eBook Chapters

Only a very brief mention of various basic aspects of plant nutrition is given here. Associates wanting to know more details should refer to any one of the standard Plant Nutrition publication (PRINCIPLES OF PLANT NUTRITION by K. Mengel and E.A. Kirkby).

Increased production of food and cash crops is the need of our times; as land and irrigation water are limited and beyond any means of expansion. Crop yields per unit input should increase. Crop yield under natural production systems is limited by the availability of nutrients in the soil. Unless the supply of nutrients can be enhanced yields cannot be high.

15.1 Law of Mass Action

Gulberg and Waage, the two Norwegian chemists in the year 1864 stated the law of mass action in this form: ‘The velocity of any chemical reaction at any instant at a given temperature is proportional to the active mass of each of the reactants at that instant present in the system, the active mass in a homogeneous system is defined as the number of gram molecule of the substance present per unit volume i.e., the molar volume’.

8.1. Law of Mass Action

Gulberg and Waage, the two Norwegian chemists in the year 1864 stated the law of mass action in this form: ‘The velocity of any chemical reaction at any instant at a given temperature is proportional to the active mass of each of the reactants at that instant present in the system, the active mass in a homogeneous system is defined as the number of gram molecule of the substance present per unit volume i.e., the molar volume’.

Mathematical Formulation of the Law of Mass Action

Let us take a simple case of a reversible reaction at constant temperature represented by the equation:

Traditionally, remote sensing encompasses a wide array of technologies and methods used to gather information about objects, areas, or phenomena without direct physical contact. This includes devices like seismographs, fathometers, radar systems, and more. These tools enable us to observe and measure various aspects of the environment from a distance.

However, in contemporary contexts, when we talk about remote sensing in a more specialized sense, we often refer to the use of satellite and aerial-based systems to capture and analyze electromagnetic radiation reflected or emitted from the Earth's surface. This form of remote sensing has become incredibly valuable in fields such as environmental monitoring, urban planning, agriculture, forestry, and disaster management, among others.

Modern remote sensing techniques leverage sensors capable of detecting specific wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, such as visible light, infrared, and microwave radiation. By analyzing the patterns and intensity of this radiation, researchers can derive valuable information about the Earth's surface features, including vegetation cover, soil moisture, land use, and changes over time.

In statistics, sampling is concerned with the selection of a subset of individuals from within a statistical population to estimate characteristics of the whole population. Two advantages of sampling are that the cost is lower and data collection is faster than measuring the entire population. Each observation measures one or more properties (such as weight, location, colour) of observable bodies distinguished as independent objects or individuals. In survey sampling, weights can be applied to the data to adjust for the sample design, particularly stratified sampling. Results from probability theory and statistical theory are employed to guide the practice. In business and medical research, sampling is widely used for gathering information about a population. Acceptance sampling is used to determine if a production lot of material meets the governing specifications.

The sampling process comprises several stages

• Defining the population of concern

• Specifying a sampling frame, a set of items or events possible to measure

• Specifying a sampling method for selecting items or events from the frame

• Determining the sample size

• Implementing the sampling plan

• Sampling and data collecting

Sensory evaluation is a scientific method of evaluating foods including meat products that applies principles of experimental design and statistical analysis through the use of human senses like sight, smell, taste, touch and hearing. It is also called organoleptic evaluation in which we measure, analyse and interpret reactions to those characteristics of materials as they are perceived by the human senses. These attributes can be perceived well by the human sense organs as compared to instruments available for this purpose. It is a fact that no single instrument is able to assess all the attributes of meat products. With the help of these instruments we can very well evaluate the single quality attribute of meat product i.e. shear force instrument or penetrometer is good for knowing the texture and refractometer is for colour interpretation.

M. D. SURANAGI

Software is a tool that allows the hardware to process and manipulate data. It is essentially a list of commands; therefore it is not something you can touch. Software is stored in the different drives in a computer. Software, like data, can be stored and shared through disks. Unlike hardware, software is not permanent. It can be added, removed, and changed very easily. Individual software pieces are normally called programs. There are different types of programs. The three major categories of software are System software, Application software and Programming software.

• System software like device drivers and utilities enables the application software to interact with the computer hardware.
• Programming software like compilers, debuggers and interpreters provides tools to assist a programmer in writing computer programs.
• Application software is what most users commonly use to interact with their computers and carry out various daily tasks.

Soil sampling is an integral and essential component of soil fertility evaluation and nutrient management research. The effectiveness of soil sampling is a prerequisite for soil testing to achieve its goals for efficient nutrient management and plant nutrition for improved yield and quality. The underlying basis for soil sampling is that a soil sample taken represents the “population” which may be a plot, field or a watershed. It further implies that nutrient status of the representative soil sample(s) determined in a laboratory would reflect nutrient status of a plot, field or watershed and is of interest for correcting nutrient disorders in the field or watershed.

