eBook Chapters

ABSTRACT

In Tamilnadu majority of the people are engaged in agricultural work and they mainly depend upon the water resources. But at present both surface and subsurface water has become deficient because of over exploitation. Since last few years, conventional methods were employed to improve the surface and subsurface water conditions. But these methods provide less accurate result and consume more time. So to improve the conditions modern tools, such as remote sensing and GIS are being used to identify the ground water potential zones in Tamilnadu. It provides accurate resulst and consumes less time.

A project was carried out in Gadilam lower sub basin which falls in the part of Cuddalore District, Tamilnadu. The IRS 1D imagery was collected and interpreted using image processing software and Geo media GIS Software in conjunction with collateral data to prepare Hydro geomorphology, land use, geology and lineament maps Field checks were made and transferred the field data on the base map. By application of overlay analysis of the above thematic maps, using GIS techniques, the recharge zones were identified.

The satellite image mosaic map of Gadilam lower sub basin was generated to identify ground water potential zones. Average monthly rainfall data for the past 50 years were collected. Using Remote sensing and GIS techniques, the thematic maps such as Geology, Geomorphology, Soil, Drainage, Land use, Lineament zones have been generated for this study. Geophysical survey was also conducted in various locations and the aquifer parameters were measured. Details related to land and water resources, cropping pattern, water levels and water qualities from PWD ground water division, land use and well censes data of villages from village Administrative Officer, tank details from PWD were collected and analyzed

After analyzing the various thematic maps, they were finally overlaid. Thus the groundwater potential zones of Gadilam lower sub basin was identified.

ABSTRACT

Petroleum exploration is the art of searching hydrocarbon reserves in unknown regions by geological, geophysical and geochemical methods. The selection of effective exploration targets is an important step to achieve success in oil exploration and its selection also dependents on study of basic petroleum geological conditions. Petroleum geologists generally consider basins to be a basic geological unit for petroleum exploration and their main task is to find and determine various sedimentary basins. The remote sensing images have characteristics of really and macroscopic to provide accurate and visualization data for directly determining geometric shapes of sedimentary basins. Remote sensing techniques are more effective in understanding the study of basins in an out-of-the-way about mountains and remote deserts.

Key words: Petroleum Exploration, Sedimentary basin, geology, basin, geometry.

4.1 Introduction

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is a major food security crop in South Asia, with 42% of the wheat in this region grown following rice (Oryza sativa L.) on 13.5 million hectares of land. Resource-conserving technologies offer considerable potential for improving the sustainability and productivity of wheat in the rice-wheat system of South Asia. These include raising input use efficiency, cutting costs, providing various environmental benefits, and ultimately improving farmer livelihoods and helping to reduce poverty.

History of Social Networking Services

The notion that individual computers linked electronically could form the basis of computer mediated social interaction and networking was suggested early on. There were many early efforts to support social networks via computer-mediated communication, including Usenet, ARPANET, LISTSERV, bulletin board services (BBS) etc.

Early social networking websites included Classmates.com(1995), focusing on ties with former school mates, and SixDegrees.com(1997), focusing on indirect ties. User profiles could be created, messages sent to users held on a “friends list” and other members could be sought out who had similar interests to yours in their profiles. Whilst these features had existed in some form before SixDegrees.com came about, this would be the first time these functions were available in one package. Despite these new developments (that would later catch on and become immensely popular), the website simply wasn’t profitable and eventually shut down. It was even described by the website’s owner as “simply ahead of its time.” Two different models of social networking that came about in 1999 were trust-based, developed by Epinions.com, and friendship-based, such as those developed by Jonathan Bishop and used on some regional UK sites between 1999 and 2001. Innovations included not only showing who is “friends” with whom, but giving users more control over content and connectivity.

Introduction

The development of DNA technology over the last few decades has led to generation of huge amount of data from plant and animal genome. The main sources of markers are mitochondrial DNA (mt DNA), minisatellites, micro satellites and anonymous nuclear sequences assayed using highly specific PCR primers or by using the RAPD technique. A major contribution comes from molecular markers used for analyzing genetic variations. There has been the infusion of computers, softwares and online databases into the daily activities of many molecular geneticists. The identification of abundant, highly variable loci, detectable by a wide variety of techniques has led to a revolution in the way researcher view and analyses levels of variation. We will here discuss about current computer programs in this area to characterize the DNA profiles and data analysis for intra and inter population structure, phylogenetic inference and parentage determination.

