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It is a small mass of tissue present on either side of the trachea or windpipe. It is a very important structure that helps in the metabolism of the body.

When the basal metabolism is below normal, a person tends to be slow in his movements. He feels cold more and may have marked dryness of the skin, along with constipation and a tendency to put on weight. His hair is dry, thin, and coarse and the skin appears dry, scaly and thickened. There may be puffiness in the face, especially around the eyes. The tongue is usually large, the pulse is slow and regular, and the patient often complains of vague pains in the back and stiffness in the joints.

Hypothyroidism: It is a condition that results from the insufficient amount of thyroid hormone in the body. The trouble may also develop from pituitary deficiency, but is more likely due to some inborn error of the thyroid gland. The change usually comes gradually and involves the patients personality and also his ability to think.

Hypothyroidism is seen in both sexes, but is more common in women. Most of these are overweight and may complain of heavy flow during menstruation. The heart is often enlarged, and there is high level of cholesterol in the blood stream.

At the back of the mouth on each side there are two small lymphoid organs known as tonsils. Normally they are about the size of a Lima bean, but they can become very larger if severely infected. The lingual tonsil is located at the back of the tongue close to other tonsils. There are two more lymphoid masses of tissue behind the soft palate known as adenoids. They make protective ring at the back of the nose & throat to keep infection from spreading throughout the body. Most of the germs enter through the mouth, nose and throat.

After becoming an adult the adenoids have largely disappeared. In childhood both the tonsils and adenoids may become very large. It makes swallowing painful and breathing difficult. In childhood large tonsils are common. The main reason of infection is due to certain types of streptococcus germs. Mouth breathing, nasal speech, a chronic cough are caused by the enlarged adenoids. The patient may also have halitosis or bad breath.

As the blood returns to the heart it passes through special thin walled vessels called veins. Unlike the tough strong arteries, these vessels are easily distended. One can demonstrate by pressing the finger on a vein on the back of hand and watching it swell as the blood builds up behind it. Blood flowing from the head and upper chest flows downward toward the heart. On the other hand, blood coming from the lower extremities must flow upward. To make this possible nature has provided valves in the veins so that the blood can flow only toward the heart, never in the other direction.

In human beings there are two sets of veins. The deeper veins are located within the muscles where they are given good support. But the veins on the surface just under the skin have little support and are easily damaged. These surface veins are often subject to inflammation or phlebitis.

In some people the veins in the legs are weak and may swell easily. Varicose veins, seems to run in families. Anything that increases the pressure in the pelvis or abdomen may slow the flow of blood back to the heart from the lower extremities. One frequent cause of varicose veins is pregnancy; other is obesity. Anything that increases the pressure within the veins of the legs and thighs may weaken or break down the little valves, so that the veins become enlarged and the blood does not finds its way back to the heart as it should.

Whooping cough is highly infectious specific disease, commonly of children characterized by respiratory catarrh and a special type of cough with inspiratory laryngeal spasm producing a characteristic sound.

This is common in children below 6 years, females are attacked more. Atypical cases are sometimes seen in adolescents and adults.

The disease occurs sporadically and less commonly in epidemics. It occurs mostly in winters and spring and is more common in temperate areas. The causative organism is Haemophillus pertusis present in the upper respiratory tract, conveyed by the infected sputum droplets of the patient to the contacts during the earlier stages of catarrh and paroxysmal cough.

The incubation period is 7 to 15 days or more.

A moderate degree of laryngeal, tracheal and bronchial catarrh with peribroncholitis and acute localized emphysema of the lungs are often associated. The tracheobronchial glands are sometimes enlarged. Rarely the right heart may be dilated and there may be haemorrhage in the brain and the meninges.

The word Aconite is derieved from ACONIS, a city of Bithynia (in Asia Minor). Also ACON means dart because the darts were poisoned with Aconite. Also, from Greek word ACONITUM means without soil, as this plant grows on a stony ground.

History and Authority: Master Hahnemann introduced it in homoeopathy in 1805.

A state of fear, anxiety; anguish of mind and body. Physical and mental restlessness, fright, is the most characteristic manifestation of Aconite. Acute sudden and violent invasion, with fever, call for it.

There is no medicine like Aconite Nap when a complaint is caused by exposure to dry cold weatlier or by fright or both. Aconite should be thought of as the first medicine in inflammation, inflammatory fevers, when an attack is acute, sudden and violent, when there is physical and mental restlessness and if the problem is recent and when all this is on account of exposure to dry cold weather. The parts of the body affected can be larynx, bronchi, pleura joints and even heart.

The name ARNICA is derived from ARNAKIS means lambskin due to the wooly appearance of the leaf.

MONTANA from Latin word MOUNTAINOUS from the place that is grows.

History and Authority: Hahnemann introduced it in homoeopathic practice in 1805.

The part used is the entire fresh plant, including root.

Arnica is one of the most frequently used remedies in the homoeopathic materia medica. We think of it whenever injury, however remote, appears to be the cause of the trouble. The injury may be recent or remote. It may be a blow or a contusion. The patient has a bruised, sore feeling all over. Any surface on which the body lies appears to be hard. Various limbs of the body ache as if these have been beaten. Arnica is the remedy in such cases.

It is a deep acting remedy on every organ and tissue. Its clear-cut characteristic symptoms amid correspondence to many severe types of diseases make its homoeopathic employment constant and certain. Its general symptoms often alone lead to its successful application.