The most important factor that influences the effectiveness of soil sampling is soil heterogeneity. However, in a relatively homogenous group of fields or plots, a small number of samples may be sufficient to represent the population to a more heterogenous group of fields that would require more number of samples to represent the soil population. Whenever, soil samples to be taken in field following points needs to be kept in mind.

Introduction

This chapter is intended to throw light on some statistical and econometric methods used for analysing time series data with specific emphasis on basic concepts related to time series analysis, co-integration techniques as well as forecasting techniques such as ARIMA model. Time series analysis is often helpful in revealing the broad patterns associated with longitudinal data, which in turn would aid in important economic and policy decisions. In fisheries sector too, economic variables such as market demand and supply, prices, etc. are of prime importance and often come in longitudinal format. There are a number of alternative methodologies available in the time series literature to determine relevant parameters pertaining to longitudinal data and the ensuing sections are set apart to delve deeper into this realm.

Some Key Concepts

Stationary Stochastic Process

A random or stochastic process is a collection of random variables ordered in time. A stochastic process is said to be stationary if its mean and variance are constant over time and the value of covariance between two time periods depend only on the distance or the gap between the two time periods and not the actual time at which the covariance is computed. In the time series literature, such a stochastic process is known as a weekly stationary or second order stationarity or covariance stationarity.

During recent years ultrasonography has become an indispensable diagnostic modality in human and veterinary medicine because of its non-invasive nature, providing visualization of internal organs, and quick results. Birth of ultrasound took place in 1794 when an Italian biologist Lazzaro Spallanzani discovered that bats used sound waves for navigation. Since then continuous developments and advancements in the technology have made the sonography a dependable and an easily accessible diagnostic modality.

Introduction

Solid waste management is a worldwide problem and it is becoming more and more complicated day by day due to rise in population, industrialization and changes in our life style. Large quantities of organic wastes are produced from agricultural production and farming systems which include animal manures, sewage biosolids, food wastes, and industrial organic wastes. Globally, these wastes have the potential of increasing soil and water pollution as because they are currently disposed of by land-spreading, incineration, or into landfills. As much as 50%-60% of the total wastes that are disposed into landfills are organic wastes. If these were turned into materials useful in farming system, there would be great savings in primary plant nutrients and metabolic energy.

Vermicomposting has been arising as an innovative eco-technology for the method by which compost or mixed manure of organic origin or conversion of various types of waste is prepared by the use of earthworms. It is a controlled degradation (non-thermophilic, boioxidative process) of the organic wastes for the consumption of earthworms, helps in the recycling of food wastes, reduces the waste bulk density and the final product may contain hormone-like substance which accelerates the plant growth. Vermicompost is humus like, finely granulated and stabilized material which can be used as a soil conditioner to reintegrate the organic matter to the agricultural soils. Industrial wastes remain largely unutilized and often cause environmental problems like ground and surface water pollution, foul odours, occupying vast land areas etc. Non-toxic and organic industrial wastes could be potential raw material for vermitechnology. In the last two decades, vermin-technology has been applied for the management of industrial wastes and sludges and to convert them into vermicompost for land restoration practices. The success of the process depends upon several process parameters like quality of raw material, pH, temperature, moisture, aeration etc., type of vermicomposting system and earthworm species used. Vermicomposting and vermiculture are two interlinked and interdependent processes where vermiculture can be done in the presence of decomposable waste organic matter

Elephants are the simple stomached animals and colon is associated with digestion, predominantly. Elephants are the herd animals (gregarious in nature) and belong to the matriarchal groups (Leader of herd is usually a cow elephant)

In the last chapter, we have broadly introduced the concept of tracer hydrology and also the concepts of isotopes as tracers, their characteristics and measurement techniques. In this chapter let us see the basis of application of each group of isotope tracers, injected and environmental.

What are the different groups of isotope tracers used in hydrology and how are they classified?

Genetic Basis of Heterosis

There are three theories to explain the genetic basis of heterosis: (1) dominance hypothesis, (2) over-dominance hypothesis and (3) epistasis.