ABSTRACT

The present paper describes application of synergistic action of microalgae viz., Spirulina platensis, Chlorella vulgaris, and Oscillatoria princeps coupled with state-of-the-art microbial biotechnology (that involved strains of Bacillus subtilis, Nitrobacter winogradskyi, Aspergillus flavus, and A. niger) developed by Biotechnology Resource Centre (BRC), Mumbai for treatment of secondary liquid effluents from a gelatine manufacturing industry. The growth of mixed cultures of selected microbial and algal species was measured respectively in terms of Colony Forming Units (CFUs) and Optical density (O.D.) of the culture. The results were indicative of efficient degradation potential of the proteinaceous liquid effluents. Moreover their BOD and COD loads reduced by 30.75 % and 84.10 % respectively after the treatment. Furthermore, the bio-safety of algal biomass cultured in selected effluents as feed supplement was tested on Swiss albino mice (Mus musculus). Mice in treated group didn’t exhibit any observable adverse effect on their growth or on their reproductive performance. In fine, the liquid effluents of gelatine manufacturing industries were polished along with production of probiotic food supplement.

Need of Analytics in Fisheries Management

New technologies are introduced for industrial vessels every day: Fuel and gear sensors, cameras, electronic catch reports etc. There is a global push to track small-scale fishing vessel. In the coming years, fisheries monitoring centers will have to adjust from tracking a few hundred vessels to tens of thousands of vessels, meaning huge quantity of data. To make sense of all this information, it must be properly analysed. The future of fisheries depends on big-data analytics

This may help in many ways. Fishing trips could be tailored to meet quotas in the shortest time reducing fuel consumption and crew costs. Real-time catch data could help administrations close a fishing zone once quota is reached. Fisheries administrations can monitor catch efforts over an entire region and decide which zones to close, improving management of stocks and fishing licenses. Fighting the challenge of Illegal and Unreported fishing contributing to over-exploitation of fish stocks. Use of disruptive technologies in fisheries and aquaculture like block chains, sensors and automatic identification systems (AIS) has the potential to change the processes profitability and sustainability of the sector

Globally used popular Data Science Software

• MS-EXCEL

• SPSS (IBM)

• STATA • MINITAB

• SAS

• R

• PYTHON

Introduction

Data Analysis is an approach to analyse data sets to summarise their main characteristics and extract valid information. The importance of hypothesis is generally recognised more in the studies which aim to make predictions about some outcome. As it is not possible to work on the whole population, each group is represented only by a sample of observations and if another sample is drawn, the numerical values would change. This variation between different samples drawn from the same population cannot be eliminated or reduced fully. One is supposed to draw inferences in the presence of the sampling f luctuations. Statistical tools and techniques are applied to check whether the observed differences are real significant differences or non- significant ones.

Introduction

A population is the set of all objects we wish to study. A sample is part of the population we study to learn about the population. A census may be defined as an enumeration or evaluation of every member of a population. A parameter is any measurement that describes an entire population. A statistic is any measurement computed from a sample of the individual observations made. As per Best (1977), "Research is considered to be more formal, systematic, and intensive process of carrying on a scientific method of analysis."

Introduction

“Quality” of fish refers to the aesthetic appearance and freshness or degree of spoilage which the fish has undergone or involves safety aspects such as being free from harmful bacteria, parasites or chemicals. “Quality’’ is a term which must be defined in association with an individual product type. For example, it is often thought that the best quality fish is the one which is consumed within the first few hours of post mortem. However, very fresh fish which are in rigor mortis will be of hard texture and difficult to fillet and skin are often unsuitable for smoking or drying. Thus, for the processor, a slightly older fish which have passed through the rigor process are more desirable.

In today’s technology driven 21^st century, software has become an integral part of our day to day work. Starting from checking day’s schedule in tablet after waking up in the morning till setting up alarm before going to bed at night, we are using numerous software applications in a day without even realizing the efforts spent to make those applications work perfectly every time we use it. If we look deeply, each software application in computer or in any electronic/computer controlled device go through multiple rigorous cycles of testing to ensure that it is working as intended after it was built by developers and before it was launched in market for public use. In software industry, this process is termed as software quality assurance (QA) or software testing which is being considered as one of the most flourishing verticals of IT software services sectors in 21^st century.

Software testing is one of the most important phases of software development life cycle and it consumes anything between 10% to 45% of project budget depending on the type of the software and methodology followed in the development and testing life cycle. There are different types testing e.g. unit testing, integration testing, system testing, user acceptance testing, alpha, beta testing which are exercised during the testing phase and QA team needs to provide the sign off before any product is released and implemented in production or in consumer market. With the ever increasing complexity of today’s software products along with the competitive market due to easy availability of multiple product options/vendors, the importance and awareness of software quality assurance has increased over years. Consequently, various software testing methodologies have been evolved in last two decades in order to perform testing in more structured and controlled manner. In addition, there is a continuous urge for improving the operational efficiency of the testing process in the organizations in order to produce better quality software at less cost.

Tissue culture is the culture and maintenance of plant cells or organs in sterile, nutritionally and environmentally supportive conditions (in vitro). Conventional breeding methods are the most widely used for crop improvement. But in certain situations these methods have to be supplemented with plant tissue culture techniques, either to increase their efficiency or to achieve an objective not possible through conventional methods.

