eChapters

Aim

To determine the area of given field by intersection method of plane table survey.

Materials required

Tripod

Plane table

Plumbing fork

Level tube

Magnetic compass

Alidade

Measuring tape

Ranging rods

Drawing sheet

Pins, pencil and eraser

Aim

To prepare a contour map by direct method using dumpy level.

Materials required

Dumpy level

Leveling staff

Measuring tape

Wooden pegs/chain pins

Field book

Theory

For locating a point on the ground on a contour, its position and elevation in a horizontal plane should be known. In direct method, the contours to be plotted are located on the ground with a level by making various points on each contour, and these points are surveyed and plotted on plan. This method is more accurate but slow and tedious, and is suitable for contouring small areas where great accuracy is required. For locating the points of the same elevation, the instrument is set in such a commanding position from where maximum number of points can be covered. The bench mark is established near the site of survey. The height of the instrument (H.I) is determined after taking a back sight (B.S) on the established bench mark.

Aim

To determine the contours by grid method using dumpy level.

Materials required

Dumpy level

Leveling staff

Measuring tape

Wooden pegs/chain pins

Field book

Aim

To measure irrigation water by area-velocity method by using (i) float and (ii) current meter

Apparatus required

Float

Current meter

Theory

The rate of flow of water in open channel can be determined by multiplying the cross sectional area of the flow section at right angles to the direction of flow by the average velocity of water. In area-velocity method, the water can be measured at motion. The water is measured in motion by means of rate of flow or discharge and is expressed in litre per second (lps), litre per minute (lpm), cubic metre per second (m³/s), etc. Litre per second: A continuous flow amounting to 1 litre passing through a point each second. Cubic metre per second: A flow of water equivalent to a stream of 1 m long, 1 m wide and 1 m deep flowing at a velocity of 1 metre per second. In area-velocity method, the velocity of water is measured either by float or current-meter

Aim

To measure the irrigation water by using orifice

Orifices

An orifice is an opening in a bulk head with closed perimeter usually circular or rectangular cross-section through which water flows. For measurement of water, orifices are fabricated by making an accurate cut of proper size and shape in a mild steel sheet, aluminum plate etc. Proper machining is done to have a sharp edge through which water flows (Fig.60.1).

Free discharge

If the downstream water level is lower than the bottom of the orifice opening, the water jet discharges freely into the air and then it is said to be free discharge. The depth of water on the upstream side of the orifice that causes the flow is called the head. The orifice flow formulae can be applied only when the orifice flows fully.

Aim

To measure the irrigation water by using parshall flume

Construction of Parshall flume

Parshall flume is a water measuring device that can be used to measure water flowing in an open channel and intended primarily for use in irrigation. The flume consists of a converging inlet section, a throat section with straight parallel sides, and a diverging outlet section (Fig.61.1). The floor of the converging section is level with walls which converge in the direction of flow, towards the throat. The throat section constitutes the middle portion of the Parshall flume. The floor of the throat section is dips downward in the direction of flow, but the walls are parallel. The throat width specifies the dimensions of the parshall flume. The diverging outlet section of the flume has a floor which rises in the direction of flow. The walls become further separated in the direction of flow (diverge).The parshall flume can be constructed by G.I. sheet, aluminum sheet, M.S. sheet, brick masonry, reinforced concrete or timber. Flumes made of G.I. or aluminum sheets are easily portable. Brick masonry and concrete flumes are permanently constructed in the channels. Stilling wells should be constructed at the side to take measurements.

Aim

To design a graded bunds

The procedure in design of contour bund is followed while design a graded bund. A stability of 10-25%, should be given to contour bund. This is called graded bund.

Example: Design a graded bund length of 500 m with an average land slope of 3.5% in a sandy loam soil. Vertical distance between consecutive bund is 2.5 m. Rainfall intensity for the time of concentration and for the recurrence interval is 18.5 cm/hr. The runoff coefficient is 0.3. For stability, the grade provided for first 100 m is 0.1%, for next 200 m is 0.15% and for last 200 m is 0.18%. For the sandy loam soil, side slope of the bund and slope of seepage line are 1.5:1 and 5:1 respectively is assumed.

Food extrusion technology is a popular means of preparing snacks and ready-to-prepare food items. It is a method of size enlargement in which tiny granular food or powdered particles are strengthened into bigger parts with various forms, texture, color, etc. Extrusion cooking or thermoplastic extrusion is a common extrusion technology considered to be a process of HTST (high temperature, short time). It allows the manufacturing of a wide range of food products with little or no alteration of the fundamental equipment and adequate process control. Extrusion cooking is used for starchy and protein substances to make nutritious foods. Generally, such products are rich in calories and incorporation of protein rich fish improves its nutritional value. Most of the cereal-based extruded snacks were primarily made from maize, wheat and rice. However, these cereals (e.g. rice) have comparatively low protein content (6 - 8 g/100 g db) and an elevated amino acid profile in glutamic and aspartic acid, whereas lysine is the restricting amino acid. Therefore, it is recommended that protein food ingredient (e.g. fish) be added to the extruded snack products to develop nutrient rich diets.

