eBook Chapters

Introduction

According to an estimate by World Health Organization (WHO), about one million cases of pesticides poisoning and 20, 000 deaths occur every year due to pesticide residues in food chain including cereals, pulses, vegetables, fruits, oils, milk and milk products (including mother’s milk), fishes, poultry, meat and water. At global level, chemical pesticide worth US$ 30 billion is being used annually for the management of diseases and insect pests. In spite of this, epidemics of diseases, infestations of insect pests and colonization by weeds results in significant losses in agriculture production worldwide. As a result of crop improvement programs to incorporate resistance to pests, devastations epidemics and infestations are rare. Nevertheless, pests continue to exert a heavy toll in terms of yield losses. The last global estimate of yield losses due to pests, made crops like rice, wheat, maize, cotton, soybean, barley and coffee were equivalent to approximately US $ 250 billion annually during the period the period 1989-1990 (Table 1). Since these eight crops occupy only half of the global cropped area, yield losses due to all pests on all crops would be much high. The estimates indicate that 42 per cent of the total global attainable production of the eight major crops is lost due to pests, of which 16, 13 and 13 per cent losses are due to insects, diseases and weeds, respectively. Post harvest losses are estimated to cause an additional 10 per cent loss. Developing countries incur higher losses than industrial countries. (Table 2).

The hot water soluble method is the most common method to estimate available B content in soil

Reagents

1. Azomethine-H: Dissolve 0.45 g azomethine-H and 1.0 g L-ascorbic acid in about 100 ml de-ionized or redistilled water. If solution is not clear, it should be heated gently on water bath at about 30ºC till it dissolves. A fresh solution should be prepared every week and kept in a refrigerator.
2. Buffer solution: Dissolve 250 g ammonium acetate in 500 ml de-ionized or redistilled water. Adjust the pH to about 5.5 by slowly adding approximately 100 ml glacial acetic acid, with constant stirring.
3. EDTA reagent (0.025 M): Dissolve 9.3 g EDTA in de-ionized or redistilled water and makes the volume up to 1 litre.
4. Standard Boron solution: Dissolve 0.571 g boric acid (H₃BO₃) AR grade in a small volume of deionized water and make volume to 1000 ml to obtain a stock solution of 100 mg B/L.

Estimation of organic carbon in soil (Walkley and Black, 1934)

Principle: Soil organic carbon is oxidized to CO₂ by heat of dilution obtained when a known amount of soil is treated with excess of standard K₂Cr₂O₇ in the presence of concentrated H₂SO₄. The excess of K₂Cr₂O₇ not reduced by the organic matter is back titrated with standard ferrous ammonium sulphate in the presence of phosphoric acid or sodium fluoride using diphenyl indicator. At the point colour changes from violet to blue or bright green.

Apparatus: 500 ml conical flasks, Pipettes of 10 and 20 ml, Burette, Balance, Measuring cylinder, Asbestos sheet.

In this method, plant available sulphur (S) is extracted with 0.15% CaCl₂ and the soluble sulphate is estimated on a colorimeter.

What is the use of several trees grown in the forest? A single tree by the way side is far better where under people can rest (Vrikshayurveda).

The towns and villages are made more healthy, more beautiful and more efficient by well planned streets with avenue planting. There is no doubt that, an impressive avenue gives any property the special distinction that it desires. In the past, Emperor Ashoka and Mughal rulers paid attention to roadside planting. Avenue trees primarily provide shade and act as windbreaks, weather conditioners-by purifying and humidifying the air, check radiation of heat and obstruct glare, limit noise and enhance the beauty of the street where they are planted. Roadside planting has two aspects; beauty and utility and both these aspects should be combined. This requires a thorough knowledge of plant material and imagination in planning.

What is the use of several trees grown in the forest? A single tree by the way side is far better where under people can rest (Vrikshayurveda).

The towns and villages are made more healthy, more beautiful and more efficient by well planned streets with avenue planting. There is no doubt that, an impressive avenue gives any property the special distinction that it desires. In the past, Emperor Ashoka and Mughal rulers paid attention to roadside planting. Avenue trees primarily provide shade and act as windbreaks, weather conditioners-by purifying and humidifying the air, check radiation of heat and obstruct glare, limit noise and enhance the beauty of the street where they are planted. Roadside planting has two aspects; beauty and utility and both these aspects should be combined. This requires a thorough knowledge of plant material and imagination in planning.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a discipline of computer science that now days affecting evary aspect of day to day life. It has the potential to greatly improve animal breeding programs in India by providing more accurate and efficient selection methods. Some of the avenues and possibilities of using AI in animal breeding in India includes Predictive analytics: AI can be used to develop optimization models that take into account a variety of factors, such as genetics, phenotypic traits, and environmental conditions, to identify the best breeding strategies. AI can be used to analyze large amounts of data on animal genetics, phenotypic traits, and environmental factors to predict the likelihood of an animal producing offspring with desired traits. This can help breeders make more informed decisions about which animals to be selected for breeding. AI algorithms can be trained to accurately identify diseases in animals by analyzing imaging data, such as X-rays and MRI scans, as well as blood and tissue samples which in turn facilitate veterinarians to make more accurate diagnoses, improving treatment outcomes. AI can also improved feed efficiency by analyzing the feed consumption and nutrient utilization data to identify patterns and trends that can be further utilized to improve feed efficiency, reduced feed costs and increased production efficiency.