The art of Indian traditional knowledge regarding herbal medicine has a long history and can be considered as a potential source of new medicine. India has great potential in the market for herbal medicine, which is evident by the fact that medicinal plants required to prepare 50% of the drugs mentioned in the British Pharmacopoeia are reported to be present in the Western Himalayan region alone and India has approximately 8% of the world’s biodiversity, including plant genetic diversity with medicinal properties (Singh, 2006). Traditional medicine is widely used in rural areas, where 70% of the country’s population resides. Almost 75% of the medicinal plants grow naturally in different states of India. These plants are known to cure many ailments in animals.

Ethno Veterinary Practices

Ethno Veterinary Practices, also known as Traditional Veterinary Medicinal Practices are regarded as information gained over a period of time passed on from generation to generation. It is a community based functional knowledge system which has been developed, preserved and refined by generations of people through continuous interaction, observation and experimentation with their surrounding environment. Rural farmers mostly rely on ancestral ethno veterinary practices to deal with the diseases of their livestock and poultry. Veterinarians also show considerable interest in the medicinal plants, employed in traditional systems. This emerging trend in favour of herbal medicine is also due to the issues related to the antimicrobial drug resistance and drug residues in foods (milk/meat/eggs) of animal origin.

SANTOSH P. SARANGAMATH & VIVEK M. PATIL

While System Software like device drivers and utilities enables the application software to interact with the computer hardware, Programming Software like compilers, debuggers and interpreters provides tools to assist a programmer in writing computer programs. However, most common users interact with their computers using Application Software, which enables them to carry out various daily tasks.

Application Software

Application software is programs that work with the operating system software to help the computer to do specific types of work. Applications are the pieces of software that perform tasks for the user besides helping the computer to operate (i.e. the task of system software). Applications range from games, calculators, and word processors (document creation programs). Application software can be easily divided by looking at exactly what function they serve. Listed below are some common types of software which one may encounter while using a computer. Application Software can be categorized into :

1.    Introduction    71
2.    Microorganisms in Food Industry    72
    2.1.    Microorganisms as the agents of fermentation in  
        traditional fermented foods, 73
    2.2.    Microorganisms as the source of food, 83
    2.3.    Microorganisms as a source of food supplements, 86

3.    Microorganisms in Pharmaceutical Industry    92

    3.1.    Antimicrobial agents from microorganisms, 92
    3.2.     Microorganisms as probiotics, 97
    3.3.    Microbial enzymes in  pharmaceuticals, 98
    3.4.    Mushroom nutriceuticals, 98

Greenhouses have become an essential part of modern agriculture as they offer controlled environments for plant growth, research, and horticultural practices. This chapter discusses the various applications of greenhouses, which include extending growing seasons, improving crop yields, supporting botanical research, and producing ornamental plants. Additionally, it emphasizes the importance of repair and maintenance in greenhouse operations. Understanding the repair and maintenance protocols is crucial to ensure the sustained functionality of heating systems, water management, and structural components.

7.1 General

Science and technology have been advancing rapidly, but unfortunately, their impact has been largely negative. Pollution is not the only issue we face today, but also the depletion of fossil fuels, climate change, and excessive land degradation. The persistent presence of heavy metals in soil poses a significant threat to our planet. Many efforts have been made to remediate soils contaminated with toxic chemicals.

There are several issues that need urgent attention at the moment, and a solution is necessary to tackle them all at once. Biochar is a great option because of its numerous benefits, such as a large surface area, high porosity, high carbon sequestration rate, excess nutrients, and potential to produce syngas and bio oil. By using biochar, we can reduce the bioavailability of pollutants in soil, combat climate change by sequestering carbon, and reduce the use of fossil fuels by producing syngas and bio-oil. Additionally, biochar improves soil health, which can contribute to food security.

1. Introduction

2. Human Genome Project

3. Development of Bioinformatics

3.1. Indian scenario

4. Plant Genome Model

5. Components of Plant Genome Database

5.1. Stock centre databases

5.2. Genome mapping database

5.3. DNA sequences

6. Agricultural Research Service and National Research Initiative

6.1. Objectives of plant genome programme

6.2. GIBN Trans – pacific digital library experiment plant genome databases

7. Plant Genome Databases

7.1. Vegetable genome databases

7.1.1 Mendel-Plant Gene Nomenclature Database

7.2. Others

7.2.1. Bean Genes – Phaseolus / Vigna sp. Database

7.2.2. Solgenes Database

7.2.3. Soybase

7.3. Other data bases

7.3.1. PGDB (Pathway genome data base)

7.3.2. Demeter’s genome

8. Tools of Bioinformatics

9. New Directions in Genome Database at Stanford

10. Navigating the World Wide Web

11. Virtual Genome Centre (VGC)

11.1. Programmes at the VGC

12. Impact of Gene Chips and Micro Arrays

13. Applications and Impacts

14. Bottlenecks

15. Future Thrust

Term Biotechnology was first coined in 1919 by Karl Ereky which means products are produced from raw materials with the aid of living organisms.

Bio means life.

Technology means application of knowledge for practical use.