Dominance Hypothesis

Davenport (1908) first proposed this hypothesis and he considered that heterosis is a consequence of action and interaction of favourable dominant genes brought together in a hybrid. Bruce, Keeble and Pellew explained it in 1910. This hypothesis suggests that at each locus the dominant allele have favourable effect, while recessive allele has unfavourable effect. In heterozygous state, deleterious effects of recessive alleles are masked by their dominant alleles. Thus, heterosis results from masking of harmful effects of recessive alleles by their dominant alleles. The harmful effects of recessive alleles, which becomes homozygous due to inbreeding. Therefore, according to dominance hypothesis, heterosis is not the result of heterozygosity; it is the result of prevention of expression of harmful recessive allele by their dominant alleles (Fig.1). In this hypothesis, there are two objections (i) the first objection relates to the failure in isolation of homozygous lines for all the dominant genes, and (ii) the second objection is directed at the symmetrical distribution in F₂. Both the objections are discussed below:

Individuality tells us what an animal seems to be; his pedigree tells us what he ought to be, but the performance of his progeny tells us what he is
Effectiveness of selection depends on ability to recognize those animals, which possess superior inheritance. Those superior animals must be mated together for the production of offspring. The aids available to estimate the breeding value of an animal is through the phenotype of an animal or its relatives.

ABSTRACT

Folivorous bats consume flowers and fruits, effecting seed dispersal and pollination. Adaptation of plants according to the type of pollinator is called pollination syndrome. Some of the adaptations of bat-pollinated syndromes are nocturnal anthesis

Bathua is an old plant that is also known as lamb’s quarters or cheel bhaji. Its scientific name is Chenopodium album. In India, the plant leaves are boiled and consumed like other green vegetables. Chenopodium is a weedy annual plant with a high growth rate. This is completely natural and a distinguishing feature of the plant. When the leaves mature, the powdery residue disappears. Look for younger leaves if eating raw. Otherwise, look for sturdy, robust leaves that aren’t wilted.

Botany and taxonomy Chenopodium album is a weedy annual plant belonging to the Chenopodium genus. 

Bearing: Bearing is connotation of flowering and fruiting.

Bearing habit: The position of f lower bud with respect to vegetative growth of the plant after the cessation of juvenility. Different fruit plants have different habits.

Depending upon position of fruit bud, fruit trees may be categorized as under:

1. Shoot flowering: Terminal flowering: Banana, Pineapple, Mango, Litchi, Avocado Lateral flowering: Coconut, Papaya, Guava, Orange, Ber, Passion fruit, Bread fruit
2. Stem /Branch bearing: It also known as caulifluorous bearing habit. In this habit, flower and fruit appear directly from the main stem or branch. Example: Jackfruit, Cocoa, Durian,
3. Spur bearing: It is a shot stubby shoot of more than one year age which bears fruit bud in many fruit plants. Example: Apple, Pear, Peach, Plum, Cherry, Grape, Apricot etc

Bearing

Bearing is connotation of flowering and fruiting. When a fruit tree flowers and fruits, it is said in bearing condition. Different fruits have different bearing habits, inflorescences, types of flower, mode and medium of pollination, pollen viability and all these account a lot for the bearing of fruit plants.

Bearing habit

If one observes a mango tree, he/she may find it does produce the fruits terminally on a shoot and it citrus he/she finds the fruits always produced laterally in the leaf axils. The manner or patter in which a plant produces its fruit is known as bearing habit or fruiting habit. Bearing habits are specific to the kind of plant. In determining the bearing habit of any plant three points are to be considered.

In nature, plantspecies flowers produce fruits and seeds and the primary objective is to reproduce them. Plant species those are unable to produce viable seeds, reproduce themselves by other means. With a common of these processes they vary in various aspects of flowering and fruiting. The variations may be due to their different growing habits, requirement of different environments, differences in their basic nature etc. Here we are going to discuss different types of bearing habits do exists in fruit crops.

Growth Habit

Growth is quantitative irreversible increase in the existing size of say plant or a shoot or simply a leaf etc. Fruit crops can be classified on the basis of their growth habits in two major classes. One is evergreen and second is deciduous. Evergreens include those plants which bear their leaves throughout the year. Examples are mango, litchi, guava and orange. Whereas, deciduous trees shed their leaves during a part of year (when weather is adverse i.e. during winter). Mostly temperate fruits belong to this category. The presence or absence of leaves makes very big difference in their physiology, their bearing season and pattern etc. These two categories also make a basic group to study them separately with respect to many aspects viz. source and sink relationships, pruning etc.

17.1 INTRODUCTION

Bearing habit indicates position of f lower bud with respect to vegetative growth of the plant after cessation of juvenility. Different fruit trees have different bearing habits. The knowledge of bearing habits will be of much importance for regulating the bearing of any plant by means of pruning. Terminal bearers are not normally pruned, whereas in case of lateral bearers pruning certainly increase the bearing, as it encourages the sprouting of lateral buds. Fruit trees may bear the fruits either terminally on a long or short growth, laterally on present or past season growth or adventitiously from any point on the trunk or root. The relative position of a fruit with reference to its potential bud giving rise to f lower or inf lorescence in the shoot is known as bearing habit. Knowledge on the bearing habit is a pre-requirement before performing pruning in any fruit crop (particularly in ber, guava, grape etc.). Proper understanding of bearing habits helps a lot in manipulating time and period of f lowering and fruiting which consequently inf luence harvesting and yield of better-quality fruits.

