eChapters

Jaeschkea oligosperma Knobl. (Gentianaceae): Ladakhi- Tikta [W]. Annual herb, along scrubby alpine slopes of Ladakh. Leaves lanceolate, blunt. Flowers bluish to reddish purple. The plant is consumed raw as blood purifier.

10.1 Lambda Function

Lambda Function or anonymous function in python programming

A lambda function can take any number of arguments, but can only have one expression.

Syntax:

Lambda arguments: expression only single line

The expression is executed and the result is returned.

Example

x=lambda a:a+10

Print(x(5))

13.1 Statistical Functions

Statistical methods help in the understanding and analyzing the behavior of data. We will now learn a few statistical functions, which we can apply on Pandas objects.

Percent_change

Series, DatFrames and Panel, all have the function pct_change(). This function compares every element with its prior element and computes the change percentage.

Example

import pandas as pd

import numpy as np

s = pd.Series([1,2,3,4,5,4])

print s.pct_change()

df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(5, 2))

print(df.pct_change())

Objective

To know about the production practices used in spices and condiments.

1. Mulching: Mulch is a layer of material applied to the surface of soil.

Benefits of Mulching

1. Conservation of soil moisture
2. Improving fertility and health of the soil
3. Reducing weed growth
4. Enhancing the visual appeal of the area

Types of Mulching

1. Organic mulching: Organic mulches include bark nuggets, grass clippings, straw or salt marsh hay, compost and chopped leaves.
2. Inorganic mulching: Inorganic mulches include gravel, polythene and landscape fabric

Objectives

1. To study the maturity indices of various spices and condiments.
2. To study the harvesting time and yield of various spices and condiments.

Maturity: A stage of attainment of final state of biological function beyond which growth and development ceases.

Maturity indices: An indication of appropriate stage of harvesting of the produce.

Harvesting: It is deliberate action to separate the plant product from its source of attachment.

Why harvesting at right stage for spices and condiments?

1. To avoid loss of flavour and volatile oils
2. Reduction in yield due to shattering
3. To get the higher yield
4. Recovery of more essential oil
5. Chances of attack of mycotoxigenic and storage pest

The fruit trees are grown for optimum production of quality fruits that fulfill our requirement. Therefore, proper care and management of trees is mandatory to manipulate plant growth and plant environment. Training and pruning are important operations that provide not only the proper framework to the tree but also the favourable environment leading to desired plant growth and reduction in disease and pest attack.

Training

It is a physical manipulation technique that provides proper shape, size and direction to the plant in initial stage of growth. The techniques like tying, fastening, staking, supporting over a trellis or pergola in a certain fashion or pruning of some parts are are followed.

Objectives

• To improve physical appearance and usefulness of plant by providing appropriate shape and size to the plant and maintaining proper root-shoot balance.
• To facilitate easy cultural operations including canopy management, inter-cropping, plant protection and harvesting.
• To develop strong scaffold branches with better crotch angles in all directions that are capable of bearing heavy crops over the years without breakage of limbs.
• To provide adequate sunlight and air to the centre of the tree.

Juvenility

Juvenility is referred to the phase of plant growth following germination from seed during which flowering does not occur and the bud meristem is not competent to respond to seasonal environmental inductive cues, and hence plant remains vegetative. The changes from juvenile to mature characteristics are well known as phase changes phenomenon. Plants are unable to initiate flowering after germination and have to undergo in a juvenile developmental phase. This transition period (phase) is a gradual and continuous process until the flowering takes place. The length of this phase varies considerably between different species. In annuals like Arabidopsis, the juvenile phase is typically very short, whereas in perennials like hybrid aspen, it is several years.