Computer played a distinctive role in the growth of most advanced, precise and highly sensitive instruments especially in medical and analytical instrumentation technology. Due to the development of different kinds of software the instrumentation analysis has become easy, rapid and result oriented. Auto sampling, development of new methods for detection analysis and the validity of new developed method have been possible with no trouble. Once the standardization of method is over and saved, it can be applied at any time to integrate the unknown samples and their data calculation. Thus, it avoids repetition in calculation and the end result is time saving technique due to the development of computer-organized system in analysis.

The results produced are more reliable and reproducible through various computer based instruments e.g. scanning machines, blood analyzer, gas chromatography (GC), amino acid analyzer (AAA), atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) etc.

HPLC is a technology or a system that works on the basis of software. There have been many definitions of computer shielded HPLC, such as high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC), high-speed liquid chromatography (HSLC), high efficiency liquid chromatography (HELC), and simply liquid chromatography (LC).

Farm tractor designs and styles differ greatly. Tractors are often used on a daily basis for several agricultural and non-agricultural tasks by attaching or operating light, medium to heavy implements, equipment and machineries according to the requirement and hp of tractors. Tractors are very versatile and can be used on sandy (light textured), loamy (medium textured) and clayey (heavy textured) soil at different topographic and agro-climatic conditions. Earlier, the proportion of tractor usage in agricultural and non-agricultural work was 70:30. This proportion has increased to about 55: 45 over the past two to three years. It is expected to reach 50:50 in (agricultural:non-agricultural applications) in the coming years. The major application of farm tractors for agricultural and non-agricultural sectors is given below.

Proper selection of a fungicide and its application at the correct dose and the proper time are highly essential for the management of plant diseases. The basic requirement of an application method is that it delivers the fungicide to the site where the active compound will prevent the fungus damaging the plant. The fungicidal application varies according to the nature of the host part diseased and nature of survival and spread of the pathogen. The method which are commonly adopted in the application of the fungicides are discussed

Introduction

The role of knowledge management as the key source for competitive advantage in our organizations has become a hotly debated topic. Indeed, it is a core competency for creating competitive advantage. In this environment that knowledge management is vital, therefore, at first we should determine knowledge management situation, and then to achieve a desired point, formulate a knowledge management strategy.

ABSTRACT

The present paper highlights the implication of geochemical strategic tools to choose suitable site selection on the coastal region. Geochemical tools and geomorphological survey have been also deployed to identify the suitable site. The geomorphology of the site A reveals enough fresh water accumulation was found and the two elevated crest and the adjacent trough (low land) with surrounding areas further support the fact. The water quality of this site exposes very good quality (< 200ppm TDS) and the dissolved major anions (HCO3, SO4, Cl) and cations (Ca, Mg, Na, K) concentration are well within drinking water standards. The soil samples are of medium to coarse sand nature showing high porosity (40 to 50%) with mica flakes acting as less permeable in nature. The water quality shows very good in nature and similar to Site A. The soil characters additionally proved good in porosity and permeability (SAR 1.5 to 2.1).

2.1 INTRODUCTION

GIS is a tool that can be used in varied disciplines ranging from civil engineering to business. Remote sensing data is often brought into GIS to have a complete data set in many natural resource application areas. Full capability of GIS is not used widely. Many a times people use GIS only for digitising maps and to do simple query on maps. But it can also be used in modeling, simulation and forecasting, only then one may regard GIS technology is utilised to its full potential. Some GIS softwares handle simple problems for location based services while other complex softwares posses advanced modules to do all types of spatial, network and 3D analysis. Integration of softwares used in natural resources study are being interfaced with GIS to create scenarios.

Remote sensing and GIS technology is useful in the following fields:

Water is a primary source of life and sustains all human activities such as domestic needs, agriculture, industries etc. The allocation and management of water resources is becoming a difficult task due to increasing demands, decreasing supply and diminishing quality. This calls for judicious use of water resources. The geomorphology describes the environment in which the hydrological processes operate. A strong mutual correlation exists between geomorphological variables and hydrological characteristics. Such relationship can be applied to both surface and groundwater regime. Thus the linking of geomorphological parameters with hydrological characteristics of the basin provides a simple way to understand the hydrogeomorphological behaviour of different basins and particularly of un-gauged basins.

During the last few years various applications of hydrogeomorphology with reference to the Geographic Information System (GIS) and various other techniques have emerged as an extensively effective tool for analyzing and prioritizing natural resource management alternatives. Because natural resource management problems are spatial in nature the GIS technology provides a tool for defining the extent of the problem, and facilitates the design and implementation of alternative management strategies. The GIS is used to estimate the hydrogeomorphological parameters of the watershed, which can be used in watershed planning and management at micro and macro levels. The results of the study can be utilized to infer the hydrological features like runoff potential, infiltration and groundwater recharge of the region. Some of the applications of hydrogeomorphological studies are described below:

Starch is the most abundant polysaccharide carbohydrate reserve which is available in different parts of plants such as roots, stem, leaves, seeds, flowers, and fruits. It is considered an excellent source of energy and plants utilizes carbon from it for their metabolic activities (Smith, 2001). It is composed of glucose units linked together by glycosidic bonds to form amylose and amylopectin polymeric chains (Abbas et al., 2010).