In general, plants show two distinctive phases; i.e. vegetative growth and reproductive growth. The primary objective of plant species is to reproduce themselves through the reproductive phase. However, some of the plant species do not produce viable seeds, but reproduce themselves in nature by other means. Flowering and fruiting habits vary with plant species and are governed by the kind of plant species and its growth habit, environment etc. In general, flowering and fruiting habits are known as bearing habits and it can be described by the location and type of buds, which produce flowers and fruit. The relative position of fruit with reference to its potential bud-giving rise to flower or inflorescence on the shoot is known as bearing habit. Each plant has its own bearing habit and are either terminally, laterally or adventiously Terminally means the fruit buds are formed on long or short growth, while laterally means the fruit buds are formed in the axils of present or past season’s growth. Adventiously, the fruit buds are formed at any point on the trunk. On the basis of bearing habits, fruit crops are categorised into the following eight groups

Growth, Fruiting Habits and Methods for Inducing Fruitfulness in Fruit Crops

•    Every plant has two distinct phases of development namely vegetative and reproductive.

•    In the vegetative phase, the plant only vegetative growth i.e. leaves, shoots etc.,

•    In the reproductive phases the plant produces reproductive growth i.e. flowers and fruits.

•    In case of annuals, these phases occur for a short period, each phase occurring only once and that too within the same season.

•    In perennials, the vegetative phase lasts for several years depending upon the variety and species. This is known as the pre-bearing period.

•    Once the perennial tree completes its pre-bearing period, the cycle of vegetative and reproductive phases might occur in each season or the reproductive phase may occur simultaneously along with vegetative phase without much distinction between the two.

By the time a child reaches the age of two he can usually keep himself dry during the day. However, it may be another year or more before he can keep dry all through the night. Even then, the best-trained child may fail to live up to expectations on certain occasions when he is highly excited.

Older boys and girls may also have occasional problems at night, especially when sleeping in a strange bed after a highly exciting evening.

The bladder is emptied unconsciously especially during sleep at night; may be associated with enlarged tonsils, thyroid deficiency, phimosis, intestinal worms, blanitis or vulvitis also sometimes pyelitis, cystitis, oxaluria even minor epilepsy.

There are many causes for this condition, ranging all the way from simple neglect of the calls of nature to degenerative changes in the spinal cord. The condition is found in all classes and at all ages. Nocturnal bedwetting is very common in weak, neurotic children. The next most numerous class is that of women who have born children and who have passed the fiftieth milestone. A laugh, a sneeze, a fright and the urine spurt from the bladder. Probably this is want of proper adjustment of the function of the nervous mechanism of the sphincter and the detrusor and the former fails to inhibit the later.

Introduction

The achievements in agriculture and its allied areas has made our country self sufficient economically. Our country has many landmarks in production of the grains, milk, meat, flower, vegetable etc which not only fulfill our own demands but even earning a lot of foreign exchange from export. Unemployment is a major problem effecting the growth of our country. The reasons for higher state of unemployment in rural areas can be attributed to poverty, law education and lack of job appointment. Alternatively, if the youths are self employed in the agrobased enterprises, then the problem of unemployment could be reduced to a certain limit, especially in the villages. There are so many vocations in which youth could be engaged such as dairy farming, poultry, piggery, beekeeping, mushroom cultivation, flower cultivation etc.

Abstract

Participation of rural women and youth in beekeeping activities provides a unique opportunity to improve rural livelihood and poverty reduction. Women have explored their own niche in beekeeping industry by actively engaging in post harvesting of bee products. Income generation is one of the major reasons for participating in beekeeping activities and beekeeping was ranked number one at the same level as agriculture as major source of income. Post harvesting beekeeping, however, needs liquid capital investment which, limit women and youth to fully participate in the business. Cultural practices are also one of the main hindrances for adult women and youth to participate in beekeeping activities. Nonetheless, presence of beekeeping groups and associations, community banks, forest reserves and beekeeping awareness campaigns in the areas provided opportunities for women and youth to participate in beekeeping. Beekeeping represents one opportunity for income generation which need not be time consuming and can fit in well with women’s priority activities. women be given the opportunity to start beekeeping, it is important that all beekeeping development programs ensure from the outset that extension messages reach rural women, and that they are able to take full advantage of training and credit facilities.