A plant is considered juvenile from the time it is at seedling stage until it is mature and capable of initiating flowering. Length of juvenile period in most of woody plants is still considered as a big problem. Indeed, it affects the plant breeding efficiency, plant propagation, and selection of new cultivars. In fact, juvenility is a complex phenomenon still not fully understood. Juvenility period extends from seed germination until the plant attains the ability to flower. Furthermore, all the stages namely seed germination, juvenile growth period and transition to the reproductive stage until fruitful inflorescence development are long and not always synchronous in the seedling population. It arrives at the age 30-40 years in Fagus sylvatica L., and at l0 years or even more in olives. Juvenile period is affected by both environmental and genetic factors. Attempts made in past to overcome juvenile period in most woody plants on the environmental level have shown very limited success.

Morphological characteristics

Abroma is a shrub or small tree that grows to a height of around 3-5 metres. The plant has horizontal and velvety branches that are 10-30 cm long, 6-18 cm wide, oblong or lanceolate, more or less cordate, delicately acuminate, membranous, whole, and three to five lobed with a petiole that is 1-12 cm long. The dorsal surface of the leaves is glabrous, while the ventral surface is hairy.

Floral characteristics

The plant has beautiful and intricate scarlet like flowers (5 cm in diameter) bearing purple colour. The inflorescence is a cyme. The sepals are persistent and lanceolate, measuring about 2.5 cm long. The petals are imbricate and will shortly fall off. Stamens are situated on a short staminal tube, and there are five staminodes. Each cell in the ovary is five lobed and pyramidal, with numerous ovules. The apex, the capsules are obpyramidal, membranous, finely pubescent, and truncate at the apex. Behind each carpel is a triangular wing. December and January are the fowering and fruiting months.

Morphological characteristics

It is a glabrous aromatic perennial or biennial herb, 1-2 meter tall. Stem is hollow. Root is thick rhizomatous. Leaves are unipinnate, bipinnate, or tripinnate, large pinna is toothed, ovate or lanceolate.

Floral characteristics

Inflorescence is compound umbel with numerous rays. Flowers are white, yellow or purple in colour, bracteate; florets white or purple. Seeds are small in size and winged. Fruits/seeds are 1.25 cm by 0.6 cm in size.

Distribution

The plant is endangered in status, which is distributed in Western Himalaya from Kashmir to Uttrakhand, in alpine scrub and forest shades between 2700-3700 meters.

Morphological characteristics

This plant is a large evergreen tree about 20 meters tall and 1.5–2.4 meters in girth with somewhat straight and fluted bole. Leaves are alternate 0.5-10 cm by 2-5 cm, oblong, lanceolate or elliptic, caudate, acuminate and glabrous with slender nerves. Venation is parallel. Petiole is 0.3-0.5 cm long. It is commercially used as fragrant and in prepation of drugs. The tree contains plenty of oleoresin and has irregular dark patches. The wood burns with a bright flame giving off pleasant smell.

Floral characteristics

Flowers are bisexual, white in colour, pedicillate, in both axillary and terminal umbellate cymes, shortly pedunculed, perianth, companulate, lobes 5 spreading and densely pilose. Pedicels is 0.5-0.8 cm long, slender. Perianth remains persistent in fruit and 1.3-1.5 cm long, silky densely villous, connate at the base. Stamens are 10, anthers 10 with subsessile disc. Ovary is subsessile, villous and two-celled. Stigma is large, subsessile. Fruit is capsular, 3-5 cm long, obovoid, pericarp coriaceous and densely tomentose. Seeds are ovoid with a long tail.

Distribution

The crop is found in parts of Bengal and North-Eastern States of India covering Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland.

Morphological characteristics

Caesalpinia sappan is a thorny, small to medium-sized plant with prominent spines on the stem and leaf rachis that grows up to 10 metres tall. Branchlets are lenticellate, dull, and usually have paired, recurved stipular prickles. With 9–14 pairs of pinnae, the leaves are big, hairy, or glabrate.

Floral characteristics

The inflorescence is a supra-axillary and terminal raceme with golden yellow flowers that creates a huge panicle. The fruit is an elliptical pod that ranges in colour from brown to black. The peak flowering and fruiting season is from July to September, with November being a rare exception.