Arsenic should be thought of in ailments from alcoholism, ptomaine poisoning, stings, dissecting wounds, chewing tobacco; ill effects from decayed food or animal matter; order of discharges is putrid: in complaints that return annually. Anemia and chlorosis. Degenerative changes. Gradual loss of weight from impaired nutrition. Reduces the refractive index of blood serum (also China and Ferr. Phos.) Maintains the system under the stress of malignancy regardless of location. Malarial cachexia. Septic infections and low vitality.

The word Belladonna is derived from two Latin words Bella means fine or beautiful and Donna means lady. Its generic name ' ATROPA' comes from the Greek fate ATROPOS, 'THE INFLEXIBLE ONE'.

Think of Belladonna if you see a red surface because this medicine is associated with red, blood shot eyes, red, puffed face, red, swollen throat, red skin, which radiates heat. This redness indicates inflammation. Thus a large number of acute inflammatory diseases respond well to Belladonna.

Belladonna problems come on suddenly, with violence, run a regular course and then disappear as suddenly as they come.

When an inflammation is localized, Belladonna is the remedy in the first stage. Such inflammation comes suddenly, is red, painful and throbbing. This can be in the head, throat, breast or anywhere else in the body. This can be in the form of a carbuncle or a boil, on a hand or on a foot. Belladonna controls and aborts the problem in its first stage.

The word BRYONIA means growing rapidly, as the stem grows rapidly.

ALBA, from Latin word ALBUS means white as the roots and flowers are yellowish or white.

Bryonia affects especially the constitution of a robust, firm fiber and dark complexion, with tendency to leanness and irritability. It prefers the right side, the evening, and open air. Warm weather after cold days, to manifest its action most markedly. Bryonia acts on all serous membranes and the viscera they contain.

Bryonia gives remarkable relief in muscular pain, which aggravates on motion, in the treatment of bronchitis and inflammatory and congestive headache.

The character of the pain is "Stitching and tearing". An interesting feature of Bryonia pain is that patient feels better, ameliorated if pressure is applied to the painful part. The patient is comfortable when lying on the painful side.

The name CACTUS was originally given by Theophrastus, to a spiny plant of Sicily in Italy.

Act on circular muscular fibres, hence constrictions. It is the heart and arteries especially that at once respond to the influence of Cactus, producing very characteristic constrictions as of an iron band. This sensation is found in various places, oesophagus, bladder, etc. The mental symptoms produced correspond to those found when there are heart affections, sadness and melancholy. Haemorrhage, constrictions, periodicity, and spasmodic pains. Whole body feels as if caged, each wire being twisted tighter. Atheromatous arteries and weak heart. Congestion; irregular distribution of blood. Favors formation of clots speedily. Great periodicity. Toxic goiter with cardiac symptoms. Cactus is pulseless, painting and prostrated.

We use Cactus for constriction of the heart. It feels as if an iron band were preventing the normal movement of the heart. The pain is worse when the patient is lying on the left side.

Cactus has four leading indications, viz. haemorrhage, constriction, periodicity and spasmodic pain. The whole body feels as if it is caged, with each wire being twisted tighter.

In case of heart problems, there is a fluttering and palpitation of the heart, an irregularity in the action of the heart. The patient suffers from endocarditis, an inflammation of the layer of the epithelial cells which lines the cavities of the heart. There may be mitrial insufficiency with palpitation. There may be swelling of the left hand, of the left leg and foot. The left arm is numb. The circulation of the blood is spasmodic, irregular.

This great Hahnemannian antipsoric is a constitutional remedy. Its chief action is on the glands, skin and bones. Increased general and local perspiration, swelling of glands, scrofulous and rachitic conditions generally offer numerous opportunities for the application of Calcarea. A jaded state, mental or physical, due to overwork. Persons of scrofulous type, who take cold easily, with increased mucous secretion, children who grow fat, are large bellied, with large head, pale skin, chalky look, affections caused by working in water. Children crave eggs and eat dirt and other indigestible things; are prone to diarrhoea. Calcarea patient is fat, fair, flabby and perspiring.

In cases of deficient or irregular bone development, deformed extremities, a crooked spine, a softening of the bone, Calcarea Carb comes handy. While the Sulphur patient might be usually thin, lean and wiry, the Calcarea patient might be obese. But like Sulphur, Calcarea carb helps in easy relapses, interrupted convalescence.

The typical Carbo patient is sluggish, fat and lazy and has a tendency to have chronic complaints. Blood seems to stagnate in thq capillaries, causing blueness, coldness and ecchymosis. Body becomes blue icy-cold. Bacteria find a rich soil in the nearly lifeless blood stream and sepsis and typhoidal state ensues. Weakness due to excessive diarrhoea, menstruation or other debilitating diseases. The patient may be almost lifeless, but the head is not, coldness, breathe cool, pulse imperceptible, oppressed and quickened respiration and must have air, must be fanned hard, must have all the windows open. The patient faints easily, are worn out must have fresh air. Haemorrhages from any mucous surface. Indicated for persons who have never fully recovered from the effects of some previous illness. General venous stasis, bluish skin, limbs cold.

Manifests its action mainly in chronic rheumatic, arthritic and paralytic affections, indicated by the tearing, drawing pains in the muscular and fibrous tissues, with deformities about the joints; progressive loss of muscular strength, tendinous contractures. Broken down senile. In catarrhal affections of the air passages, seems to choose preferably dark - complexioned and rigid fibered persons. Restlessness at night, with tearing pains in joints and bones, and faint - like sinking of strength. This weakness progresses until we have gradually appearing paralysis. Local paralysis, vocal cords, muscles of deglutition, of tongue, eyelids, face, bladder and extremities. Children are slow to walk. The skin of Causticum person is of a dirty white sallow, with warts, especially on the face. Emaciations due to disease, worry etc. Burning, rawness and soreness are characteristic.

