decision and action at the local level called Panchayat Raj.

10.1. Introduction

During last few decades dairy animal production has been intensified several folds, along with this reproductive problems have also increased. For efficient dairy animal production, the cow should show regular reproductive activities like cyclic breeding activity, pregnancy at appropriate time, give birth of a live healthy calf and again pregnant after sometimes. If any of these activities are inadequate, then it substantially affects the profitability of the farm. There is an ample scope of improvement of these reproductive setbacks through traditional breeding, feeding and management. However, reproductive problems can be minimized by the use of recently developed reproductive techniques. It not only minimizes reproductive problems, but also improves the reproductive efficiency of the dairy herd and better exploitation of the genetic potential of high merit animals.

Introduction

Packaging and storage are two most important operations in post harvest supply chain of fresh and processed fruits and vegetables. The self-life, damage, loss, sale and profit from commodities depend on storage and packaging parameters. The primary objective of packaging of fruits and vegetables is to protect the contents during storage, transportation and distribution against deterioration, which may be physical, chemical, or biological. Packaging is hence provided at the point of production or processing or at distribution centers. Though packaging forms the last link in the chain of production, storage, marketing and distribution, it still plays an important role in delivering the contents safe from the ‘‘farm gate to the consumer plate.’’ Increase in production can have an impact on the consumer only when the food is wholesome, unadulterated and available under hygienic conditions at an economical price.

Pack inspection: It is similar to continuous inspection except that here inspector(s) may make in-process checks during different processing operations under contract but not required to be present all the times in the plant during operation.

Package: The package means a pre packed box, tin, barrel, pouch or can etc in which food article is packed.

Package store: A store that sells bottled or canned alcoholic beverages for consumption off the premises.

Packaging: Packaging is an industrial and marketing technique for containing, protecting, identifying and facilitating the sale and distribution of agricultural, industrial and consumer products. Packaging is defined as an enclosure of products, items or package in a wrapped pouch, bags, box, cup, bottle or any container form to perform one or more of the functions as containment, protection and preservation, communication and utility or performance. Technically, packaging is a system or method by which a product from the manufacturing point to the consumer level reaches in a safe and sound condition at an affordable cost. The primary purpose of the packaging is to protect the food product, to keep it in good condition and to preserve the flavour until it reaches the consumer. It is therefore, very essential that a suitable form of the packaging is chosen for a finished product. Packaging is an art, which determines the buying decision of a consumer. or Wrapping / placement of objects in paper / other packaging materials, keeping in box, etc is known as packaging which has two main functions, to assemble the produce / objects in convenient units for handling and to protect them during transporting, marketing and storage which results in extended shelf life of the produce. "Packaging" play a very important role not only in ensuring safety of the product during transportation, storage and distribution and in conveying information about the pack contents to the consumers, but also ensuring desired sensory characteristics and microbiological soundless till consumed.

In countries like India where majority of the population are vegetarians, leguminous vegetables serve as the major source of protein in the diet. In the developing third world countries, especially for the poor, the major protein source in the diet are vegetable legumes. Most leguminous vegetables are rich in phosphorus, calcium, iron and a number of essential vitamins. Crops like soybean, groundnut and Bamabara groundnut are also rich in fats which are needed by the body to absorb vitamin A.

2.1 Soil and Climate

Pomegranate grows well in sandy-loam and well-drained soils having a pH of 7.5. It can also be grown on light soils. Quality and colour development in light soils is good but poor in heavy soils. It tolerates salinity up to 9.00 EC/mm and sodicity 6.78 ESP. Even it can be grown well in slightly saline soils as it is considered a saline-tolerant plant (Patil and Waghmare 1983; Rao and Khandelwal 2001; Ram Asrey et al., 2002). Accumulation of salts, in excess of 0.5% of the soil mass causes dying off of growing roots. Interestingly, application of Paclobutrazol (250 ppm) was reported to reduce salinity damage (Saeed 2005). The presence of water-soluble salts like sulphates and chlorides and ex- changeable sodium negatively affect root formation.