Distribution

The crop is native to the Indo-Malayan region. The species can be found throughout the Indian peninsula. It is also produced as a plantation crop in all of the Southern states, as well as in Odisha and Bengal to the north.

Morphological characteristics

The plant is an erect undershrub, 1.5–2.5 m tall. Leaves are elliptic-oblong to lanceolate or ovate to ovate–lanceolate, 12–25 × 5–11 cm, acute or acuminate at apex, acute or cuneate at base, glabrescent, crenate-dentate; densely stellate–tomentose beneath; petiole 4–12 mm long; Fruits globose, drupes or berries, white to yellowish-brown with or without fruit stalk, fresh being succulent, 1–3 mm in dia. Intact fruits are smooth and brownish in colour and exhibit centrally located bilocular carpel and 4 nutlets each embedded with a yellowish white seed, in a transversely cut surface of a fruit;

Floral characteristics

Flowers appear in July-November are small, 0.5 cm long, pink in colour and crowded in axillary peduncled globose cymes, solitary, pedunculate or sessile. Flowers are bisexual, actinomorphic and fragrant. Calyx 4 or rarely 5 toothed, pubescent, corolla infundibular, 4 or rarely 5 lobed. Stamens are 4, exserted, anthers oblong 2 loculed, dorsifixed. Ovary is superior, 4 lobed, 4 loculed, 1 ovule in each locule, style short, stigma 2 lobed. Flowering & fruiting occurs during June–Dec. Fruits when tasted at first are somewhat sweet, later bitterish; fruit has fragrant odour specially after slight bruising the fruit. The fruits of Callicarpa macrophylla are edible.

Distribution

Plants of this species grow in open and secondary forests along the upper Gangetic plains, West Bengal Plains, Eastern and Western Himalayas, Kashmir, Assam, and northern Andhra Pradesh up to an altitude of 1800 meters. The species grows in other places worldwide, such as Nepal, Indonesia, China and South Korea.

Morphological characteristics

Kalimusli roots are 5–22 centimetres long, cylindrical, tuberous, and 0.5–0.8 centimetres thick. Brownish on the outside, with noticeable transverse creases that are loosely spaced. Externally, lateral roots are robust, fibrous, dull white in colour, and spongy, with a length of 5 cm or more. When freshly cut, tuberous rootstock has a starch-white colour within and is mucilaginous. Simple, sessile leaves are clustered on a short stem with sheathing leaf bases that taper into a little petiole, giving the plant an almost radical aspect. They are 15–45 cm long and 1.2–2.5 cm wide, linear or linear–lanceolate, membranous, glabrous or sparsely soft haired, and are linear or linear–lanceolate, membranous, glabrous or sparsely soft haired. When the leaf tip comes into contact with the earth, it develops roots and creates adventitious buds.

Floral characteristics

Flowers are epigynous, bright yellow, bisexual or unisexual, with a lanceolate and membranous bract. The perianth is found at the top of a lengthy, sterile ovarian extension that extends above the ground. With six equal lobes measuring 1.5 cm and sparsely hairy along nerves on the interior, the perianth is gamotepallus. The ovary is tricarpellary, syncarpous, and trilocular, with a long, slender beak (stipe). Flowering and fruiting occur largely from October to January, with intermittent flowering and fruiting occurring all year.

Curcuma zedoaria (zedoary or white turmeric) is a perennial herb and member of the genus Curcuma, family Zingiberaceae. The plant is native to South Asia and Southeast Asia but is now naturalized in other places including the US state of Florida. Zedoary was one of the ancient food plants of the Austronesian peoples. They were spread during prehistoric times to the Pacific Islands and Madagascar during the Austronesian expansion. Its use as a spice in the West today is extremely rare, having been replaced by ginger, and to a lesser extent, yellow turmeric. Curcuma Zedoaria (Berg.) Rosc.syn. C. zerumbet Roxb; Amomum zedoaria Christm., the Kasthurimanjal of commerce, is also known as Round zedoary in English, Kachura in Sanskrit and Kakhur in Hindi.