Fish is considered to be great sources of protein of high dietary importance with a balanced profile of essential amino acids and lipids containing omega-3 fatty acids, in particular essential fatty acids such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), respectively. EPA and DHA are very essential to normal growth and development. To avoid or moderate coronary artery disease, hypertension, diabetes, arthritis, other inflammatory and autoimmune illnesses, these vital fatty acids are discovered. The benefits of fish-based extruded products will assist in providing a big population in the nation like India with nutritious and balanced diets.

Introduction

Fisheries and aquaculture are important source of food, nutrition and livelihood for millions of people around the world. Aquaculture is the fastest growing food-production sector in the global aquaculture with production of 73.8 Million tonnes in 2014 (FAO, 2016) expanding into new directions, intensifying and diversifying. A persistent goal of global aquaculture is to maximize the efficiency of production to optimize profitability.

Infectious diseases pose of the most significant threats to successful aquaculture. Intensively cultured fish and shellfish are susceptible to infectious agents. The losses due to shrimp diseases in India is valued at Rs. 10, 221 million. Globally, the yield loss due to diseases in aquaculture is estimated to be $ 6 billion. A variety of antimicrobial and chemical treatments have been used for the control and treatment of bacterial diseases in aquaculture systems. The emergence of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria due to application of antibiotics in aquaculture and the toxic nature of chemicals led to the search for alternatives for the control of infection. Here, we discuss the several alternatives to antibiotics that have been successfully used in aquaculture.

Bihar state is located in the Eastern part of the country and has a total geographical area of 94,763 Sq km which accounts for 2.85% of the country’s total land area. Out of the total geographical area, 57.12 lakh hectares is under cultivation, which accounts for 60.27% of the total geographical area. The Gross and net sown area in the state is 78.82 and 57.12 lakh ha, respectively and presently the cropping intensity is about 138%. Paddy, wheat, pulses, maize, potato and oilseeds are the major field crops of the state, while mango, litchi and banana are the major fruit crops. As the third-largest vegetable producer, the state accounts for eight percent of Indian vegetable basket. Among the livestock sector, cow and buffalo are the majorly dairy animals. Goatery and poultry are also practiced on a wide scale in the state. Agriculture and its allied sectors together account for about one third (33.00%) of the State’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). This makes agriculture an important source of livelihood and a potential instrument for the attainment of inclusive, grassroots level and widespread developmental change.

Bihar State is characterized by its high population density, largely dependent on agriculture for livelihood. Its bountiful natural resources of fertile soil, abundant water and varied climatic conditions make Bihar an agriculturally high potential region. But, factors like fragmented and small landholdings, poor crop management practices, weaker market connectivity, lack of alternative sources of income, poor professional skills, absence of farm-level processing & value addition and poor investment possibilities in agriculture and allied sectors are resulting in widespread poverty among the rural masses of the state, which is more obvious among the scheduled tribe and scheduled caste population. There are around 1.47 crore landholdings in the State of which around 91.06 percent are marginal holdings of size less than 1 hectare (Agriculture Census, 2011). In addition to the above mentioned factors, lack of accessibility to productive resources and quality inputs, shortage of vocational skill development opportunities are the major contributory factors to the wide spread poverty in the state.

The extension/research work organization consisted of seven distinct steps namely,

Situation analysis

Identification of problems and setting up of objectives

Designing of interventions

Preparing plan of work & implementation of project interventions

Monitoring of implementation process

Impact assessment

Project reconsideration

Flowsheet

Based on various experimentations concerning live fish transportation, a flow sheet may be prepared as:

Evaluation of the health status of the fishes purchased from the market to be packed for transportation. Serrated operculum and spiny fins, if any (as in Anabas testudineus) is serrated as it damages the packing materials. The trimmed fishes are treated with antibiotics and left for a week for wound healing.

In the case of abroad transportation of fish, clearance to the fitness of fishes is made available from a veterinary doctor/inspector. A no-objection certificate is also obtained from the office of the Marine Products Export Organization.

Proper sanitization of all the equipment and accessories for the determination of oxygen uptake of fishes as well as all the other steps of fish transportation in this pandemic of COVID-19.

Determination of oxygen requirement of the fish in terms of per hour and per unit body weight is essential. In the case of air-breathing fishes to be packed (Like Channa punctatus, Anabas testudineus, Clarias batrachus and Heteropneustes fossilis), determination of aerial and aquatic oxygen requirement of the fishes is essential. The oxygen requirement of oxygen was estimated from the calculated values of intercept (=a) and slope (=b). For this calculation, a relationship of aW^b is applied.

Introduction

Goat is being raised for centuries as poor man’s cow due to its importance of providing employment in rural areas by producing meat and healthy meat. Goats also play a major role in agriculture economy of India. Goat is excellent source of additional income for poor and landless owners. The goat milk is nutritious and easily digestible milk to their kids. Goats are easy to maintain as they can graze on open land. Goat farming is an excellent option where fodder and forage is limited. Goat farmers can get good returns with successful goat rearing. Now a day, goat farming has become more commercial and many people are taking up as a challenge to meet the demand and supply. Rank of India in goat population is 2^nd. Total goat population in the country is 148.88 million during 2019. Total goat has increased by 10.14% over previous livestock census (2012). About 27.8 % of the total is contributed by goats.