Causticum is indicated in the treatment of chronic rheumatism and paralysis accompanying it. Here, Causticum ranks with Rhus Tox and Sulphur.

The word CHAMOMILA is derived from CHAMAEMELUM and MATRICARIA from MATRIX means apple on the ground, because the plant grows to the ground and has an odour like that of apples. It has been used since long as a domestic remedy by the name chamomile.

The chief guiding symptoms belong to the mental and emotion group, which lead to this remedy in many forms of disease. Especially of frequent employment in diseases of children, where peevishness, restlessness, and colic give the needful indications. A disposition that is mild, calm and gentle; sluggish and constipated bowels contra-indicate Chamomilla.

Chamomilla is sensitive, irritable, thirsty, hot, and numb. Oversensitiveness from abuse of coffee and narcotics. Pains unendurable, associated with numbness night-sweats.

The child patient wants to be carried in the arms. His mood is very irritable and snappy. He does not know what he wants. He needs a dose of Chamomilla. Even in elders, the patient is cross, ugly, spiteful and snappish. He cannot bear others. He cannot bear pain. He wants things but on getting them throws them away. He is uncivil.

CINCHON, a place where the Countess Ann, a wife of the 4^th Count of CINCHON lived. She was cured by tertian fever in 1638 by the use of cinchona bark. Its virtues were made known to Europe in 1640. The botanists identified it in 1717. This drug shows the pathway for the establishment of homoeopathy.

The key word in the prescribing of China is 'debility' or weakness caused by excessive loss of blood or other fluids from the body, through nursing or salivation or excessive and bloody leucorrhoea, menstruation or long-continuing diarrhoea or through profuse pus formation or after an attack of influenza. There may be haemorrhages from the wounds, the lungs, the bowels or from the nose, a sudden depletion leading to fainting, loss of sight, ringing in the ears or to an over all weakness of the body. China acts as a marvelous remedy in such cases. The dose should be frequently repeated in 200 potency.

The word GELSEMIUM is derived from Latin word GELSIMINO meaning jasmine and SEMPERVIRENS meaning ever green.

Gelsemium is one of the most effective remedies in the treatment of influenza where there is body pain, pain in the head at the base of the brain, that is, in the occiput, and where there are accompanying throat problems.

Mentally, the Gelsemium patient desires to be left alone in peace. He is torpid, sleepy and dreads movement. He is dull. He cannot think clearly or concentrate.

As indicated above, Gelsemium is one of the remedies used in the treatment of influenza where there is body pain, a feeling of chill going upwards in the spine and congestion on the occiput. The eyes burn and itch with great discomfort. The patient sneezes and experiences coolness at the root of the nose. There may be acute running nose with dull headache and fever. At times the nose is blocked. The face is hot, flushed, dark red and looks like that of fool. The skin is very hot. The temperature goes up. There is itching and tickling in the soft palate, in the throat and in the nasopharynx. The throat feels rough; it burns. At times there is the feeling of a lump in the throat, which cannot be swallowed. There is pain in the temples, in the throat, radiating towards the ear. The entire system of the ears, nose and throat appears to be affected.

Like all the carbons, this remedy is an antipsoric of great power, but especially active in patients who are rather stout, of fair complexion, with tendency to skin affections and constipations, fat, chilly, and costive, with delayed menstrual history, take cold easily.

Children impudent, teasing, laugh at reprimands. Anaemia with redness of face. Tendency to obesity.

By and large, Graphites is a skin remedy. Eruptions oozing out at thick honey - like fluid require Graphites. Such eruptions may be on any part of the body. These would be especially found on or beyond the ears, on the head, the face and the genitals or on the eyelids.

Graphites is indicated in eczema of the legs where there is a thick oozing of sticky fluid. Eczema of the eyelids, where the eruptions are moist and the margins of the eyelids are fissured, also requires Graphites.

Suits especially scrofulous and lymphatic constitutions that are inclined to have eruptions and glandular swellings. Unhealthy skin. Blondes with sluggish character and weak muscles. Great sensitiveness to all impressions. Sweating patient pulling blanket around him. Chilliness, hypersensitiveness, splinter-like pains, craving for sour and strong things are very characteristic. The tendency to suppuration is more marked, and ahs been a strong guiding symptom in practice. The side of the body on which he lies at night becomes gradually insufferably painful; he must turn.

Hepar Sulph is the medicine for abscess, for the tendency to suppuration. Every little injury suppurates. Accompanying this suppuration is shooting pain. Suppuration or pus formation can be on any part of the body. If throbbing and shooting pain accompany it, it requires a does of Hepar Sulph in a high potency of 200 and above. Hepar Sulph can abort pus formation if given at the earliest stage of suppuration. Later it will hasten the pointing and discharge and help in healing the ulcer.

The name Ipecacuanha is from the Portuguese meaning, 'Road-side-sick-making plant⁷, and mention of it as a remedy for the bloody flux or dysentery goes back as far as the late sixteenth century.

The principle feature of Ipecacuahna is its persistent nausea and vomiting, which form the chief guiding symptom. Indicated after indigestible food, raisins, cakes, etc. especially indicated in fat children and adults, who are feeble and catch cold in relaxing atmosphere, warm moist weather.