Morphological characteristics

Zedoary is a rhizomatous annual or biennial herb with a long, scented stem. It stands at 1.8 metres tall. On the inside, the rhizomes are large and pale yellow or yellowish. The roots are fragrant, and the tubers are ellipsoid in shape. With the exception of a bitter aftertaste, the edible root of the zedoary has a white interior and a mango-like scent; however, its flavour is more similar to ginger. Although there is no obvious aerial stem, the shoot has a pseudo stem made up of four to six long and densely overlapping sheathing leaf bases. The leaves are enormous, up to 1 m long, rectangular and strongly veined, and frequently violet in colour in the centre.

Morphological characteristics

Plant is terrestrial glabrous herb attends height of 20-25 cm. Tubers slightly flatten ed, palmately divided into 3-5, finger like lobes. Flower stalk upto 90 cm Long, erect, hollow, leafy throughout or the lower portion bear few sheathing scales. Leaves are 4-6, cauline, leaf blade oblong to linear lanceolate, 8.0-15.0cm x 1.5-3.0 cm in size, base sheathing, apex obtuse or acuminate.

Floral characteristics

Inflorescence is raceme, 5.0-15.0 cm long, crowded with many flowers. Flowers are purple and the bracts green, narrowly lance shaped, lower bract longer than the flowers, upper slightly shorter. Flowers are about 1.8 cm long, including the curved spur. Sepals and petals are nearly equal. Three of them form a hood and the two sides spread outwards. The lip is rounded and shallowly 3-lobed, spotted dark purple. Spur straight, cylindrical, nearly as long as the ovary; column very short; anther adnate to its face, cells diverging; pollinia 2, caudicles attached to 2 small globose, viscid glands enclosed in a minute pouch overhanging the broad, 2-lobed stigma.

Distribution

This attractive terrestrial orchid grows in damp pastures of Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal at the altitude of 2500-5000 m MSL.

The genus Dioscorea comprises of approximately 600 species and sustains livelihood around the globe. Air yam, aerial yam, bitter yam, cheeky yam, potato yam, and parsnip yam are all names for Dioscorea bulbifera L., a traditional medicinal plant native to Asia, Northern Australia, America, and tropical Africa. It’s been used in traditional medicine for a long time and has a lot of potential.

Morphological characteristics

It is a perennial herbaceous climber that can reach a height of 10-20 metres and has multiple fibrous roots. The leaves are alternating, broadly cordate, and bright green in colour, with rounded basal lobes arising from one of them. Aerial tubers (bulbils) are circular, smooth-surfaced tubers that grow freely in leaf axils. Annual stems emerge from a tuberous, woody rootstock. These stems either creep along the ground or climb up the surrounding vegetation. Dioscoreaceae subfamilies are distinguished by the presence of bisexual and unisexual blooms. Seeds are trilocular, dark brown, and somewhat winged (1.2-1.6 by 0.5 cm).

Floral characteristics

Flowers are grouped in spikes that are hanging, axillary, solitary, or fascicled. The seeds are winged at the base, while the capsules are oblong and winged. The fruit has three valves and the perianth is tubular. From September to November, the plant blooms and bears fruit.

Morphological characteristics

It is an annual/perennial herb with prostrate spreading branches in all directions. The root system is deep. Leaflets are 2.5-5 cm long, elliptical, oblong and rounded at base. Leaves are densely clothed with white appressed and long spreading hairs. In nature, seedlings appear after 2-3 showers during July-August. Generally, the seedlings are abundant under the canopy of trees or shrubs. The young seedling grows straight and produces lateral branches during first week of August. The lateral branches spread in all directions. The flowering starts during first week of August. Fruit formation takes place in the last week of August, while flowering still continues. The dispersal of the seeds takes place from September to December. Plant dries during November-December.