Tomato
1. Damping off
Pathogen
Pythium aphanidermatum
Fusarium spp.
Sclerotium spp.
Symptoms
Damping off is the most important disease of tomato. Several seed and soil borne fungi can kill before the tender redical and plumule establish in the nursery bed. The pre emergence damping off and seed rotting is the usual cause of poor seedling stand. This type of damping off causes hidden loss but the post emergence damping off is more serious problem. Seedlings get infected near the soil line (collar region) after emergence and give wire stem symptoms. The tissue become soft, water soaked and weak causing the seedlings fall over and later on they die. The entire action is so fast that leaves remain green but they are unable to stand further.

The adoption of modern agricultural technologies has culminated into serious problems of pesticide resistance in major pests, resurgence in minor pests, elimination of populations of natural parasites, predators and pollinators, environmental pollution, pesticide residues in food chain and health hazards. World Health Organization (WHO) estimates one million pesticides poisoning cases and 20,000 deaths every year globally. This is due to high pesticide residues in food chain including cereals, pulses, vegetables, fruits, milk and milk products (including mother’s milk), fishes, poultry, meat products and water. Twenty five per cent of Indian food products contain pesticide residues above tolerance level compared to only 1.2% globally.

Sustainable agriculture or organic farming wherein biological inputs are maximum and chemical inputs are minimal, is drawing the attention of farmers across the world including India. For replacing chemical fertilizers, which supply plant nutrients by organic manure, the basic requirement is the availability of raw material i.e. the organic matter or biomass that can be decomposed to organic manure. The question that is often asked is what are the different sources of available biomass and how much of it is available? Different sources of biomass can be categorized as

Introduction

On 29 January 2000, the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity adopted a supplementary agreement to the Convention known as the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. The Protocol seeks to protect biological diversity from the potential risks posed by living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology. It establishes an advance informed agreement (AIA) procedure for ensuring that countries are provided with the information necessary to make informed decisions before agreeing to the import of such organisms into their territory. The Protocol contains reference to a precautionary approach and reaffirms the precaution language in Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. The Protocol also establishes a Biosafety Clearing-House to facilitate the exchange of information on living modified organisms and to assist countries in the implementation of the Protocol.

2.1 Quantitative Classification

It the data are classified on the basis of phenomenon which is capable of quantitative measurement like age, height, weight, prices, production, income expenditure, sales, profits, etc., it is termed as quantitative classification. The quantitative phenomenon under study is known as variable.  For example the daily incomes of different retail shops in a town may be classified as under.

1.    Introduction    468

2.    Biofuel Cell    470

    2.1.    Microbial-based Biofuel Cells, 471
        2.1.1.    Microbial bioreactors producing H2 for conventional fuel  cells, 475
        2.1.2.    Microbial fuel cells producing electrochemically active metabolites in  
                the anodic compartment, 476
        2.1.3.    Microbial fuel cells operating in the presence of artificial electron relays, 477
        2.1.4.    Microbial fuel cells producing electricity during wastewater treatment, 483
        2.1.5.    Microbial fuel cell producing  electricity from acetate or butyrate, 484

Abstract

While, life on Earth is dependent on microbes for many essential services, microbes are intimate partners in virtually every life process of plants by way of mobilization/acquisition of nutrients, out-competition and antagonism of pathogens, plant stress alleviation, plant growth promotion, co-metabolism, degradation of toxins, etc. Exploitation of such interactions between microbes and plants and optimization of plant microbiome could allow farmers to apply less chemical fertilizer, and pesticides besides improving overall plant health which paves the way for sustainable development. What is less appreciated, and less well understood, is the mechanism of microbes exerting such benefits to the plants. A greater understanding of how plants and soil microbes live together, communicate, build innate plant immunity, triggers hormone synthesis and benefit each other can therefore provide new strategies to improve plant productivity, while helping to protect the environment and maintain global biodiversity.

Abstract

The nutrition of tobacco plants relies upon the plant genotypic variation and soil characteristics which also influence the various microflora that inhabit the rhizosphere. The investigations were aimed to analyze the role of native and inoculated plant growth promoting bacteria on the uptake of major plant nutrients viz., nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium and also their supportive nature in reducing the infection caused by  Pythium aphanidermatum, the damping-off fungus of tobacco in nursery. Rhizosphere microorganisms include PGPR viz., Azotobacter, Azospirillum, Pseudomonas and Bacillus, AM fungi and Streptomyces. The addition of these microbes as bioinoculants in tobacco integrated nutrient and disease management resulted in better quality tobacco worth premium price.