Flowers symbolize beauty, purity, peace and love. These are intricately associated with social beliefs and no social function is complete without the use of flowers; especially in a country like India, where it is a popular saying that flowers are associated with man from birth till death. Floriculture can be defined as a specialized branch of horticulture which deals not only with the cultivation of flowers, foliage, climbers, trees, shrubs, cacti, succulents, etc., but also with their marketing and production of value-added products from them.

Floriculture is increasingly regarded as a viable diversification from the traditional field crops due to higher returns per unit area and increasing habit of “saying it with flowers”. Flowers play a cardinal role in human behaviour and culture, bringing tranquility and peace of mind. From a symbol of love, flowers have transformed into an industry, generating both income as well as employment. India is blessed with a diversity of agroclimatic conditions prevailing in different regions of the country ensuring production of almost all the ornamental crops through out the year. Floriculture in India is a dynamic and expanding industry recording impressive annual growth rate.

The floriculture industry comprises of:

1. The florist trade traditional and contemporary cut flowers and cut foliage, both fresh and dried and value-added products like bouquets, floral baskets, flower arrangements and garlands.
2. The plant nursery for propagation and supply of plant material including tissue culture plants, seeds, bulbs, corms and other propagated material.
3. Plant rental service for supply of house plants on annual rent for a specific period.
4. Flower perfume and gulkand.

As a result of political changes in India, many entrepreneurs are changing to floricultural activities, which have become a high priority for the Indian government. Due to availability of sufficient winter and summer sunshine, high temperature, good soil fertility, good water quality, different climatic zones for different type of products and low labour and investment costs, India has great potential for floriculture. In the flower industry, significant changes are occurring in the competitive relationships worldwide. European integration, democratization in eastern Europe and the liberalization of world trade in the context of the GATT negotiations will have consequences on international trade. A number of traditional markets are displaying signs of saturation while, on the other hand, new countries are trying to get their place on the market. At the same time, we see new developing markets and in some parts of the world (USA, Japan) it is expected that per capita consumption will go up. Enormous genetic diversity, versatile human resources and varied agro-climate offers India unique scope for diversification not explored yet fully.

Livestock farms

The veterinarians can start their own livestock farms with their vast technical knowledge; they can infuse scientific management techniques in their own farms. In the WTO (World Trade Organisation) era, GMP (Good Manufacturing Practices) and SPS (Sanitory and Phytosanitory) measures are of great importance for export of livestock commodities, as the emphasis in international trade is on quality and food safety. If veterinarians start their own scientifically managed livestock enterprise, they can exploit this opportunity. Further, practicing proven scientific management techniques will improve productivity of animals that would lead to overall quantitative and qualitative improvement of livestock sector.

What is an Average ?

The word “average” is used in everyday life to describe where the middle number of a data set is. It’s the typical number you would except to find in a series of numbers. In statistics, the average is called the “arithmetic mean” usually just shortened to the mean. Both the average and the mean use the same formula :

Avg = total sum of all the numbers/ number of items in the set.

In other word, to find the average, add up all of the numbers in the set, and then divide by however many items you have. Let’s say you have 5, 10, and 15. Add them all up to get 5 + 10 + 15 = 30, then divide by 3(the number of items). The answer is 30/3 = 10.

In probability and statistics, you’ll see the following formula used

(AE; Epidemic Tremor; Infectious Avian Encephalomyelitis)

AE is a viral infection of chickens, turkeys, pheasants and cortunix quail characterized in young birds by ataxia progressing to paralysis and, usually, by tremors of the head and neck. Infected adults usually show no signs. AE is world wide in distribution.

• Avian Inflammation

Inflammation is a process which begins following a sublethal injury to tissue and ends with complete healing or death. It is characterized by five cardinal signs. Cardinal signs of inflammation are:

• Redness

• Heat

• Swelling

• Pain

• Loss of function

• Inflammation is beneficial in most of cases expect

• In prolonged or unending process

• In inflammation of immunological origin i.e. hypersensitivity and autoimmunity.

• It provides basic foundation of pathogenesis and pathology.

• It is now said that immunity is the resistance of body, while inflammation is the process by which the immune mechanism are implemented.

• The basis of inflammation remains same be it mammal or birds. For details, one can refer the chapter inflammation and heading in book “Illustrated Veterinary Pathology”. However, there are some differences in reaction in birds which are briefly listed below:

AI is a viral disease affecting the respiratory, enteric or nervous system of many kinds of birds. The most virulent form is an acute, generalized disease characterized in poultry by a short course and extremely high mortality.