Floral characteristics

Flowers are blue in colour and axillary in position. They are either solitary or in pairs on the long stalk. Styles are two and each is bifid. Fruit is globose with four-valved capsule containing dark brown to black smooth seeds. The flower colour varies from dark purple to whitish-purple.

Distribution

Plant is commonly found growing in open and grassy places, almost throughout India, ascending upto 1500 meter in the Himalayas. It is cultivated also in the sub-tropical parts of India, ascending upto 1800 meter elevation.

Inula racemosa is an Asian plant in the daisy family native to the temperate and alpine western Himalayas of Xinjiang, Afghanistan, Kashmir, Nepal, Pakistan. Inula racemosa Hook. f., is a critically endangered perennial herb distributed throughout the Himalaya; commercially useful in pharmaceutical products.

Morphological characteristics

The species is a perennial herb that grows up to 1.5 metres tall & has a scented root and rootstock. Large number of stems ascend from the rootstock’s base. Leaves are leathery, rough above and densely hairy below, 25-50 cm long and 10-12 cm wide, and elliptic-lanceolate in shape, 25-50 cm long and 10-12 cm wide.

Floral biology

Flower heads are yellow with bisexual florets and arise in terminal racemes. Flowering takes place from January to July, while fruiting takes place from October to November. Fruits (achenes) are slender and about 0.5 cm long.

Operculina turpethum (OT) Silva Manso, also known as Tihudi/Trivrit due to its triangular stem, is an Ayurvedic herb from India that belongs to the Convolvulaceae family. Indian Jalap/Turpeth root in English, Nisoth/Turpeth/ Panila/Pithori in Hindi, Trivrit in Sanskrit, Tegada in Telugu, Trikolpakkonna/ Triputa/Sivata in Malayalam, Sigade in Kannada, and Kumbham/Sivatai in Tamil are some of the other names for it. It grows up to 1000 square feet on Indian roadsides and is occasionally cultivated as an adornment in gardens.

Morphological characteristics

The crop is a fragrant perennial creeper with a basic stem that might be triangular or rectangular. The leaves are many and oval in shape, measuring 2 to 5 inches in length. It consists of cylindrical pieces of root and stem, 1.5-15 cm long x 1-5 cm diameter, with the central woody portion removed by splitting the bark on one side, external surface longitudinally furrowed giving the drug a rope-like appearance, odour distinct but unpleasant or musty, taste bland at first, then slightly acrid, fracture short in bark and fibrous in wood, odour distinct but unpleasant or musty. The root portions are cylindrical, twisted, and a dull grey tint on the outside. The flower arrangement is 1 to 4 inches long and includes three to four branches with white blooms. Fruit is round ½ or ¾ inch in diameter, it bears 4 shiny 2 inch long seeds. The plant bears fruits and flowers from March to December.

Pistacia integerrima Stewart (Pistaceaceae) is an ethnobotanically important tree native to Asia. Pistacia integerrima is a species of pistachio tree native to Asia, commonly called zebrawood or the crab’s claw. It is often classified as Pistacia chinensis ssp. integerrima.

Pistacia integerrima, commonly known as kakra shingi, is a moderate-sized deciduous tree, up to 18 m in height, with a short stout bole found in the Himalayas from Indus to Kumaon. Hard, horn-shaped, rugose, hollow galls like excrescences are formed on the leaves and petioles of the plant by an insect of Pemphigus species. Dry powdered galls have a very astringent and slightly bitter taste and terebinthine odour. This tree is also used as a rootstock in the cultivation of commercial pistachios

Morphological characteristics

It is a moderate sized deciduous tree with rough grey bark. Leaves are 15-23 cm long with or without a terminal leaflet. Leaflet is stalked, 4-5 sub-opposite pairs, lanceolate, coriaceous, entire and arched. Flowers are greenish-yellow or brownish in colour, dioecious, 0.2 cm diameter, reddish in lateral, puberulous panicles, appearing with or just before the young leaves.