One cannot think of treating persistent nausea without Ipecac. This is a nausea in which there is no relief by vomiting. The patient is as sick after as before. The second major problem for which Ipecac is a great cure is a chest complaint, bronchitis in infants, bronchitis with coarse rattling. Ipecac is also a remedy for infections of the upper respiratory tract wherein a peculiar wheezing sound is produced on breathing out. Old incurable cases of asthma are relieved by Ipecac. Ipecac is useful in uterine haemorrhages.

Kali Bi is one of the finest remedies for the treatment of sinusitis, in diphtheric croup and in chronic, old cases. The mucous membrane of the nose responds to the administration of Kali Bi in acute as well as chronic cases. The discharge is tough, stringy, green and goes inwards into the throat.

The mucus is very difficult to take out. The patient can be heard from a distance trying to take it out but without success. One dose of Kali Bi. loosens this mucus.

There is pain in the sinuses. There is neuralgia in the orbits above the eyes. The sense of smell has been lost. The nose is stuffed. At times, there is violent sneezing. The patient suffers from chronic inflammation of the frontal sinuses. Only Kali Bi. gives relief and cure to such a patient.

Catarrhal laryngitis cough has a brassy sound. True membranous croup, extending to larynx and nares. Cough with pain in sternum, extending to shoulders. Pain at bifurcation of trachea on coughing from midsternum to back.

Like all snake poisons, Lachesis decomposes the blood rendering it more fluid; hence a haemorrhagic tendency is marked. Purpura, septic states, diphtheria, and other low forms of disease when the system is thoroughly poisoned and the prostration is marked. Delirium tremens with mucfrtrembling and confusion. Very important medicine during menopause and for patients of a melancholic disposition. Diphtheria carriers. Sensation of tension in various parts.

Lachesis treats the worst of throat problems, hot flushes in women during menopause, and diptheric paralysis. It is indicated in high blood pressure with constriction and in heart disease when the face is purple and bloated. Also religious insanity.

As a red inflammation leads us to use Belladonna, so Lachesis is to be thought of when the colour is purple. The face is purple; the eyes are engorged. An inflamed spot is purple and so are the inflamed glands. Ulceration bleeds, blood coagulates and the surface looks purple. There is extreme sensitivity to touch. The throat is purple and not red because the blood under the skin has coagulated. There is nothing like Lachesis if these indications are present.

The word LYCOPODIUM is derived from LUCOS meaning wolf and PES meaning the foot, as the shoots has an appearance of the wolfs foot. CLAVATUM derived from Latin word CLAVATUS meaning club-like.

This drug is inert until the spores are crushed. Its wonderful medicinal properties are only disclosed by trituration and succussion. In nearly all cases where Lycopodium is the remedy, some evidence of urinary or digestive disturbance will be found. Lycopodium is adapted more especially to ailments gradually developing functional powers, where the function of the liver is seriously disturbed. Atony. Malnutrition. Mild temperaments of lymphatic constitution, with catarrhal tendencies; older persons, where the skin shows yellowish spots, earthy complexion, uric acid diathesis, etc.; also precocious, weak children. Symptoms characteristically run from right to left, act especially on right side of body, and are worse from 4 to 8 PM.

Lycopodium is most useful in troubles relating to digestion. These troubles arise from the consumption of food, which ferments in the digestive system. That is why Lycopodium relieves a bloated and full abdomen wherein the wind is pressing downwards.

Every organ and tissue of the body is more or less affected by this powerful drug; it transforms healthy cells into inflamed and necrotic cells; decomposes the blood producing a profound anaemia. This is converted into useful life saving and life preserving service if employed homoeopathically, guided by its clear-cut symptoms. The lymphatic system is especially affected with all the membranes and glands, and internal organs, bones, etc. lesions produced by Mercury are very similar to those of syphilis. Very often indicated in the secondary stage of syphilis where there is a febrile chloroanaemia, rheumatoid pains around joints, etc. all mercury symptoms are worse at night, from warmth of bed, from damp, cold, rainy weather, worse during perspiration. It is also known as human 'thermometre'. Sensitive to heat and cold. Breath, excretions and body smell foul. Tendency to pus formation, which is thin, greenish, putrid, streaked with thin blood.

The prolong taking of excessive salt causes profound nutritive changes to take place in the system, and there arises not only the symptoms of salt retention as evidenced by dropsies and oedemas, but also an alteration in the blood causing a condition of anaemia and leucocytosis. There seems also to be retention in the tissues. It is a great remedy for certain forms of intermittent fever, anaemia, chlorosis, many disturbances of the alimentary tract and skin. Great debility; most weakness felt in the morning in bed. Dry mucous membranes. Constrictive sensation throughout the body. Great weariness and weakness. Oversensitive to all sorts of influences. Hyperthyroidism. Goiter, Addison's disease. Diabetes.

According to Dr. E.B. Nash, Nat Mur is one of the best homoeopathic remedies for anemia. This anaemia can be caused by loss of fluids, by menstrual irregularities, by grief or mental diseases. The patient is pale, emaciated and in spite of eating very well he is anaemic. He suffers from a throbbing headache, soreness while climbing steps, exhaustion or physical exertion, constipation to some degree and overall depression. Some women have scanty flow of blood during menses.

The main action of this drug is on the outlets of the body where the mucous membrane and the skin meet; these pain as from splinters. Marked improvement of symptoms while riding in a carriage. Acts best on the dark complexioned and past middle life. Syphilis after abuse of mercury. Pains appear and disappear rapidly. All discharges very offensive especially urine, faeces, and perspiration. Persons who have chronic diseases and take cold easily and disposed to diarrhoea. Excessive physical irritability.