Avian influenza (AI) is a listed disease of the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) that has become a disease of great concern for both animal and human health. Avian influenza (AI) or 'bird flu' is an infectious disease of birds ranging from a mild to a severe form of illness. It is caused by influenza A virus under the family Orthomyxoviridae. It is an enveloped virus with two types of surface projections haemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N). The haemagglutinin is a rod shaped homotrimer which agglutinates RBCs and neuraminidase is a mushroom shaped homotetramer which releases the virus from cells because of its sialidase activity. There are 17 different H antigens (H1 to H17) and 10 neuraminidase antigens (N1 to N10). The virus also contains 8 single stranded negative sense RNA segments each of which encodes for a protein. Avian influenza virus is generally limited to poultry but an unprecedented epizootic of avian influenza A (H5N1) that is highly pathogenic has crossed the species barrier in Asia to cause many human fatalities and likely to possess an increasing pandemic threat. Zoonotic potential of AI virus was first recorded in 1997 with hospitalization of 18 people (six died) following the infection with HPAI (H5N1) in Hong Kong. This provided the evidence that HPAI strains of chicken can adapt, multiply and even cause death in affected individuals. So, it is the prime time to create awareness about the HPAI and its transmission to human beings so that necessary precautionary measures can be taken to prevent and control the disease efficiently and effectively.

Etiology: Influenza viruses are under the Orthomyxoviridae family and belong to either influenza A or influenza B or influenza C genus. The virus particles are enveloped with glycoprotein projections having haemagglutinin or neuraminidase activity and contain 8 negative sense single stranded RNA. Influenza A viruses are classified into subtypes based on these two surface antigens, haemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N ). The haemagglutinin is a rod shaped trimer which agglutinates RBCs and neuraminidase is a mushroom shaped tetramer which releases the virus from cells because of its sialidase activity. Beneath the lipid envelope there is a membrane or matrix (M) protein which surrounds a helical complex containing the nucleoprotein (NP) and polymerases (PB1, PB2, P) protein. There are also two nonstructural protein (NS) present in the virus. There are 17 haemagglutinin antigen (H1 to H17) and 10 neuraminidase antigens (N1 to N10) present in influenza A viruses. Each RNA strand of AI virus code for at least one protein. The H glycoprotein of influenza virus has two important functions which are imperative for the infectivity of the virus (i) it is responsible for attachment of the virus to the host cell receptors of glycoprotein or gangliosides containing sialic acid. (ii) it possesses fusion activity between the host cell membrane and the virus membrane so that virus genetic material is introduced into the host cell. The glycoprotein is produced as a precursor, HAo which requires post translational cleavage to HA1 and HA2, by host proteases before it is able to induce membrane fusion. Then only the B virus particles becomes infectious. Type A viruses include the avian, swine, equine and human influenza A viruses. The large number of subtypes present in the type A influenza viruses are due to fact that viruses often undergo antigenic shift by the process of genetic reassortment.

Etiology

Intestinal spirochetes colonise the large intestine of avian, swine and humans.

Family spirochaetacae has six genera, of which Borrelia, Serpulina and Treponema have species pathogenic for animals. Avian intestinal spirochetes are grouped in four: Serpulina hyodysenteriae, S. intermedius, S. pilosicoli (Angullina coli) and an unnamed group.

Chicken S. hyodysenteriae is different from porcine one. S. hyodysentriae, Angullina coli and unclassified groups are present in the USA, whereas S.intermedius is in Europe and Australia.

Avian intestinal spirochetes are gram negative, stain brown with silver impregnation techniques and blue in Wright-Giemsa stain. They can be divided in 3 pathotypes 1) severely pathogenic 2) Mildly to moderate pathogenic and 3) subclinical or apathogenic.

LL is a retrovirus-causes, neoplastic disease of semi-mature or mature chickens characterized by a gradual onset in a flock, persistent low mortality and neoplasia of, the bursa of Fabricius (BF) with metastasis to many other internal organs especially the liver, spleen and kidney.

Introduction

From avian species alone approximately 20 mycoplasma serotypes have been isolated and characterised. Out of them, three serotypes (M. gallisepticum, M. meleagridis and M. synoviae) are most typical and pathogenic. A serotype M. iowae causes low hatchability in turkeys. Mycoplasmas are bacteria that lack cell wall and belong to the class Mollicutes. Although they have been considered extracellular agents, scientists admit nowadays that some of them are obligatory intracellular microorganisms, whereas all other mycoplasmas are considered facultative intracellular organisms

Etiology

Avian Nephritis Virus (ANV), an RNA virus is Astro virus under the genus Avastrovirus in Astroviridae family. Strains of ANV exist. ANV is very resistant and stable in the environment.

A. Answer the following questions

1.    Why ducks are highly susceptible to aflatoxicosis?

Ans: Ducks are about 200 times more sensitive than broilers and layers. Ducks contain a very high level of enzyme in the livertoconvert aflatoxinB to “aflatoxacol”. Besides, aflatoxin metabolism is 90 times faster in the duck liver than in rat liver.