Rerd. L.L.Langstroth (Father of modern bee keeping) discovered movable frame hive in 1851.

In 1882, beekeeping was introduced in India.

In 1911, Rerd. Newton introduced beekeeping to South India.

Beta vulgaris 2n = 2x=18 is an important vegetable crop in Eastern and Central Europe and it belongs to family Chenopodiaceae. It is of lesser importance in Western Europe and USA where it is known as garden beet. The swollen roots are consumed as vegetable and salad. The other types which are non-horticultural forms are known as sugar beet, mangold and fodder beet.
Origin: Leaf beet is the earliest domesticated form. It is believed to be originated from Beta maritima known as sea beet which is indigenous to Southern Europe. 
Botany: Biennial producing enlarged hypocotyl (roots) and rossette of leaves in first year and flowers and seeds in second year.

Origin

Beet root originated from Beta vulgaris L. ssp. maritima by hybridization with B. patula. Crop has site of origin probably in Europe. Earlier types were with long roots like that of carrot. Beet root, sugar beet and palak belong to species B. vulgaris and are cross compatible.

Botany

Beet root is a biennial, producing a fleshy elongated hypocotyls and a rosette of leaves in first year and flowers in second year. Upper portion of fleshy root develops from hypocotyls and basal part from tap root. Concentric rings seen in cross section of root are as a result of alternate formation of vascular tissues and storage parenchyma tissues. Root skin colour varies from orange red to dark purple red. Colour of beet root is due to presence of red violet pigments of â cyanins and a yellow pigment, â xanthin. It has extensive tap root system and tap root grows as deep as 3m. Rosette leaves develop in a close sp

Begonia is a perennial flowering plant belongs to family Begoniaceae. Begonia has rich colour and beautiful form of flowers. It is free flowering and striking foliage with free growth. The name Begonia is given by Franciscan monk Charles Plumier a plant which he found during his journey from Haiti to island Martinique. He dedicated this plant to “Michel Begon” the man who had the direct manmade over the expeditions. Begonia is easy to propagate and grown from seeds and vegetative means particularly cuttings. It is a popular flowering potted plant grown in containers and hanging baskets including tuberous, semperflorens, Rex, Elatior, Loraine and gracilis. Modern commercially cultivated begonias are mostly hybrids between wild types from all over the world.

Begonia is a perennial flowering plant belongs to family Begoniaceae. Begonia has rich colour and beautiful form of flowers. It is free flowering and striking foliage with free growth. The name Begonia is given by Franciscan monk Charles Plumier a plant which he found during his journey from Haiti to island Martinique. He dedicated this plant to “Michel Begon” the man who had the direct manmade over the expeditions. Begonia is easy to propagate and grown from seeds and vegetative means particularly cuttings. It is a popular flowering potted plant grown in containers and hanging baskets including tuberous, semperflorens, Rex, Elatior, Loraine and gracilis. Modern commercially cultivated begonias are mostly hybrids between wild types from all over the world.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Begonias are native to South America and second centre of diversity is Asia from Himalayas to Southern China and Malaysia (a floristic region that encompasses Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunes, Philippines and Paera New Guinea).

The distribution of Begonia diversity is uneven throughout tropical regions, with the greatest diversity in America and Asia (>600 species each), whilst being relatively species poor in Africa (160 species) and absent in Australia (Goodall-Copestake et al., 2010). The genus is thought to have originated in Africa, while South American and South East Asian species are the results of parallel radiations over the last 20-50 million years (Plana et al., 2004, Goodall Copestake et al., 2010 and Thomas et al., 2011). Long distance dispersal is rare, for example Begonia species have failed to cross the Torres Strait from Papua New Guinea to Australia.

The Tuppa area, which is located 10-12 km away from Nanded city, and covers an area of about 66 km² was blessed with good , quality of water before industrialisation in this area. With the advent of industries more and more people from this region started complaining about the bad taste & quality of drinking water from dug and bore wells. From 1997 to1999 there was continuous increase in the lateral extent of pollution, with deeper bore wells more contaminated than the dug wells (Kaplay, et al. 2004).

ABSTRACT

In social Hymenoptera, the females carry out nest building, brood care and foraging, while males generally do not take part in any of these social behaviours and act solely as reproductives. The interesting phenomena of cooperation and altruism

ABSTRACT

Studies on the behaviour of animals are of utmost importance in the conservation of species. Ecology of the communities and individual species has to be examined in terms of different activities to understand the requirements of the species. Foraging and breeding are the major activities while resting and flight maintenance are also essential, although the time spent might vary in different species or situations.