The human body has many outlets where the mucous membranes and the skin meet. Any pain on account of problems in these regions is severe. It is a sticking pain. It is a pain as if somebody is piercing the surface with splinters. Nitric Acid is the remedy for problems of this type.

The skin and the mucous membrane join at the corners of the mouth, in the nose and at the anus. On the lips the corners crack, get ulcerated and swollen. In the mouth there are blisters with a lot of pus and swelling. The gums are swollen, ulcerated and spongy. Fissures occur in the canthi. Nitric Acid is the first remedy in such cases.

The word NUX VOMICA is derived from Latin word NUX meaning nut and VOMERE meaning vomiting because of the peculiar property of the nut.

Is the greatest of polychrests, because the bulk of its symptoms correspond in similarity with those of the commonest and most frequent of diseases. It is frequently the first remedy, indicated after much dosing, establishing a sort of equilibrium of forces and counteracting chronic effects.

Nux is pre-eminently the remedy for many of the conditions incident to modern life. The typical Nux patient is thin, spare, quick, active, nervous and irritable. He does a good deal of mental work; has mental strains and leads a sedentary life, found in prolonged office work, over study and close application to business with cares and anxieties. This indoor life and mental strain seeks stimulants, coffee, wine, possibly in excess; or again, he hopes to quiet his excitement, by indulging in the sedative effects of tobacco, if not really a victim, to the seductive drugs, like opium etc. Nux is preeminently a male remedy. These conditions produce an irritable, nervous system, hypersensitive and over impressionable, which Nux will do much to soothe and calm. Especially adapted to digestive disturbances, portal congestion and hypochondriacal states depending thereon. Nux patients are easily chilled, avoid open air. Nux always seems to be out of tune, inharmonious spasmodic action.

The common acid " debility" is very marked in this remedy, producing a nervous exhaustion. Mental debility first, later physical. A congenital soil for the action of Phos. Acid is found in young people who grow rapidly, and who are overtaxed, mentally or physically. It is useful when the body is exposed to acute diseases, excesses grief, loss of vital fluids. Useful in relieving pain of cancer.

An excellent use of phosphoric Acidum is made in curing mental and physical debility and in acute and chronic diseases where the patient is tired in mind and body. The mental debility is a result of nervous exhaustion in persons who have been working overtime at a young age. Physical debility comes as a result of acute disease, sexual excesses, grief, and loss of vital fluids from the body. Haemorrhages in typhoid, therefore require Phosphoric Acidum.

Phosphorus irritates, inflames and degenerates mucous membranes, irritates, and inflames serous membranes, inflames spinal cord and nerves, causing paralysis, destroys bone, especially the lower jaw and tibia; disorganizes the blood, causing fatty degeneration of blood vessels and every tissue and organs of the body and thus gives rise to haemorrhages.

Produces a picture of destructive metabolism. Causes yellow atrophy of the liver and sub-acute hepatitis. Tall, slender persons, narrow chested, with thin, transparent skin, weakened by loss of animal fluids, with great nervous debility, emaciation seems to be under the special influence of Phosphorus. Great susceptibility to external impressions, to light, sound, odors, touch, thunderstorms. Polycythaemia, fatty degeneration, cirrhosis, and caries are pathological states calling for this remedy, inflammations of the respiratory tract. Paralytic symptoms. Ill effects of iodine and excessive use of salt, worse lying on left side.

The first indication for Phosphorus is given by an intense sensation of burning in various parts of the body like the mouth, the lungs, the stomach, the small intestines, the anus, up the spine, the palm of the hand, and even the face. The patient craves for cold food, but this food is vomited as soon as it reaches the stomach. There is an insatiable hunger, an empty gone feeling in the stomach, in the whole abdomen.

The word PULSATILLA is derived from PULSATUS meaning to beat or to strike as it pulsates from the blowing winds.

The weathercock among remedies. The disposition and mental state are the chief guiding symptoms to the selection of Pulsatilla. It is pre-eminently a female remedy, especially for mild, gentle, yielding disposition. Sad crying readily; weeps when talking; changeable, contradictory. The patient seeks the open air; always feels better there, even though he is chilly. Mucous membranes are all affected. Discharges thick, bland, and yellowish green. Often indicated after abuse of Iron tonics, and after badly- managed measeals. Symptoms ever changing. Thirstless, peevish and chilly. When first serious impairment of health is referred to age of puberty. Great sensitiveness.

Pulsatilla cures chronic colds, fatty dyspepsia, and painful and scanty menstruation. One of the leading indications for the use of Pulsatilla is a thick, bland, yellowish or green discharge from mucous membranes in the body. Such discharges are to be found in nasal catarrh, in expectoration from the ears, the eyes, the lungs, ulcers, leucorrhoea and in gonorrhoea. In most such cases Pulsatilla leads to a cure. In the vagina, however, this discharge is excoriating and not bland.

The word RHUS means red because its flowers and leaves are red in colour. TOXICODENDRON means poison tree.

The effects on the skin, rheumatic pains, mucous membrane affections, and a typhoid type of fever, make this remedy frequently indicated. It mainly affects fibrous tissues, joints, tendons, sheaths producing pain and stiffness. Ailments from strains, over lifting, getting wet while perspiring. Rheumatism in the cold season.

Rhus Tox is the first remedy one should think of in any muscular pain where the cutting pain and soreness are temporarily relieved by movement. This is in direct contrast to Bryonia where movement aggravates pain.