2.    Why duck should have never access to feed without water?

Ans: Most mashes form a sticky paste when mixed with saliva and adhere to the papillae and other structures bordering the outer margin of the tongue and upper and lower bill. This caking interferes with the movement of the food mass to the tongue resulting in reduction of food intake and increase in feed wastage which occurs when the duck attempts to shake or wash off the mash adhering to its mouthparts.

It is interesting to note that only 25 of about 1200 species of birds found in India have been reported to inflict damage to crops, vegetables and fruits. The exact ecological causes for population increase of individual species have yet to be studied. It would appear that, in general, the granivorous birds became abundant with the increase in area under grain crops and the subsequent storage of grain in godowns and bulk storage. The details of important bird pests are given below:

Poultry sector in India has grown from a backyard activity into a major commercial activity in four and half decades. Poultry is one of the fastest growing subsectors of agricultural sector in India. Within the poultry sector, broiler production is growing faster than egg production and about 66.7% of the total output (in value term) comes from the poultry meat sector and only 33.3% from egg production (FAO, 2008). India ranks fifth in chicken and sixth in duck population. Presently, India is world’s third largest egg producer and the fifth major producer of chicken meat (FAO, 2010). Poultry is today the major source of meat in India. As per an estimate about 2 million people are employed, fully or partly, along the poultry value chain and that an increase in annual per caput availability of one egg or 50 gm or poultry meat generates about 20,000 to 25,000 full time jobs (Ciamarra & Otte, 2009). Distribution of chicken and duck population as well as poultry meat and egg production among different regions, countries of the world and among different Indian states has been already discussed in chapter one of this book.

Introduction

Avian salmonellosis is the term used to describe a large group of acute or chronic diseases caused by one or more members of the bacterial genus Salmonella, which is a member of the large family Enterobacteriaceae. Domestic poultry is known to constitute the largest single reservoir of Salmonella organism existing in nature. They include host specific and nonmotile members of the genus S. enterica subspp. enterica pullorum/gallinarum. If the infection of poultry is due to other Salmonella organisms other than Salmonella enteric subspp. enterica gallinarum/pullorum, the infection is then referred to as paratyphoid.

Poultry is one of the most emerging growth components of Indian agriculture, with egg and meat production rising at the rate of 8-10% per year when compared to crop production (1.5 - 2% each year). In India, the poultry population stood at 851.81 million in the 20th livestock census, an increase of 16.8% over the 19th census. Poultry sectors contribute 1% of national GDP and 25% in livestock GDP (FAO, 2021). According to DAHD’s 2022 report, our nation produces 122.05 billion eggs and 4.47 million tonnes of poultry meat altogether. India ranks eighth in terms of total meat production and third in terms of total egg production (DAHD, 2022).

Introduction

Avian medicine is a rapidly growing field, with an increasing number of exotic bird species being kept as pets. However, the unique anatomy, physiology, and behaviour of these birds present several challenges as well as new opportunities for veterinarians and researchers.Now a day’s birds are gaining popularity over dogs and cats because of various reasons listed below:

a. They are more suited in present life style as can be suited well in small spaces.

b. They require low maintenance with relative low cost of maintenance and live longer life.

c. They form very strong bonds with their owners.

Birds can be classified into different families, such as Psittaciformes, Passeriformes, Columbiformes, Piciformes, Anseriformes, Galliformes etc. containing numerous species (>10,000). The first documentation of parrot as a pet was found in Rig Veda, written more than 3000 years ago. Evidence of bird keeping is observed in ancient civilizations of Greece, Rome, China and Egypt. In Greek mythology, Raven (a crow) was mentioned as a symbol of good luck and was associated with God Apollo (God of prophecy). Crows are also considered as ancestors in Hindu mythology and food (pinda) is offered to crows during ritual of paying homage to dead persons. In most of the countries psittacine and passerine birds are preferred as pet birds.

The avocado (Persea americana Mill) belonging to the family Lauraceae, may have originated in southern Mexico but was cultivated from the Rio Grande to central Peru long before the arrival of Europeans. It was then distributed into the West Indies and all other parts of the tropical and subtropical world. It reached India probably in 1892. Now it is grown in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala in India, to a limited extent.

Cultivars/Varieties: Fuerte, Hass, Lula, Pollck, Purple, Green.

Uses

Avocado is low in sugar content and rich in avocado butter, hence can be highly recommended as a high energy food for diabetics. The pulp of the fruit can be preserved by freezing, and can be used as sandwich filling or spread, in ice creams and milk shakes. Though the fruit is high in fat content, it is harmless unlike animal fat. The pulp has butter consistency, and looks very much like cow’s butter and bland in taste with a nutty flavour, without any offensive odour or smell. Its aroma resembles that of tender coconut.