The term nanoscience defines controlling or modifying the shapes and sizes of the materials such that they lie in the range of a nanometre (1 nm = 10^-9 m) scale, typically 1-100 nm (Chavada et al., 2016). The application of these materials and systems by their suitable designing and production is what is known as nanotechnology. Richard Feynman, in 1959, first discussed the possibility of this advanced technology. However, the term was first used by Norio Taniguchi in 1974 (Chavada et al., 2016).

Introduction

Nanoparticles are minute particles with at least one dimension that measures less than 100 nanometers. They have been extensively studied in various f ields including medicine, biology, chemistry, physics, engineering, and environmental science. Nanoparticles have several unique properties, such as a high surface area to volume ratio, enhanced reactivity, and optical, electrical, and magnetic properties that differ from the bulk material. These properties make nanoparticles suitable for a variety of biomedical applications, including diagnosis, imaging, drug delivery, and therapy. This chapter will discuss the current and potential applications of nanoparticles in healthcare and research.

The main objective of nanomedicine broadly defined as the comprehensive monitoring, repairing and improvement of all human biological systems, working from the molecular level using engineered devices and nanostructures to achieve medical benefit. Nanomedicine is the nanomachine of diagnosing, treating, and preventing disease and traumatic injury, relieving pain, and of preserving and improving human health, using molecular tools and molecular knowledge of the human body. Nanotechnology applications in medical science can be essential in achieving this goal. These applications involves extensive surveillance, control, creation, repair, and defence of all biological human systems, employing designed nanodevices and nanostructures which works in molecular level.

Mulching

The technique of covering the soil with plastic films or natural crop left over (residues) for soil and water conservations is called mulching.

This technique was practiced by farmers using dry leaves straw, trash, stones etc to conserve water. Presently plastic film have come into use for the purpose of mulching due to inherent advantages.

Within a few weeks after November 8, 1895, Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen made the discovery of X-rays, they were being used in medicine and many sophisticated medical applications. This single discovery of X-rays revolutionized the entire medical field and developed into a separate discipline in the diagnostic and therapeutic applications in human beings and animals. On 10 December, 1901, Roentgen received the first Nobel Prize for Physics in recognition for discovery of X-rays. Radiography in veterinary practice may not always be used to arrive at a final diagnosis of the disorders. In the last few years, various types of X-ray scanners have been developed that allow highly detailed views of a particular section of the body. One type, known as a computerized tomography (CT) scanner, sends narrow beams of X- rays at various angles through a patient’s body. The information obtained from the X-rays is processed by a computer to produce an image of a cross-section of the body. The image shows much more detail than an ordinary X-ray picture. A section of the body can be studied in three dimensions by producing a series of adjacent cross-sectional images. Nevertheless, radiography remains a valuable modality in diagnostic purposes and has significantly extended the usefulness in medicine and research.

Abstract

Remote sensing is the art and science of obtaining information about an object or phenomenon without having any contact with the object concerned. Geographical information system is a tool to create, manage, retrieve and query spatial databases. Remote sensing in conjunction with Geographical Information System (GIS) has wide applications in all spheres of life and especially in agriculture. Specifically, this paper reveals some of the applications of remote sensing and GIS in the field of crop condition assessment viz., crop type classification, crop stress detection, crop yield estimation and pest and disease monitoring.

Keywords : Remote Sensing, GIS, Yield Forecasting, Crop Stress, Pest and Disease Monitoring

1.0 Introduction

Remote sensing is the art and science of obtaining information about an object or phenomenon without there being any physical contact. The information is so collected using a device called a sensor. The sensors are mounted on a platform at an advantageous position. Accordingly the remote sensing is called ground based (sensor is hand held or mounted on mast), air borne (sensor is on a balloon or aero plane) or space borne (sensor is mounted on a satellite). The basic principle in remote sensing is that each and every object has unique reflecting property like human thumb impression and when the solar energy is falling on an object a part of it gets reflected, which carries the information about the object. The reflected light is converted in to reflection percentage of incoming solar radiation. This percentage of reflection can be used to work out the vegetation indices which are surrogate measure of crop condition.

Geographical Information System (GIS) is software system which enable Collection of large volume of data with spatial relation Integration of data from different source is possible Analyze such data for our requirement Present the data in different formats (maps, table and reports)

Applications of Remote Sensing

The era of satellite remote sensing was open in the 1960s when cameras and electronic sensors were mounted on spacecraft. Nowadays there is a big assortment of satellite systems actively recording information about the Earth. A wide variety of imagery is available from satellites. Both active and passive sensors, operating from the microwave to the ultraviolet regions of the electromagnetic spectrum collect a large amount of information about the earth’s surface every day. Each of the systems vary in terms of their spatial, spectral, radiometic and temporal resolution. Those characteristics play an important role in defining which applications the sensor is best suited for. The main benefits of satellite remote sensing are the following:

Stable isotopes are chemical isotopes that may or may not be radioactive,but if radioactive, have half-lives too long to be measured. These isotopes decay into stable products. Eg. ¹⁴C having 6protons and electrons with 8 neutrons.