It produces contraction of the unstriped muscular fibers, hence a constringent feeling throughout the whole body. This produces an anemic condition, coldness, numbness, mortification and gangrene. A useful remedy for old persons with shriveled skin- thin, scrawny old women. All the Secale conditions are better from cold; the whole body is pervaded by great heat. Haemorrhages continued oozing, thin, fetid, watery black blood. Debility, anxiety, emaciation, though appetite and thirst may be excessive. Facial and abdominal muscles twitch. Secale lowers the flow of pancreatic juice by raising the blood pressure.

Menstrual colic, with coldness and intolerance of heat. Passive haemorrhages in feeble, cachetic women. Burning pains in uterus, brownish, offensive leucorrhoea. Menses irregular, copious, dark, continuous oozing of watery blood until next period. Threatened abortion about the third month. During labor no expulsive action, though everything is relaxed. After-pains. Suppression of milk; breasts do not fill properly. Dark, offensive lochia. Puerperal fever, putrid discharges, tympanitis, coldness, suppressed urine.

Acts especially on the portal system, with venous congestion. Stasis and thereby ptosis of viscera and weariness and misery. Weakness, yellow complexion, bearing-down sensation, especially in women, upon whose organism it has most pronounced effect. Pains extend down to back, chills easily. Tendency to abortion. Hot flashes at menopause with weakness and perspiration. Upward tendency of its symptoms. Easy fainting/ Ball" sensation in inner parts. Sepia acts best on brunettes. All pains are from below up. One of the most important uterine remedies. Tubercular patients with chronic hepatic troubles and uterine reflexes. Feels cold even in warm room.

The most important indications of Sepia are in the problems of women relating to the uterus. It has been called the best uterine remedy available. The patient feels that all her internal organs would come out of the pelvic region. She has to sit with legs crossed to relieve this feeling. Sepia is a chronic remedy. It can take care of long standing problems.

Imperfect assimilation and consequent defective nutrition, it goes further and produces neurasthenic states in consequence, and increased susceptibility to nervous stimuli and exaggerated reflexes. Diseases of bones, caries and necrosis. In TB it must be used with care, for here it may cause the absorption of scar tissue, liberate the disease, walled in, to new activities. It is a deep acting remedy and slow in action. It is meant for scrofulous children with large head, open fontanels and sutures, distended abdomen, slow in walking. Ill effects of vaccination. It is related to all fistulous openings. Ripens abscesses since it promotes suppuration.

Silica patient is cold, chilly, hugs the fire, wants plenty warm clothing, and hates drafts, hands and feet cold, worse in winter. Lack of vital heat. Prostration of mind and body. Great sensitiveness to taking cold. Intolerance of alcoholic stimulants/Ailments attended with pus formation.

In inflammation with pus formation, which has become chronic, silicea is of great help. It is equally useful in grandular or bony ulceration. Think of silicea in whitlow, unhealthy skin, smelly feet, mammary abscess, mammary cancer, TB of the skin, the bone or of the abdomen,

This is a great Hahnemannian anti- psoric. Its action is centrifugal - from within outward - having an elective affinity for the skin, where it produces heat and burning, with itching; made worse by heat of bed. Inertia and relaxation of fibre; hence feebleness of tone chracterizes its symptoms. Ebullitions of heat, dislike of water, dry and hard hair and skin, red orifices, sinking feeling at stomach about 11.00am, cat-nap sleep; always indicate sulphur homoeopathically. Standing is the worst position for sulphur patients it is always uncomfortable. Dirty, filthy people, prone to skin affections. Aversion to being washed. When carefully selected remedies fail to act, especially in acute diseases, it frequently arouses the reactionary powers of the organism. Complaints that relapse. General offensive character of discharge and exhalations. Very red lips and face, flushing easily. Often use in beginning the treatment of chronic cases and in finishing acute ones.

27.1 Introduction

Crop improvement depends on genetic variation present in nature or created by hybridization followed by segregation and recombination. Again, gene transfers are possible only from the lines and species that are sexually compatible with the concerned species. Interspecific gene transfers pose many problems, including the loss of F₁ hybrids during embryo development due to abortion of the endosperm in the developing hybrid seeds. Embryo rescue technique was developed to rescue such interspecific hybrid embryos, and it has been widely used for this purpose. It is to be mentioned that embryo rescue can be used only in such cases where sexual hybridization is successful in producing zygotes that begin to develop into embryos.

Besides, the technique of somatic hybridization by protoplast fusion was developed to enable gene transfer from the species that do not produce zygotes on hybridization. This method has been extensively used and some useful lines have been derived. But this method is limited to utilization of genes present in plant species. Again, the results of somatic hybridization are unpredictable since many somatic hybrids fail to regenerate complete plants and the transfer of specific genes or groups of genes depends entirely on chance.

The recombinant DNA technology (also called genetic engineering) has permitted the transfer of genes from any organism into any organism. Besides, chemically synthesized genes can be transferred and integrated into genomes of various organisms to enable the expression of these genes. A gene transferred into an organism by genetic engineering is called a transgene. 

Definition and meaning – Proxemics, Chronemics, Movement and body position, Posture, Facial Expression, Gestures and Eye Contact – importance of non verbal communication

Meaning

A message can be sometimes expressed without the help of words. Nonverbal communication is the process of communicating without the use of words.

Definition

It is defined as non-word human responses like facial expressions and gestures and the perceived characteristics of the environment through which the human verbal and nonverbal messages are transmitted. Nonverbal communication is also known as “silent language.” It involves the use of cues, gestures, vocal characteristics, facial expressions, and spatial relationship between the sender and the receiver to convey a message. For example, a smile, glance, stare or a frown convey different meanings.