Avocado is a pear-shaped berry, which is otherwise known as alligator pear or butter fruit. The term alligator pear is due to the scaly appearance of some varieties of avocado, especially, the Hass avocados, which possesses black leathery skin. The edible portion of avocado is its flesh, which is yellowish green in colour. This flesh has a slightly nutty flavour with the consistency of butter. Avocado contains vitamins A, C, and B complex that sustain accurate performance of neurotransmitter which makes it as a superior food for the nervous system. Avocados have the highest energy value (245 cal/100 g) of any fruit besides being a reservoir of several vitamins and minerals (calcium and magnesium) that can calm and aid restorative sleep which is essential for nervous system to perform efficiently. Avocado is mainly used fresh, in sandwich filling or in salads. It can also be used in ice creams and milk shakes and the pulp may be preserved by freezing. The end quality of avocado determines its nutritional value. 

Genus : Persea 
Species : americana Mill.
Family : Lauraceae
Chromosome No. : 2n =24

Horticulturally avocado (Persea americana) is a new fruit and is often considered to be  one of the most   nutritive of present day fruit crops. Genus Persea, name has been derived from ancient Greek name of an Egyptian tree with sweet fruits  derived probably from Perseus. Avocado belongs to the family Lauraceae, has 47 genera and about 1900 species. Genus Persea has some 150 species of tropical evergreen trees. Its discovery in the new world has contributed much to the human diet. Fruit is a rich source of fat (27%), 2 per cent protein content is higher than in any other fresh fruit, mineral like Ca, Cl, Fe, Mg, P, K, Na and sulphur are also higher that makes avocado as a useful food which produces more of base forming elements rather than acid forming elements that are found more only in nut crops.

• Avocado is a dense and evergreen tree can grow about 80 feet height
  • Single seeded berry - Fat – 24-26%
  • Recalibrate seeds - Sugar – 1% Rich in K, Fe, Vitamins – B
• Its energy value is twice as much as Banana fruit.
• Most leading avocado cultivar in the world – Fuertes.
• Avocado is classified into 3 distinct horticultural races.
  1. Mexican – Coli fried Duke Pernod
  2. West Indian – Pollock, Simmonds, Black Prince Fuchsia, Peterson, Waldin.
  3. Guatemalan – Taylor, Linda, Queen, Benit
• Duke seedlings are resistant to root rot and cold hardiness.
• Important to salad fruit

The problem of frost damage to the crops is as old as agriculture is. Earlier, crop production was undertaken only as per the geographical distribution of the plant species and the cultivation of crops in non-conventional areas was not there. Later, with the expansion of agricultural activities, a number of introductions were made in the non-conventional areas. 

5.1. Introduction

This chapter deals with the sample survey conducted on cotton, turmeric and castor seed farmers and RMC traders and Officials and recorded the awareness level about futures, user status, the reason for not using futures and perception about futures.

The research work was planned to understand the level of awareness of agri-commodity futures market among the farmers, RMC traders and Officials of Odisha. The methodology adopted for the awareness assessment was to collect related answers to the questions which helped to evaluate the level of awareness among the beneficiaries i.e. farmers, RMC traders and officials. Quantitative and qualitative data was collected from sample respondents. The study has been completed by collecting data from farmers, RMC traders and officials of Kalahandi and Kandhamal districts which are the highest producers of three sample commodities i.e. cotton, castor seed and turmeric in Odisha. The research was conducted with 150 farmers (50 each for cotton, turmeric and castor seed), 30 RMC traders and 30 RMC officials of Kalahandi and Kandhamal districts of Odisha. The profile of sample farmers is depicted below.

Green Marketing

Agriculture is one of the foremost vital divisions of India’s economy given its tremendous land resources and conducive climate the share of agriculture within the Indian economy was as high as 35 within the 1960s which has reduced over time with the advancement in manufacturing and services segment within the nation within the late 1950s and early 1960s the nation had been ridden with different issues counting serious nourishment insufficiency different endeavors have been made since independence to implement successful rural arrangements to move forward the generation level in agriculture and hence supporting both producers and consumers post-independence the center of agrarian arrangement was on guaranteeing nourishment security to fight with emergency like shortage of nourishment and low yield rates between 1960 and 1970 the far reaching selection of rice and wheat was advanced together with a cluster of steady activities around production subsidies minimum support prices public procurement storage and distribution of nourishment grains and trade protection.

The Indian agriculture is on the threshold of a second revolution. It is becoming increasingly clear that the next leap will come from the Information and Communication Technology (ICT). Even though ICT has developed very well, its penetration to the farming community seems to be very less. At the same time, it is difficult for the extension agent to personally attend the queries of every farmer individually. With the decreased number of extension workers, there is a need to use the latest technologies for delivering extension services.