Bird community studies conducted along with my students in different habitats in the Western Ghats since 1995 showed how the species are associated with each other and the impact of habitat changes on them. Endemic and threatened birds of the Western Ghats were specific about selection of habitat and food in different seasons. Identification of such critical habitats is crucial for conservation and management.

The studies on the bird community and drongos at Thekkady, Periyar Tiger Reserve conducted by me during 1979 to 1982, examined the association of drongos with other species in the area, especially while foraging. They fed mostly in mixed foraging flocks which is beneficial to all the participants. The strategy adopted by them for ecological isolation to reduce competition was by selecting different strata and substrate of the vegetation, varying sizes of insects, and methods of feeding.

In the case of wetland birds also habitat selection is a major behaviour limiting their numbers. For the threatened birds such as the Siberian Crane and the Andaman Teal, habitat quality and food availability were critical. Habitat degradation with over abundance of grass and reduction in sedges resulted in spending long duration for feeding and less returns.

Breeding behaviour of birds is interesting because of their strategies such as when to nest and where to nest. Studies on the seasonality have shown the importance of climatic factors. Many of our land birds nest during summer. Nest-site is also crucial as selection of the site with suitable macro and micro-habitats determine the success of the brood. The habitat patches for the individual pairs or groups of breeding birds which are defended against intruders are termed as territories which play a vital role in the distribution and density of birds. Thus the strategies adopted by species are dependent on the environment and species specific constraints affecting the survival of the species.

The word Belladonna is derived from two Latin words Bella means fine or beautiful and Donna means lady. Its generic name ' ATROPA' comes from the Greek fate ATROPOS, 'THE INFLEXIBLE ONE'.

Think of Belladonna if you see a red surface because this medicine is associated with red, blood shot eyes, red, puffed face, red, swollen throat, red skin, which radiates heat. This redness indicates inflammation. Thus a large number of acute inflammatory diseases respond well to Belladonna.

Belladonna problems come on suddenly, with violence, run a regular course and then disappear as suddenly as they come.

When an inflammation is localized, Belladonna is the remedy in the first stage. Such inflammation comes suddenly, is red, painful and throbbing. This can be in the head, throat, breast or anywhere else in the body. This can be in the form of a carbuncle or a boil, on a hand or on a foot. Belladonna controls and aborts the problem in its first stage.

Abstract

Abundant organic wastes come from agriculture sector. Earthworms offer an opportunity for beneficial disposal of this unwanted material by converting into vermi compost, a national wealth. It is rich in nutrients, enzymes, hormones and beneficial microbes but free from harmful chemicals and pathogenic microorganisms, hence improves crop productivity. Disposal through burning creates environment pollution and loss of valuable plant nutrients. Dumping creates unhygienic situation. Vermicomposting is quicker than other conventional composting techniques. In northeast India, Eisenia foetida and Perionyx excavatus were found equally efficient in vermi composting of agricultural wastes. Among different bio mass, vegetable wastes and soft weeds were converted to compost very quickly by using Perionyx excavatus within 1 to 2 months. Composting was found moderate (3 to 4.5 months) in crop residues and hardy weeds while slow (5 to 10 months) in case of dry tree leaves. When different wastes are mixed together it takes 3.5 to 4.5 months for complete composting. Composting can be accelerated by mixing the wastes with cellulolytic fungi such as Triichoderma viride, Trichurus spiralis, Paecilomyces fusiporus and Aspergillus awamori. Vermicompost prepared from wastes is a marketable product. It can bring prosperity in the villages by means of employment generation and good income. Awareness among people can be created through training.

No plant in the earth is completely worthless. Weeds have also some beneficial effects although they do much harm in different ways. The beneficial effects of weeds are as follows:

    1.    Most of weeds absorbs nutrient from the deeper layer of soil. When such weeds are incorporated in the soil, they add organic matter content of the soils. As a result, the fertility of plough layer from where plants absorb most of their nutrients is enriched.

    2.    Weeds help in controlling erosion by the soil binding effects of their roots and by forming a living mulch, which resist beating action of rain drops and sweeping action of wind.

Endophytic Microorganisms

Endophytes (‘endo’, inside; ‘phyte’, plant) include microorganisms that thrive inside the plant tissues without any obvious adverse effects on the host, and they include mainly bacteria and fungi (Hallmann et al., 1997; Bacon et al., 2002; Hardoim, 2015). Endophytic microorganisms share an intimate association with the host adding essential and functional capabilities. Therefore, plant may be considered as a superorganism composed of an amalgam of both selected symbiont microbiota and host cells (Hardoim, 2015) with the new concept of holobiome, i.e., plant together with the associated microorganisms collectively governing the plant activities (Hardoim et al., 2015; Vandenkoornhuys et al., 2015).