Most elements of biological interest (including C, H, O, N, and S) have two or more stable isotopes. Among the stable isotopes, the most useful as biological tracers are the heavy isotopes of carbon and nitrogen.

Abstract

Support Vector Machine (SVM) is a classification and regression prediction tool, widely employed in different fields of science and engineering. A review on some recent plant bioinformatics applications using SVM is made. Different soft wares for SVM are also explained. There is a growing amount of plant genomes data currently available from different sources. Recent advances made using SVM and Feature selection in plant bioinformatics are reviewed

Introduction

Recent developments in genomic and post-genomic research have generated a vast amount of biological data. This data is growing exponentially with the advancement of research technologies. Several plant genomes have been sequenced recently. For instance, the complete sequence of Arabidopsis thaliana and the draft sequence of rice are now available^[1]. Also, sequencing of several other plants including maize, tomato, sorghum, etc is in progress. Considering the amount and complexity of this data, it is impossible for an expert to analyze and compare the data manually. Thus, there is an increasing need for computational methods that can efficiently store, organize and interpret this large amount of data.

Surface anatomy of the organs of left side of abdominal cavity

Rumen

Topography of the rumen: The left side of the abdomen in cow is completely occupied by the rumen except for a small area occupied by the reticulum at its cranial end and the spleen on the craniodorsal aspect sandwiched between the dorsal border of rumen and the diaphragm. The rumen lies in contact with the left abdominal wall extending from seventh or eight intercostal space where it touches the diaphragm to the transverse plane of the tuber coxae where it almost touches the pelvic inlet.

Palpation of rumen: The rumen can be palpated in the left flank of the abdomen and is usually palpated in the dorsal third of the flank region. In ruminants, the contraction begins at reticulum and it continues in rumen in succession and hence is considered as ruminoreticular contraction cycle. It begins with double contraction of reticulum followed immediately by the contraction of rumen. The rumen contraction begins in the cranial sac and progresses to the dorsal sac and then to the ventral sac. During the contraction of the ventral sac, the dorsal sac is forced out which appears as a bulging at the paralumbar fossa. After this, there is a pause of 30 seconds and thereafter the second ruminal contraction begins which is usually associated with eructation. The ruminoreticular contraction cycle ends with the end of second ruminal contraction. Following this, the second cycle begins. Thus there are two palpable rumen contractions per minute. This rate of contraction increases to 2.8 contractions per minute during the act of feeding of the animal.

Site for nerve block

Brachial plexus block

The brachial plexus is the key source of nerve supply to the fore limb. Loss of sensation below the elbow is achieved by blocking the nerve roots contributing to this plexus. In ox it is formed by the ventral branches of 6th to 8th cervical and 1st and 2nd thoracic spinal nerves. These nerve roots pass over the lateral aspect of the middle third of the first rib before anastomosing to form the plexus. All these nerve roots can be blocked by injecting anaesthetic solution on these nerves at the middle third of the lateral surface of the first rib. To reach this site, the needle is inserted between the thoracic wall and the medial face of the shoulder at the level of acromion process of the scapula about 12 to 14 cm cranial to it horizontally in the caudal direction.

The blocking of brachial plexus is indicated for operations for reducing the fractures of the bones of fore arm and manus.

Teeth

Estimation of age from appearance of teeth

The teeth are used as a tool for estimation of age of animal. The time of eruption and the stage of wear of incisors are usually considered as parameters for this purpose. The time of eruption of the incisor teeth in ox has been described under the chapter on gross anatomy of head. The eruption time of incisors in other species is described under the chapter on comparative anatomy of head and neck. To differentiate the deciduous teeth from the permanent teeth is important criteria in this process. The deciduous teeth are smaller, their neck is visible just above the gum line and these are usually whitish in colour. The permanent teeth are larger, their crowns are slightly wider and the neck which separates the crown from the root is concealed inside the gums. These are usually yellowish in colour. In ox, all the four incisors (deciduous) are erupted at the age of 4 years.

The permanent teeth start wearing from fifth year onward. The process of wearing commences on mesiolabial side of the masticatory surface. When the entire masticatory surface is in wear, the outer and inner enamel rings are completely separated by yellow dentin and that particular tooth is considered as leveled. In the process of wearing, the gum starts receding and the neck of the tooth is exposed. In ox, usually the wearing begins at I-1 at the age of 6 years, this is followed by I-2 at 7 years, I-3 at 8 years and I-4 at 9 years. Up to the age of 14-15 years usually all incisors fall off but those remained are reduced to small round pegs.

Sites for surgical interventions

Luxation of patella in cattle and horses

The luxation of patella is a condition wherein the patella of the stifle joint (femoropatellar articulation) is locked above the medial ridge of the trochlea of the femur.