Abstract

A profile study of organic pigeonpea growers was conducted during 2007-08 in Gulbarga district of Karnataka state. Two taluks namely, Gulbarga and Jewargi were selected based on highest area under organic pigeonpea cultivation. One hundred twenty respondents were selected with simple random sampling procedure, to know (1) the practices followed by farmers in organic pigeonpea cultivation and (2) the forward linkage activities followed by organic pigeonpea growers. The study revealed that majority of respondents (63.33 %) had medium level knowledge about organic pigeonpea farming practices, with regard to individual organic farming practices, majority of respondents had knowledge about the practices like recommended seed rate (81.60%), recommended sowing time (98.33 %), application of FYM (100%), crop rotation (96.67%), pheromone traps (98.33%), NPV (100%) and NSKE (100%). With regard to post harvest operations, cent percent of respondents graded the produce manually and jute bags used to store the produce, whereas, 71.67% of the respondents sold later when price was suitable in regulated market (90.00%) through commission agents (77.50%) and got price information by personnel visit/phone call to regulated market (81.67%) and others who visited the market (68.33%). But no farmer certified the produce and sold at premium price. With regards to personal characteristics, majority of respondents (31.62 %) were illiterate, 59.17 per cent were had joint family, 61.17 per cent were having low farming experience, 60.83 per cent of respondents were big land holders and 69.17 per cent of respondents possessed medium level of scientific orientation.

INTRODUCTION

Research and teaching increasingly rely on global networks for the creation, storage, evaluate, and disseminate the knowledge. The 21^st century has brought enormous change in higher education throughout the world as a result of new information and technological developments. We are outfitting our schools, libraries, and homes with electronic technologies, but are we preparing our students and teachers for the onslaught of information that is provided by these technologies? What happens when the student can get more information from the Internet than previously conveyed by a teacher or a textbook? What should a student do when faced with so many informational possibilities ? Which of the information is credible and which is not?

The teacher’s role must evolve from the giver of knowledge into being more of a coach or guide. Teachers, librarians, administrators, and the community must collaborate to develop ways to involve the student not only in using classroom materials but also in using resources from the broader community and the mass media.

Teachers must be prepared to teach student to become critical thinkers, intellectually curious observers, creators, and users of information. In this context university libraries need to be dynamic, take a leading role in assessing the information literacy and computer literacy competence of the teachers and plan for conducting such programmes to improve the situation. One such attempt has been made by the Authors and the result is reported here.

In May 2020, The Government of India launched the flagship scheme called Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY), with an estimated investment of Rs. 20050 crores, comprising a Central share of Rs. 9407.00 crores, a state share of Rs 4880.00 crores, and a Beneficiary contribution of Rs. 5763.00 crores for its implementation during a period of 5 years from FY 2020-21 to FY 2024-25 in all States/Union Territories (Guidelines on Entrepreneurship Models in Fisheries and Aquaculture under PMMSY, 2020). The PMMSY will address critical gaps in fish production and productivity, quality, technology, traceability, post-harvest infrastructure, and management.

Introduction

The agricultural sector in India has focussed more on agricultural output and food security. From the year 1965 to 2016, India’s food production was multiplied by 3.7 times while the population was multiplied by 2.55 times. More than one f ifth of rural households with self-employment in agriculture as their principal occupation were having income less than the poverty line (NSSO, 2011-12). In the early 1980s, the farm income per cultivator was 34 per cent of the income of non agricultural workers. In the year 1993-1994, the relative income of farmers was one-fourth of the income of the non-agricultural workers. According to SAS 2012 2013, the average annual income of farm households from the farm as well as non farm sources was Rs. 77,112 which is 60 per cent from farm activities and 40 per cent from non-farm activities. In April 2016, the Government constituted an Inter Ministerial Committee to examine issues relating to DFI and recommend strategies to achieve the same. The target was to change the farm to non-farm income ratio from the existing 60:40 in 2015-16 to 70:30 by 2022-23. A seven-point strategy was proposed and several initiatives were taken to increase the income of farmers. The last available estimates on the income of agricultural households are based on the Situation Assessment Survey of Agricultural Households conducted by the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) during 77th round (January – December 2019). As per the survey results, the average monthly income per agricultural household from all sources was estimated to be. Rs. 10218. Thus, the present study was taken to know the awareness, knowledge and perception of farmers towards doubling farmers income. Understanding the farmers awareness, knowledge and perception would help to develop specific strategies for increasing the farmers income.

• The axial skeleton is comprised of several key structures that form the central core of the animal skeleton.

• This includes the bones of the skull, which encase and protect the brain, the vertebral column or spine, which provides support and houses the spinal cord, as well as the ribs and the sternum, which together form the rib cage, protecting vital organs such as the heart and lungs.

• These components work together to provide structural support and protection for the body’s central organs.

Skull Bones

The skull is a complex structure that varies greatly across different animal species, reflecting their unique evolutionary adaptations, dietary habits, and ecological niches.

Generally, the skull serves several critical functions: protecting the brain, supporting facial structures, and providing attachment points for muscles involved in feeding and expression.

Euphorbiaceae is a large family that includes 310-320 genera and 7500 species (Walters and Keil, 1996). Two centers of distribution for this family are tropical America and tropical Africa. The family has an extremely variable life span and habits are found as annual and perennial herbs, vines, succulents, shrubs and tall trees. Members of the Euphorbiaceæ are found in many habitats, from deserts to rain forests. Euphorbiaceae family has genera used as unconventional foods

In Mexico, 826 species under Euphorbiaceae family are found with 50 genera including those introduced from elsewhere and cultivated. A subfamily with a larger number of genera is Acalyphoieae (16), while Euphorbioideae has more species (306), and Crotonoideae has more specific endemism (Martinez-Gordillo et al, 2002). Some of these plants are used in traditional medicine, in oil industry, as ornamental plants, and as food additive. A few examples of its uses include edible wax from Euphorbia antisyphilitica (candelilla) that coats fruits and vegetables to retard water evaporation. Jatropha dioica is a small shrub that is used in traditional medicine and Euphorbia pulcherrima (Poisenetta) an ornamental plant.