Morphological characteristics

Straight bole, longitudinally fissured bark, imparipinnate and elliptic leaves, fragrant flowers in huge panicles, and winged, flat pods distinguish Pterocarpus species in the field. The tree can grow up to 30 metres tall and 2.5 metres wide, with a straight and clean bole. The bark is scaly, tough, and fissured longitudinally. Leaflets are five to seven in number, 8–13 cm long, oblong or elliptic in shape, or rotund in shape, with 15–20 pairs of lateral veins. Kino-gum is a fragrant, brittle, almost black oleo-resin obtained from tree trunks that is angular and glistering and comes in minute flakes..

Floral characteristics

Yellow flowers bloom in panicles that are 1–5 cm long and fragrant. Flat, orbicular, winged pods with a diameter of up to 5 cm. Seeds range from one to three in number, are bony, and have a convex form. Flowering starts in November, and fruits lasts until March.

Distribution

The tree can be found in central and peninsular India, primarily in dry mixed deciduous tropical forests in Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh, as well as sub-Himalayan tracts, at elevations of up to 1000 metres. Natural populations have plummeted, and there are hardly any fragile young saplings in the forest. Due to a lack of autogenic reproduction, this species is endangered.

Morphological characteristics

Rewand chini is a perennial stout herb, 1.5–3.0 m tall. Roots are very stout and thick. Leaves are radical, orbicular, or broadly ovate, very large, and 30–45 cm in diameter with long petioles.

Floral characteristics

Flowers are small, dark purple or pale red in axillary panicles. The plant has three to five years of juvenile phase, followed by reproductive phase. Flowering occurs in June–July. Seeds are collected in late August–September, when they turn dark brown. Seed production potential varies from 300 seeds to 950 seeds per plant.

Distribution

The species occurs in the temperate Himalayas, from Kashmir to Sikkim, at an elevation of 2800–4000 m. It is found in alpine zone on rocky soil, moraines, and crevices, between boulders and near streams in specific pockets. It is sporadically cultivated in the North-eastern states for its leaves, which are used as vegetable.

Climate and soil

Rewand chini plant is restricted to the temperate, sub-alpine, and alpine zones of the Himalayas. Well-drained, porous, humus-rich soil is suitable for its cultivation. It prefers exposed or partially shaded habitat and can be cultivated on altitudes above 1800 m in height.

In the coffee family Rubiaceae, Rubia cordifolia L. (RC) is a useful medicinal plant in the Ayurvedic system due to its many pharmacological characteristics. It is also known as common Madder or Indian Madder. It was grown for a red pigment generated from the roots. Rubia was divided into roughly 70 species that were found all over the world, including 36 species and two variants described from China. Because of their high bioactivities, Rubia plant extracts and phytochemicals have gotten a lot of interest.

Morphological characteristics

It is a perennial, prickly climber with a stem, growing up to 12 m long. Leaves are highly variable, ovate lanceolate, 5-7 nerved, 2-10 cm long and 2-5 cm broad, occurring in whorls of 4-6. The stems are slender and quadrangular. The leaves are simple, opposite and stipulate, the stipule is interpetiolar. The petiole is 1.5–3 cm long. The blade is lanceolate, 1.5–5 cm × 0.5–2.5 cm, cordate at base, obtuse acuminate at apex and displays three to five longitudinal nerves. Roots are perennial, long, cylindrical, and rusty brown in colour

Morphological characteristics

Tecomella undulata is a slow growing small deciduous tree with drooping branches and grey-tomentose innovations which are otherwise glabrous. Leaves are usually opposite, 5- 10 cm long, simple, narrowly oblong, obtuse and entire with undulate margins.