Though many of the insect species are injurious to man, his crops and his livestock in different ways, not all the insects are injurious. Some insect species are beneficial to man in many ways.  A  few  are  productive insects and yield materials directly useful to man. Of these, the most important ones are the honeybees, which give honey and bee wax, the silkworms, which give silk and the lac insects, which give lac. Some other insects are useful to man indirectly in many ways.

productive insects

1. Honeybees (Apis species)
Order - Hymenoptera
Family - Apidae

Kinds of honeybees

There are five kinds of honeybees in India. They are :
Apis dorsata - the rock bee
Apis florea - the little bee
Apis indica - the Indian bee
Apis mellifera - the European bee
Melipona iridipennis - the dammer or stingless bee

Introduction

Millet is a small grain cereal grass bearing coarse seeds, and since ancient times has been considered a valuable and nutritious grain. It includes jowar, bajra, ragi and small millets. Small millets include Barnyard millet, proso millet, kodo millet, little millet and foxtail millet. It is rich in fiber, protein, iron, calcium, magnesium, zinc, vitamin B, has a low glycemic index and has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic properties (Ranjan et al., 2023). These have been added to the modern lifestyle as healthy foods because they are beneficial for human health due to the presence of nutritional ingredients. The nutritional quality of food is the most important parameter for maintaining human health and comprehensive physical health. Good nutrition is the driving force for growth and maximisation of human genetic potential (Radhila et al, 2011). Food quality in the diet must be considered to maintain optimal human health and fitness to address the deep-seated problem of malnutrition. Diversification of food production at both the national and household levels should be encouraged, in addition to increasing domestic productivity and technology (Singh and Raghuvanshi, 2016). Some agricultural foods are not used by humans as staple foods due to human ignorance. Millet is one of them. Millet is used as food for animals and birds. Millet has many nutritional and medical functions (Yang et al, 2012).

The issues that our country faces in ensuring nutritional security for its rapidly growing population necessitate an integrated strategy to domestic animal rearing. Of the various livestock species, pigs are the most likely source of meat production and the most capable feed converters after broiler chickens. It not only provides meat but also bristles and dung. Pig farming provides rural residents with job options and additional revenue to help them better their living conditions. It is critical to assist capital formation in the animal husbandry sector in order to boost farmer incomes. The following are the benefits of pig farming:

• The feed conversion efficiency of the pig is best possible. Except for broilers, pigs produce more live weight gain per kg of feed than any other class of meat-producing animals.
• The pig can transform a wide variety of feed stuffs, such as grains, forages, and broken feeds into valuable nutritious meat. Furthermore, the majority of these meals are not edible or pleasing to humans.

Abstract

The medicinal plant, Nithyakalyani, Catharanthusroseus is valued for its alkaloid and the content varied, among root (0.14 to 1.43%), stem (0.48%), fruit (0.4%), seed (0.18%) and pericaup (1.14%). The biofertilizer consortium development includes Catharanthusroseus. Azosppirillumlipoferum CAZS-4, Azotobaterchroococcum CAZB-1, Bacillusmegaterium CPB-18 and Pseudomonasflourescens CPF-14. The relative chemotactic response (RCR) of the strains to anionic fraction is more than that of cationic and neutral fractions. The consortium treated plants possessed 1.120 mg g^-1 of ajmalicine on 180 DAS, and the antioxidant superoxide dismutase (SOD) (13.240 U mg of protein hr-1), peroxide (POX) (11.240 U mg of protein hr-1) and catalase (CAT) (9.000 U mg of protein hr^-1) values were higher on 150 DAS. The consortium increased the biomass production by 50-75 per cent with proportionate increase in the mineral nutrient content. Biofertilizer consortium is the most effective organic input for biomass production.

1. Basic Information

Benin is situated in West Africa at inter-tropical zone between the parallels 6°30 and 12°30 North and the meridian lines 1° and 3°40 East. The Republic of Benin is limited in the north by the Republic of Niger and to the North-West by Burkina Faso, in the south by the Atlantic Ocean, in the west by Togo and in the east by the Federal Republic of Nigeria. The Republic of Benin extends over 700 km length from the Atlantic Ocean to river Niger. Its width varies from 125 km, along the coast, to 325 km, in the northern part. It covers an area of 112.622 km².

With the third General Census of the Population and Habitat in February 2002, Benin counted 6,769,914 inhabitants thereby giving an average density of 60.11 inhabitants per km². Currently the population is estimated to nearly 8 million inhabitants with a natural rate of increase of 2.8 per cent. The average densities estimated from the last census of the population vary between 16 inhabitants per km² in the department of Borgou and 322 inhabitants per km² in the department of Atlantic.