Plants belonging to the Rhododendron subgenera Pentanthera (deciduous) and Tsutsusi and Azaleastrum (evergreen) are called azaleas. Azalea belongs to family Ericaceae. Azaleas are one of the favourite ornamental plants used by home owners and professional landscapers. They are used as foundation, accent, individual specimen plants, and as mass plantings. Azaleas are good companion plants, working well in designs with many trees, shrubs and ground covers, offering a variety of landscape options. Azaleas can be found in all ranges of colours, from delicately pink-tinged white to strong, bright red, and there are species that has the startling colour of flame. Its bold colour scheme has caused people to carry it far and wide, for use wherever a sudden note in strong hue is appropriate among the milder expressions of the rest of the flowers. The evergreen azalea, Rhododendron simsii  Planch., is one of the most important pot plants in Western Europe and the USA. The breeding history of this vegetatively propagated plant is a relatively short one, and breeding has been focused on flower characters because the public is continually asking for new flower colours and flower types.

Plants belonging to the Rhododendron subgenera Pentanthera (deciduous) and Tsutsusi and Azaleastrum (evergreen) are called azaleas. Azalea belongs to family Ericaceae. Azaleas are one of the favourite ornamental plants used by home owners and professional landscapers. They are used as foundation, accent, individual specimen plants, and as mass plantings. Azaleas are good companion plants, working well in designs with many trees, shrubs and ground covers, offering a variety of landscape options. Azaleas can be found in all ranges of colours, from delicately pink-tinged white to strong, bright red, and there are species that has the startling colour of flame. Its bold colour scheme has caused people to carry it far and wide, for use wherever a sudden note in strong hue is appropriate among the milder expressions of the rest of the flowers. The evergreen azalea, Rhododendron simsii Planch., is one of the most important pot plants in Western Europe and the USA. The breeding history of this vegetatively propagated plant is a relatively short one, and breeding has been focused on flower characters because the public is continually asking for new flower colours and flower types.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Nevertheless, very little was known about the origin and the ancestor species used for this important ornamental crop. Rhododendron simsii, the species that is accepted to be the main ancestor, originates from hilly areas in China (Chang Jiang valley), Thailand, Laos and Burma. Apart from R. simsii, at least three other species from the Tsutsusi subgenus, from South-Asia and Japan, might have contributed: R. indicum, R. x mucronatum (Blume) G. Don and R. scabrum (Heursel, 1999).

From a floricultural viewpoint, azaleas are firstly divided into the two broad categories of deciduous and evergreen plants. The former, notoriously more rustic, have North American, Caucasian, and Asian origins, and are classified in the subgenus Pentanthera G. Don, whereas the latter derive exclusively from Asian species and are classified in the subgenus Tsutsusi (Sweet) Pojarkova (Chamberlain and Rae, 1990). Within the evergreen azaleas at least four more or less well defined groups of cultivars are distinguished according to their traditionally recognized most important ancestor: pot or Belgian azaleas (R. simsii Planch. putative hybrids), Hirado azaleas (R. scabrum G. Don putative hybrids), Kurume azaleas [putative hybrids of R. kiusianum Makino var. kiusianum and var. sataense (Nakai) D.F. Chamb. and R. kaempferi Planch.] and Satsuki azaleas [putative mutants or hybrids of R. indicum (L.) Sweet and R. eriocarpum (Hayata) Nakai]. The Hirado, Kurume and Satsuki groups are often referred to as Japanese azaleas because of their geographical origin (Scariot et al., 2007).

The accumulation of nitrogen under non-leguminous and cereal cropping systems seem to be generally universal at least in the tropics. Free-living heterotrophic nitrogen fixing bacteria are very widely distributed taxonomically, geographically and ecologically. But only a few genera and species are known to possess the potential for high amount of nitrogen fixation. Azospirillum has shown high nitrogen fixation attributes. The association of Spirillum lipoperum (Azospirillum brasilense) and Digitaria decumbens was reported by Dobereiner and Day (1974).

I. Spirillum

The description of members of genus Spirillum was available as early as 1670s by Leeuwenhoek (Dobell 1960 and Muller 1773). But the genus Spirillurn was created in 1832 by distinguishing it from phototrophic spirilla which were placed in a separate genus Thiospirillum (Ehrenberg, 1838). The subsequent developments of the taxonomy of the chemo- heterotrophic spirilla which generated knowledge of their characteristics, were extensively reviewed by Giesberger (1936) and Williams (1959 a, b).