Centre of origin are also known as centre of diversity. N. I. Vavilov in 1926 has proposed that crop plants evolved from wild species in the areas showing diversity and termed them as primary centers of origin. Primary centers, crops moved to other areas with the movements of man. But in some areas, certain crop species show considerable diversity of forms although they did not originate there. Such areas are known as secondary centers of origin of these species. Genetic diversity is essential for crop improvement. Vavilov has suggested eight main centers of origin of crop plants.

1. Chinese Centre

This centre is considered to be one of the earliest and largest independent center of origin of cultivated plants. This centre includes mountain regions of central and western China. The endemic species listed from this centre include, soya bean, radish, turnip, pear, peach, plum, colocasia, buckwheat, opium poppy, brinjal, apricots, oranges, china tea etc.

2. Himalayan Centre

This centre is also known as the Indian centre of origin. This centre includes regions of Assam, Burma, Indo-china and Malayan Archipelago. The crops originated from this centre are rice, red gram, chick pea, pea, mung, brinjal, cucumber, sugar cane, black pepper, moth bean, rice bean, cotton, turmeric, indigo, millets etc.

Germplasm is the sum total of all the genes and their alleles present in a crop and its related species. Germplasm is also termed as genetic resources. It may be release as a variety, subjected to selection for developing a variety, and may be used as a parent in hybridization programme. They may be obtained from gene banks, center of diversity, gene sanctuary, farmer's field and seed companies.

Types of Germplasm

1. Land races

These are primitive varieties/cultivars. They are storehouse of genetic variability. Land races were first collected and studies by N.I.Vavilov in rice. They are the source of development of varieties in many valuable crops.

2. Obsolete varieties

The improved varieties of recent past are called as obsolete varieties. These varieties were breed by systematic breeding methods, were once commercially cultivated, but are no more grown. For example, wheat varieties K65, Ph591, many NP series etc.

Pollination can be defined as the pre-fertilization event or process where pollen grains from anther are transferred to the stigma of a flower. Pollination is the process that helps to unite the male and female gametes and thus helps in fertilization. It can be broadly classified into two, cross-pollination and self-pollination.

1. Self-Pollination

Self-pollination is the process by transferring the pollen grains directly from anther into the stigma of the same flower. It is called as self-pollination. This form of pollination is common in hermaphrodite or dioecious plants which have both male and female sexual organs on the same flower. In self-pollinating flowers, the anthers and stigma are of similar lengths to facilitate the transfer of pollen. Self – pollination can be further divided into two types:

The mating or crossing between two genetically dissimilar plants or lines is known as hybridization. In other words, hybridization is an artificial controlled pollination in which pollen grains of desired male parent is transferred on the stigma of the desired female parent.

Objectives of Hybridization

To create genetic variability, which is pre-requisite for crop improvement programme.

To transfer one or more characters into single plant.

To know the inheritance of the characters.

To estimate the general combining ability of the parents and specific combining ability of the crosses.

To exploit and utilize the hybrid vigour.

To produce hybrid/synthetic varieties.

Reproduction that does not involve the union of male and female gametes is known as asexual reproduction. Reproduction in which sexual organs or related structures take part but fertilization does not occur, or crops which are propagated asexually or by vegetative means are known as asexually propagated crops. Most of the fruit plants are propagated asexually which consist of large number of clones. Example: sugarcane, potato, sweet potato, banana, mango, citrus, pears, peaches, litchi, crops that propagates by asexual means. The procedure of selection used for asexually propagated crops is known as clonal selection, since the selected plants are used to produce new clones or superior clones can be isolated from local variety, introduced variety or inter crossed population.

Abiotic stresses include salinity, drought, flood, extremes in temperature, heavy metals, radiation etc. They are the foremost factors that causes the loss of major crop plants worldwide. This situation is going to be more rigorous due to increasing desertification of world’s terrestrial area, increasing salinization of soil and water, shortage of water resources and environmental pollution.

The inadequacy of water availability, including precipitation and soil moisture storage capacity, in quantity and distribution during the life cycle of a crop to restrict the expression of its full genetic yield potential”. Generally drought stress occurs when the available water in the soil is reduced and atmospheric conditions cause continuous loss of water by transpiration or evaporation. Drought stress tolerance is seen in almost all plants but its extent varies from species to species and even within species.

The disease , referred as the disorder of crop plants caused by fungi, mycoplasma, bacteria and viruses. Plant resistance is one of the most effective and ideal approach to combat diseases and insect-pest. Resistance is the capacity of plants to resist, withstand and overcome the attack of pathotypes.

Mechanism of Disease Resistance

Different mechanism of disease resistance are as under:

1. Disease escape

The ability of susceptible host plants to avoid attack of disease due to environmental factors like early maturing varieties, shift in the date of planting, change the field, balanced application of NPK etc. Example., early maturing varieties of groundnut and potato may escape from ‘Tikka’ and ‘Late blight’ diseases respectively.