Anatomy of femoropatellar articulation of the stifle joint

The stifle joint is a composite joint formed in two parts. One of these is an articulation between the condyles of distal extremity of femur and the condyles of the proximal extremity of tibia (femoro-tibial articulation) and the other is the articulation between the trochlea of the distal extremity of the femur and the articular surface of the patella (femoro-patellar articulation).

The trochlea of the femur consists of two asymmetrical ridges separated by a groove. The medial ridge is more prominent, wider and a little more extended dorsally than the lateral ridge. The two ridges converge ventrally. The articular surface of the patella is more or less quadrilateral or triangular with the base above and apex below. It has a vertical ridge in the middle and it separates the two concave areas of which the medial one is larger than the lateral. The patella is fastened against the trochlea with the help of three types of ligaments. One of these is the capsular ligament which is attached to the periphery of the articular areas of the two segments of the joint. The other one is the medial and lateral collateral ligaments. The third set of ligaments is the patellar (straight) ligaments.

Surface locations for clinical examination on the wall of thorax

Lymph nodes

Prescapular lymph node is palpable as a cylindrical object just cranial to the point of shoulder. Palpation can be performed by putting the base of the hand on the cranial edge of the scapula and pressing forward with fingers. This enables to roll the skin and feel the lymph node flicking underneath the fingers.

Heart

The clinical examination of heart is performed by percussion and auscultation on the thoracic wall.

For percussion of heart, usually the fifth rib is identified opposite the olecranon of a straight vertical limb. Two fields are identified for percussion of heart. (1) The area of absolute cardiac dullness corresponds to the area of contact of the pericardium with the thoracic wall. It gives a flat sound on light percussion. (2) The area of relative cardiac dullness indicates the outline of heart which is covered by the thin margin of lung. It needs somewhat stronger percussion to define this area which is usually difficult in animals. The absolute dullness is used to test the hypertrophy, displacement and pericardial effusion. In ox, the normal area of absolute dullness is explored in the fourth and fifth intercostal spaces. Traumatic pericarditis may result in absolute dullness in these spaces extending above a horizontal line through the shoulder joint. In horse this area is a triangle bounded by the triceps in front, the sternum below and the lung along the line joining these two. On left side of the normal horse, the dullness extends about 7 cm above the olecranon in the fourth intercostal space and about 3 cm above the olecranon in the fifth space. On the right side, the dullness extends about 3 cm above the olecranon in the fifth space only. In dog, the area of absolute dullness extends about 1 to 2 cm above the sternum in the fourth and fifth intercostal spaces in the line with the corresponding costochondral junction.

True/False

Q.1.    In many clinical research studies, the regression analysis is used to develop models for prediction of an outcome from one or more explanatory variables.
Q.2.    Now a days, the linear, logistic and Cox (proportional hazards) regression models are used frequently in medical research.

Abstract

Any country’s socio-economic development essentially depends on land and water resources. Resource depletion takes place when there is an overstretching due the exploding population, calling for prudent management of the resources. Application of remote sensing and Geographical Information System (GIS) tools in the management of natural resources at different levels including watersheds is quite well known. In addition, applied geoinformatics are also used in research on management of these delicate resources also besides characterization. There is a continuous advent in technology in both hardware and software necessitating updation of application scientist/manager. Once an exclusive tool of elite institutions and government agencies, GISnow became an indispensible part of our day-to-day life. As the urge for information intensifies, new applications of GIS continue to evolve. A concerted effort is needed to develop an information system when vast expanses of natural resources are to be managed and a combination of information tools like remote sensing, global positioning system and GIS always updates the database effectively. However, the cost factor should not hinder the applications at micro level. This necessity calls for attention to popularize free and open sources of software (FOSS) and data (particularly digital elevation models (DEM) and satellite imagery) to put the techniques into use by enthusiasts at village level such that a database at a regional level can be built through participatory GIS. It is in this direc tion the av ailab le li terat ure on appl ied geoinformatics coupled with use of FOSS is reviewed and presented in this article to give an idea as to how an open ended information system could be developed to help the management.

Keywords: Natural resources, management, Remote sensing, GIS, FOSS, DEM

Introduction

Gamhian concept of development gained inspiration from villages where local resources met the optimum needs of the poorest of the poor. Gandhiji was of the view that the process of development of the Nation must begin from its villages. In a country like India, where villages are in the majority the prosperity of the Nation can only be ensured when fanners are considered as development managers. The economic liberty of individuals and villages in effect will lead to the prosperity of the Nation. The anomaly in this regard in our country can be seen in the overcrowded cities and desolated a village that is indicative of major gaps in our approach. Acute migration has created a dearth of strong hands in the villages resulting in overcrowded cities, putting tremendous strains on its infrastructure. Thus economy and-ecology of most regions in the country, both rural as well as the urban areas are threatened.

The Independence has been attained by the nation 65 years ago but Economic Slavery is pervasive everywhere in the Rural India. There must be an Economic Independence drive in the country. This will check rising Economic inequity between rural urban regions.