Azospirillum is a spiral-shaped nitrogen fixing bacterium. It also produces hormones and vitamins. Important species are Azospirillum brasilense and Azospirillum lipoferum. It is widely distributed in soils and grass roots.The genus Azospirillum belongs to family Spirillaceae with four commonly available species viz. A. brasilence, A. lipoferum, A. amazonense and A. halopraeferens or A. seropedicae (Fig. 8.1).

β-glucans are carbohydrates made of complex glucose polymers that provides the major structure found in the cell wall of yeast, fungi, algae, and cereal grains such as oats and barley. The structures of β-glucans vary depending on the original source and the type of linkages present on the glucose polymers. β-glucans consist of a backbone of glucose molecules linked at the 1 and 3 carbon atoms (Jacob and Pescatore, 2017). The six-sided glucose rings are connected together in linear or branched forms with glycosidic linkages. The structure of these glycosidic linkages will affect the functionality of the β-glucan molecules.

Bacteriochlorophylls: A group of light absorbing photosynthetic green pigments of anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria.

Ballistic transformation: The use of a particle gun to insert foreign DNA into a host.

Beneficial elements: These are the elements that help to optimize the growth and development only in some species. It is not essential to all the plants. Aluminum is beneficial to some species that are adapted to acidic soils. Cobalt can have a number of beneficial effects, especially in leguminous plants.

Betalains: Highly coloured nitrogen containing glycosylated compound in the category of alkaloids imparting red-purple and yellow colour in plants of centropsermae (e.g., beet root).

Beta-oxidation: Breakdown of fatty acids into Acetyl co-A by successive oxidation. It is the first step of lipids breakdown.

Bidirectional transport: Simultaneous transport of solutes in opposite directions in the same file of sieve elements. Bidirectional transport may occur under some circumstances. For e.g., in a file of cell, as a result of cytoplasmic streaming.

Barbarea vulgaris var. taurica (DC) Hook. f. & Anders. (syn. Barbarea vulgaris R. Br.) (Brassicaceae): [W]. A herb of damp soils inhabiting water bodies. Flowers yellow. Leaves used for healing of frost bites.

Bar chart: The bar chart or diagram is one of the ways of graphically displaying categorical data. A bar chart is identical to a histogram, except that in a bar chart the rectangles representing the various frequencies are spaced, thus indicating that the data is categorical. The bar diagram is used for variables measured on nominal or ordinal scales.

B.T.U.: It stands for British thermal unit. The heat required to raise the temperature of one pond of the water through 1oF is called BTU (Plate 82).

Baby back ribs: Meaty pork ribs cut from the lower back rib section.

Bacitracin: A polypeptide antibiotic isolated from a bacillus (Bacillus subtilis or B. licheniformis) and usually used against gram-positive bacteria.

Back Bacon / Canadian bacon: Bacon cut from the loin that has little fat and is cut into round or oblong slices.

Backward feed evaporator: In this evaporator, fresh feed enters the last and the coldest effect and continues on until the concentrated product leaves the first effect (Plate 83).

Abstract

Bacilli, a group of endospore forming bacteria present in soil, contribute directly or indirectly to crop productivity. Bacilli have many physiological unique traits like multilayered cell wall, stress resistant endospore formation, secretion of peptide antibiotics, peptide signal molecules, extracellular enzymes, which make them ubiquitous and assist to their survival under adverse environmental conditions for long time.

Fusarium wilt of carnation caused by Fusarium oxysporum f.spp dianthi causes severe yield losses under protected cultivation. For the management of Fusarium wilt, 27 isolates of Bacillus strains were isolated from the rhizosphere of different crops including carnation. Among various species of Bacillus, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (BSC7) was identified as a most virulent antagonistic bacterial isolate. Studies on antagonism under Environmentally Controlled Scanning Electron Microscopy (ESEM), depicted the presence of rod shaped bacterial cells with biofilm formation at 44847x. Detection for the presence of antibiotic biosynthetic genes reflected the presence of surfactin, iturin, bacillomycin and fengycin genes. The 24 isolates of Bacillus spp. showed positive reaction for surfactin gene. Nineteen isolates were amplified for Iturin A gene except BS5, BS9, BSC1, BSC2, BSC11, BSD1 and BSD2. Strains of B. subtilis BS1, BS2, BS5, BS6 and BS8 expressed Bacillomycin D gene. The genomic DNA of strains BS1, BS2, BS4, BS6, BS7 BS8, BS11 and BS14 showed positive for Fengycin D gene. The isolate of B. subtilis BS2 showed positive reaction for four genes namely surfactin, iturin, bacillomycin and fengycin.

In vitro screening of Bacillus, B. amyloliquefaciens (BSC7), P. aeruginosa (P1) and T. viride (TV1) showed highest inhibition against F.oxysporum f.sp.dianthi to an extent of 55.95, 55.29 and 81.61 per cent over the control respectively. The antifungal activity of antagonistic B. amyloliquefaciens BSC7 and T. viride TV1 against F.oxysporum f.sp. dianthi was confirmed under ESEM by observing disintegration, lysis and structural abnormalities of the hyphae of the pathogen at the zone of interaction.