Abstract

Cyanobacteria comprise a group of photosynthetic prokaryotes, which exhibit versatility in their morphological, biochemical and molecular characteristics and represent an untapped source of novel metabolites and genes. Their structural-functional flexibility makes them successful in diverse and extreme environments including high temperatures or levels of UV light and salinity, and co-exist in symbiotic/parasitic/mutualistic associations with various members of Plant and Animal kingdom. The intracellular colonization of cyanobacteria in wheat and rice roots and their potential as plant growth promoting agents for several crops, besides rice, has led to the deployment of novel formulations of cyanobacteria and agriculturally useful bacteria as biofilms and disease suppressive options in field studies.

Significant transformation took place in the traditional variety improvement and seed production programmes in the sixties and modernized with initiation of hybrid development programme in maize, sorghum and pearl millet, as well as with the introduction, breeding and release of semi dwarf high yielding varieties of wheat and rice. To support the release of varieties and their quality seed production Indian Parliament enacted Indian Seeds Act in 1966. Subsequently, National Seeds Corporation was launched by Government of India for scientific growth of seed industry in the country. All these developments led to the green revolution and country attained self-sufficiency in food crops.

Summary

Idealistic theories of property are projected to offer general and explicit statements of the justification for deciding legal and moral questions about the status property claims. Debates over property rights in biotechnology were occasioned by specific legislative proposals such as the US Animal Patent Act of 1986, and by filing of patent applications for DNA sequences and processes in the early 1990s. While these debates make sporadic petition to philosophical theories of property, moral claims were entwined with questions about filing requirements, tests for worth, and the rules for licensing and defending patents. The comparative scarcity of discussion on intellectual property at that time dictated the general approach of the chapter: Review basic philosophical approaches to property rights, and speculate on how one might use these approaches in constructing an argument pertinent to agricultural biotechnology. This chapter deals with different approaches to intellectual property in the field of Plant Sciences especially the Biotechnology. It incorporate many different types of intellectual property and a variety of incommensurable values play a role in the justification of intellectual property.

Summary

Multicellular organisms are made up of diverse set of cells. Cells respond to the changes in the particular microenvironment by means of cellular communication. This cell-cell communication is extremely important for the development, maintenance and survival of the organism. This communication is equally important for the unicellular organisms. Cells communicate to one another and respond to the environmental changes using diverse chemical languages, as discussed in this chapter. However, in many cases like multicellular organisms, cell communication is primarily mediated by specific receptor(s) expressed on the cell membranes. These receptors bind to the extracellular signaling molecules (called ligands) and activate specific signaling pathways to bring about particular cellular responses. These different receptors, ligands and signaling pathways are briefly discussed here.

Abstract

Despite several controversies surrounding the genetically modified (GM) crops or their produce, the production of such crops is constantly increasing, especially in developing countries. To regulate the GM produce in the market, several countries have set very strict regulatory procedures for the approval to grow, import or utilize these GM crops as food or food ingredients. Hence, for regulatory compliance on GM labeling and identification of genetic traits, the development of reliable, sensitive and precise detection assays have become essential. The detection of GM produce is carried out by detecting either the inserted foreign DNA or the novel transgenic protein specifically expressed in GM crops. This article broadly focuses on some DNA and protein-based detection methods employed for GM produce and significant current advances in such detection technologies.

Gladiolus saundersii

Abstract

Pruning is the most important cultural operations in tea cultivation. Time of pruning affects health of bush, incidence of pests and disease, yield and distribution of crop. Root starch reserve at the time of pruning affects the recovery of bush and hence considered as the most crucial factor for deciding time of pruning. Downward movement of photosynthates was found maximum in December and January, thereby maximizing the starch reserve in roots. Maximum recovery of tea bush and minimum loss in annual crop was found when pruned during December – January. Pruning in remaining months (February – November ) may result in crop loss to the tune of 5 per cent – 37 per cent in plain areas. Clonal varieties differ in root starch accumulation during winter months hence pruning time of individual clone needs to be decided accordingly to enhance recovery of plants.