5.1. Australia’s Experience and Approach to Pest Risk Analysis

Australia applies the principles of pest risk analysis for the identification and management of sanitary and phytosanitary risks associated with new trade proposals and, where the need is identified, to the review of sanitary and phytosanitary risks of existing trade. One such trade activity is the intentional importation of exotic plant species not yet established in Australia.

Of approximately 250 000 plant species in the world, 30 000 have been intentionally introduced to Australia since European colonization, along with an unknown number of unintentional introductions, of which about 2 700 have naturalized (Cunningham et al., 2003). Some become problematic plants of which about 300 have become serious weeds of agriculture and natural ecosystems. Clearly, the majority of plant species have yet to be introduced to Australia and some of these would become weeds if allowed into the country.

The weed risk assessment (WRA) system is a decision support tool that is employed by Australia in applying the principles of pest risk analysis to the review of sanitary and phytosanitary risks associated with the intentional importation of exotic plant species not yet established in the country. The WRA system is used specifically to assess the weed potential of such species. It generates a score for a species based on its history as a weed in other parts of the world, climatic suitability to Australia and biological attributes. The weed risk assessment (WRA) system is one means by which the assessment component of pest risk analysis is addressed. The WRA system is a question-based scoring method that can be operated using a computer or manually using paper-based forms. A Microsoft® Excel spreadsheet version of the system, including documentation, has been made available through the International Phytosanitary Portal

Impact Assessment Approach-Quantitative, Qualitative Participatory and Mixed Methods with Their Advantages and Disadvantages

Quantitative research approach

 Qualitative research approach

 Participatory research approach

Mixed method research approach

Advantages of Quantitative Research

Monitoring and Evaluation are the two management tools that help in keeping a control on the extension programmes as well as raising the level of performance. Monitoring refers to an organized process of overseeing and checking the activities undertaken in a project, to ascertain whether it is capable of achieving the planned results or not. Conversely, evaluation is a scientific process that gauges the success of the projector programme in meeting the objectives. The primary difference between monitoring and evaluation is that while monitoring is a continuous activity, performed at the functional level of management, evaluation is a periodic activity, performed at the business level.

Introduction

In Indian agriculture, horticulture sector has made considerable progress after independence and as a result, horticulture has emerged as one of the major drivers of growth in the agricultural and allied sector. The horticulture sector includes large number of crops viz., fruits, vegetables, ornamental crops, spices, tuber crops, plantation crops, medicinal and aromatic crops, mushroom and their post harvest management. On the production and productivity front, the horticulture sector outperformed conventional food crops. Between 200405 and 201415, horticultural output achieved an annual growth of about 7 per cent as compared to around 3 per cent growth in food grain production. This increase in production has come from an increase in acreage and even larger increase in productivity. Over the last decade, the area under horticulture grew by about 3% per annum and annual production increased by 5.4%. Thereby, India has maintained its second rank in the global production of fruits and vegetables, next only to China. India’s fruit productivity is better than that of China, though China is the largest fruit producing country.

The country is currently producing 295.2 million tonnes of horticulture produce from an area of 24.9 million hectares, which has surpassed the estimated food grain production of 275.68 million tonnes (201617). Though the production of food grains and horticultural produce are not meaningfully comparable due to fundamental differences in resource requirements, their farming practices, characteristics of produce and most importantly, their nutritional and medicinal properties as well as energy value. The special attention was given to the this sector, especially after the introduction of the Horticulture Mission for North East and Himalayan States (HMNEH) and the National Horticulture Mission (NHM) during 11^th Plan period, owing to bumper fruit production. Given the increasing pressure on land, growth strategies have been focusing on raising productivity through high density plantations, protected cultivation, micro irrigation, quality planting material, rejuvenation of senile orchards and an emphasis on post harvest management and marketing of produce for better price realization.

These three requirements are required to be followed in sequence for getting maximum benefits. However, integrated rural energy concept is a new area of work and not much experience is available in this field as compared to other rural development activities. It is difficult to give any guidelines for planning. One can only recommend approaches and not solutions to planning.

The rural area in developing countries are almost always rich in one or another sources of energy, which could be used separately or in combination with other sources in decentralized small scale units, or even on a household scale. Thus, the problem is one of good planning, management and a strong educational and promotions campaign, rather than the non availability of resources or the lack of technology. Further, after planning, prefect development of device and their effective operation is required.

The purpose of the Integrated Rural Energy Planning project should be clearly defined. It may design either for research and development or demonstration for Popularisation of system, education and training, promotion, health or combination of these.

It is usually better to start with a small size to gain experience and build up confidence before undertaking the large scale project. As defined earlier, one of primary requirement of Integrated Rural Energy Planning is to develop energy demand pattern, energy supply system and optimally match demand with supply.

As a result of a number of health advantages provided by functional foods, a substantial rise in their popularity has been seen in recent years (Keservani et al., 2010).