Floral characteristics

Flowers are pale-yellow to deep orange, arranged in few flowered corymbose racemes on short lateral branches. Calyx is campanulate, lobes broadly ovate, obtuse and mucronate. Corolla is companulate, veined, stamens exserted, flaments glabrous, stigma 2-lamillate. Capsules are slightly curved, smooth and seeds are winged.

Distribution

Plant is distributed in drier parts of North-West and Western India extending eastwards to the river Yamuna and ascending to an altitude of 1200 meter in the outer Himalaya.

Climate and Soil The plant prefers subtropical climate having medium to light soil.

Violaceae

Morphological characteristics

Banafsha is a small perennial herb with a short semi-subterranean fleshy stem (rootstock).The older parts bear fibrous roots. The upper younger portion is marked with close circular scars of the leaves of the previous years, and gives off elongated, rather fleshy, leafless runners. Leaves are ovate and crenate–serrate.

Floral characteristics

Flowers are borne on long, slender, axillary stalks (scapes) exceeding the leaves. Flowers are lilac, blue, white or purple in colour and borne on the main stem, the larger ones being 6–12 mm in diameter. The flowers arising from the axils of the cauline leaves are minute. The cleistogamous (underground) flowers measure about 1 mm across. Fruit is a few seeded, globose capsule. Flowering occurs during February–March, while fruiting occurs during April–May.

The fruit trees are grown for optimum production of quality fruits that fulfill our requirement. Therefore, proper care and management of trees is mandatory to manipulate plant growth and plant environment. Training and pruning are important operations that provide not only the proper framework to the tree but also the favourable environment leading to desired plant growth and reduction in disease and pest attack.

Juvenility is referred to the phase of plant growth following germination from seed during which flowering does not occur and the bud meristem is not competent to respond to seasonal environmental inductive cues, and hence plant remains vegetative. The changes from juvenile to mature characteristics are well known as phase changes phenomenon. Plants are unable to initiate flowering after germination and have to undergo in a juvenile developmental phase.

Dietary supplements from plant sources are sometimes referred to as phytopharmaceuticals. They are produced from fresh, dried or otherwise preserved plants or parts of plants. The active ingredients are usually not completely isolated but rather are obtained along with other naturally occurring components of the plant. These other components are often believed to influence the efficacy of the active ingredient. Sometimes the active ingredients are concentrated, and undesirable substances such as chlorophyll, tannins, or resins, are removed.

Technical Term           Definition

Soil erosion                Transportation & deposition of soil particles from one place to other after detachment from soil mass.

Technical Term          Definition

Soil                             Soil is the superficial unconsolidated and usually weathered part of the mantle of a planet and especially of the earth

Technical Term                            Definition

Geomorphological Analysis       Geomorphological analysis is the systematic description of watershedís geometry and its stream channel system to measure

                                                   the liner aspects of drainage network, aerial aspects of drainage basin and relief aspects of channel network.

Goods and services are created through process of production. After production they have to be transferred or moved from the original producers to the final consumers. This involves the creation of market and the undertaking of number of activities such as buying, assembling, transportation warehousing, risk bearing, financing, selling etc. This constitutes the subject matter of marketing. Hence there is the need for the study of market.

What is market?

Market is derived from the Latin word “Marcatus” meaning trade, merchandise, ware, traffic or place of business. In the ordinary language, market is a place where buyers and sellers meet personally and make their purchases or sales. But in the language of economics, market need not be a place but it may be an area or region meant for potential exchange between a group of buyers and sellers interested in negotiating the terms of purchase and sale of goods and services and such negotiations may be done face to face at a certain place or may be done through other means of communication such as mail, phone, cable, television or through business middle men. Whatever may be the means of communication there will be free exchange or perfect communication between buyers and sellers so that a fairly uniform price prevails for a particular commodity over the whole area at any given time.

Price determination under perfect competition - It can be called as a market structure characterized by a complete absence of competition or rivalry among the individual firms. The sellers and buyers cannot determine the price, only the Industry decides the price of the goods. It means the forces of supply and demand determine the price of the goods

Perfect competition is defined as a market situation where there are a large number of sellers of a homogeneous product. An individual firm supplies a very small portion of the total output and is not powerful enough to exert an influence on the market price. A single buyer, however large, is not in a position to influence the market price.