2. Disease tolerance

The ability of the plants to tolerate the attack of the pathogen without loss or little loss in the yield. This endurance is brought about by the influence of external characters. Generally, tolerance is difficult to measure since it is confounded with partial resistance and disease escape. Disease tolerance is of three types:

Crop breeders are continuously engaged in the improvement and development of crop varieties, in search of a genotype which will prove superior to the existence cultivars. A strain is duly released by appropriate duly empowered legal organization. Only when it is officially released, it is called variety, Before release, it is said to be strain or line. The release of new crop varieties consists of the following major steps:

1. Development of new strains

The new strains are developed by ICAR Crop Research Institutes and State Agricultural Universities for specific purposes. Various breeding methods are used for development of new strains. Some varieties are developed by selection without hybridization such as pure-line variety, mass selected variety and clonal variety. Development of some varieties involves hybridization and selection. This includes varieties that are developed by pedigree, bulk and backcross methods including multiline cultivars and population improvement methods.

2. Evaluation of performance

This trial is conducted at the research station, where new strains has breed. The object is to make sure that new strains are better in performance than the existence variety, so that it can be promoted to the trials where new strains has to be compete with other strains, developed by other scientists/researchers.

The term ideotype was proposed by Donald in 1968. Ideotype is a biological model which is expected to perform in a predicted manner in a defined environment. A crop ideotype is a plant model that is expected to perform better in a particular environment. The concept of ideotype changes from crop to crop, climate to climate and the concepts and policies of the community concerned. Ideotype breeding is the development of a plant type, expected more quantity of grains, with ideal character. Plant characters are selected from an agronomic point of view.

Molecular markers, including DNA based genetic markers have found their applications in almost all areas of biology, more so in evolutionary biology, genetics and breeding in order to identify a particular sequence of DNA in a pool of unknown DNA. For many applications, DNA markers are preferred over other molecular markers since DNA is stable within an organism over time and among stages of development whereas other molecules are dynamic. A molecular marker is a DNA sequence that is readily detected and whose inheritance can be easily monitored. The uses of molecular markers are based on the naturally occurring DNA polymorphism. Most commonly used molecular markers in biological science include:

1. Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)

RFLP is the first molecular marker technique which was invented by Botstein et al. (1980). The technique is based on restriction fragment length polymorphism; a molecular marker based on the differential hybridization of cloned DNA to DNA fragments in a sample of restriction enzyme digested DNAs; the marker is specific to a single clone/restriction enzyme combination. It consists of the following steps:

Major field operations for horticultural crops viz., fruit nursery/seedling preparation, post hole digging for planting, intercultural operation, aeration, training and pruning, irrigation, plant protection, harvesting, handling, packaging transport are completed through field tools and implements. The cultivation of horticultural crops is predominantly dependent upon human labour, since commercial cultivation is only on a limited scale. So animal/power tiller or tractor-drawn mould board ploughs, disc ploughs, harrows, cultivators and rotavators are available for land preparation and development of new orchards. The fruit plants are generally perennial plants. So different types of sprayers and dusters are available from manually to power operated such as knapsack sprayers foot operated sprayers, power operated mist blowers and dusters or plant protection equipments used for application of insecticides, pesticides and herbicides in the fruit orchards. Some of important implements and sprayers are enlisted below

Selection of orchard soil in rainfed areas

A good or adequate soil for orchard production is to say that a given plot or area of land must possess the following qualities.

1. A deep and well aerated soil with good drainage.
2. Adequate nutrients for optimum tree growth and high yields.
3. Good Water holding capacity - the ability to store and feed the fruit tree with an abundant supply of water.

It is a scientific technique which provides maximum outputs of various inputs consistently without any loss of fertilizers and manure, plant, plant protection chemicals, produce etc. Therefore, one should understand the management of these qualities of both resource and output.

Indian Institute of Horticultural Research (IIHR), Bangalore

Indian Institute of Vegetable Research (IIVR), Varanasi

Indian Institute of Spices Research (IISR), Calicut, Kerala

Central Institute of sub-tropical Horticulture (CISH), Lucknow

Central Institute of Temperate Horticulture (CITH), Srinagar

Central Potato Research Institute (CPRI), Kufri, Shimla

Central Tuber Crops Research Institute (CTCRI), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala

Central Plantation Crops Research Institute (CPCRI) Kasargod, Kerala

Central Institute of Arid Horticulture (CIAH), Bikaner, Rajasthan

Central Institute of Post Harvest Engineering and Technology (CIPHET), Ferozepur, Punjab

Bhatia, (1965) in his study on “Patterns of Crop Concentration and Diversification in India” has observed that physical, socio-economic and technological factors have affected the magnitude of crop diversification. Variations in above mentioned factors are responsible for variations in patterns of crop diversification in India. He has also evolved a new technique for measuring crop diversification in India. He has taken all the crops which are having 10 per cent or more than 10 per cent of the cropped area. He summed up the total area under these crops and divided the sum by the number of crops. According to his method, higher the index, lower is the magnitude of crop diversification and vice-versa.

Ayyar, (1969) in his study “Crop Regions of Madhya Pradesh: A Study in Methodology” has evolved a new technique for measuring crop diversification regions. He has taken all the crops which were having 1 per cent or more than 1 per cent of the total cropped area. Then he divided the sum of crops by the number of crops which are having 1 per cent or more than 1 per cent of the total cropped area. His method is an improvement over Bhatia’s and Singh’s methods for measuring crop diversification.

Patel and Pawar (1980) studied the marketing of fruits in Mahatma Phule market, Bombay. The study showed that there was close relationship between wholesale prices and supply position, whereas there was no such pattern in case of retail prices. The producers’ share in consumers’ rupee was 33.07 per cent for sweet oranges. In case of apples, mangoes and grapes, the share of the producer in consumers’ rupee varied according to the varieties and ranged from 33 to 54 per cent. The study also made some suggestions as standardization and grading, and establishment of cooperative marketing societies for getting better prices for the producers.