Demand under perfect competition

Demand refers to the quantity of a product that consumers are willing to purchase at a particular price, while other factors remain constant. A consumer demands more quantity at lower price and less quantity at higher price. Therefore, the demand varies at different prices. Market demand means the sum of the quantity demanded by individual buyers at different prices.

Marketing of perishable and non perishable products

Agriculture and livestock products like food grains, vegetables, meat, eggs etc. are highly perishable over time. Under ambient conditions they get spoiled with in a few hours, days or months as the case may be. Livestock products particularly milk is perishable within a few hours if not preserved under refrigeration. Same is the case of meat. Eggs also get spoiled within a few days if not preserved under cold storage. Because of these reasons perishable products pose special marketing problems. Unfortunately in a country like India most of the agriculture and livestock products are produced by large number of small producers and the process of marketing is to a large extent is in the unorganised sector. Fortunately in our country a number of states like Karnataka, Tamilnadu, Maharastra, Gujarath and others, milk is marketed through cooperatives. For example in Karnataka, milk is procured by primary milk producers’ cooperative societies, transported, processed and marketed through milk unions located at district level and coordinated at state level by state milk federation that is Karnataka Milk Federation(KMF). Some states also have slightly different marketing organisation for egg marketing also. In the unorganised sector these products go through wholesalers, semi wholesalers, private vendors, retailers and ultimately reach the consumers.

Livestock farms

The veterinarians can start their own livestock farms with their vast technical knowledge; they can infuse scientific management techniques in their own farms. In the WTO (World Trade Organisation) era, GMP (Good Manufacturing Practices) and SPS (Sanitory and Phytosanitory) measures are of great importance for export of livestock commodities, as the emphasis in international trade is on quality and food safety. If veterinarians start their own scientifically managed livestock enterprise, they can exploit this opportunity. Further, practicing proven scientific management techniques will improve productivity of animals that would lead to overall quantitative and qualitative improvement of livestock sector.

National institute for entrepreneurship and small business

Development (NIESBUD)

The National Institute for Entrepreneurship and Small Business Development (NIESBUD) was established in 1983 by the Ministry of Industry (now Ministry of Small Scale Industries), Govt. of India, as an apex body for coordinating and overseeing the activities of various institutions/ agencies engaged in Entrepreneurship Development Particularly in the area of small industry and small business. The Institute which is registered as a society under Govt. of India Societies Act (XXI of 1860). The policy, direction and guidance to the Institute are provided by its Governing Council whose Chairman is the Minister of SSI.

Veterinary practice has gone through different phases with different components
• Phase I - Patient and Veterinarian: objective was only to treat illness of  the patient by veterinarian.
• Phase II – Patient - Veterinarian – Owner: Veterinarian was to take  recognition of owner and his/her needs.
• Phase III - Patient - Veterinarian – Owner – Law: Additional  responsibility on veterinarians to work as per the law (e.g. Registration  at VCI, Veterinary jurisprudence, Giving evidence at court of law, Health  certificates,    Death    certificate,    Cruelty    to    animals,    export   and    import    law,     euthanasia rules, etc.)
• Phase IV - Patient - Veterinarian – Owner – Law – Environment: Further  added responsibility to protect environment.  E.g. Biomedical waste  management. 

Cooking oil when heated there will be some changes like its colour, flavour, smoke formation etc. One change is the change in total polar compounds (TPC). TPC is used to measure the quality of oil. The TPC value increases with the reheating of oil, higher TPC value means the oil having high contain of peroxide and hydro peroxide. FSSAI fixed the value of TPC at 25%, beyond of this value the cooking oil can causes health issues like hypertension, atherosclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease , liver disease even liver cancer.