Ber (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk. ) is one of the ancient and common fruits of the country. It is a drought hardy fruit tree and can grow successfully even under harsh climatic conditions. Ber is well known for its ability to thrive under adverse conditions of salinity, drought and poor marginal soils. However, for good tree’s growth and yield, deep sandy loam soils with neutral or slightly alkaline reaction and good drainage are most suitable. It is grown throughout the country especially in arid and semi- arid parts. However, it is mainly grown in western parts of Rajasthan where rainfall is less and erratic (Pareek et al, 2002). In addition to Rajasthan state, it is cultivated in other states like U.P., Karnataka, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, A.P., Gujarat, M.P., Chhatisgarh, Haryana, Punjab and Bihar.

Ber (Zizyphus) is egg-shaped fruit of orange or brown colour, with edible acid pulp and hard central stone. The Ber, Indian jujube, Z. mauritiana Lam. (syn. Z. jujuba L.) is adapted to warm climates. It belongs to the family Rhamnaceae. It is often called merely jujube, or Chinese date, which leads to confusion with the hardier species. Other English names are Indian Plum, Indian cherry and Malay jujube. In India, there are 90 or more cultivars differing in the habit of the tree, leaf shape, fruit form, size, color, flavor, keeping quality, and fruiting season (Morton, 1987). Ber (Zizyphus pss.) is one of the hardiest fruit trees cultivated in India. It is an ideal fruit crop for arid and semi-arid regions and even for waste lands. Ber has been recognized as a useful edible fruit since mythology of Ram and Shabari in India and depicted in Ramayana. Researchers mention both Z. mauritiana and Z. jujuba and even the wild Z. nummularia.

Cultivars: Umran, Banarasi Karka, Seo, Gola.

Uses

The Jujube is classed with the raisin, date, and fig as a pectoral fruit, being nutritive and demulcent. It is eaten both fresh and dried. Bark is used for tanning. Leaves are laxative and used in throat trouble. Leaves are also used as a good fooder particularly in arid zones. The tree serves as a host for lac insects. Wood is used for making agricultural implements and tool handles. The preserved products made of ber fruit are murabba., candy, diced ber, dehydrated ber, ber pulp, ber jam etc.

Ber (Ziziphus maruritiana Lam.) is cultivated all over the desert part of the Indian subcontinent for its fresh fruits, which are rich in vitamin C, vitamin A and vitamin B-complex and minerals. It can be successfully cultivated even in the most marginal ecosystems of the subtropics and tropics. Ber or Indian jujube belongs to the genus Zizphus of the family Rhamnaceae and order Rhamnales. Ber is adopted to ecologically poor, drought prone areas, which encounter recurrent crop failures and thereby economic crises. It yields nutritious fruit, rich in vitamins and minerals than apple even in drought years and its cultivation is highly cost effective owing to very low input requirement. Ber cultivation also provides employment for people in different farm operations for production and sale of the produce. In India, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are major ber producing states. The area under cultivation with this fruit is 8.7 lakh ha with an annual production of 8.9 lakh tones in India (Baloda et al., 2012). About 125 varieties of ber are available in India. A few of these varieties are known for taste, size, amount of pulp and higher yields. The cultivars Umran, Kathapal and Gola are the most promising varieties of ber in North India (Azam-Ali et al., 2001).

Nutritive Value

Many people are unaware that the ber is one of the most nutritive fruit, since ber is a common fruit. It is one of the richest sources of vitamin C, next only to aonla and Guava but better than citrus fruit and apple. The fruit pulp contains 13-20% total soluble solids and 0.20-0.80% acidity at fully ripened fruit. Ripe fruit of Umran contains 117 mg ascorbic acid/100 g of pulp. Ber fruit contains β-carotene (vitamin-A) at 81 µg/100 g of fruit, 5.6% sucrose, 1.54% glucose, 2.08% fructose, 1.00% starch and 1.13% total carbohydrates. Due this, so ber is often called the “poor man’s fruit”. Table 1 represent the nutritional composition of different ber varieties.

Abstract

Ber is an important fruit of India and South Asia. Its cultivation is gaining popular in recent years. The drupaceous fruits of ber are characterized by climacteric respiration phenomena and produce high amount of ethylene at ripening. It is very high in ascorbic acid content. Maturity and ripening is still judged by colour changes, as reliable maturity indices for particular cultivars are not fully established. Short shelf life is major problem in this fruit. Protocols for postharvest handling is not standardized, however, scattered information are available for postharvest behaviour and handling. Low temperature storage is beneficial and reduces respiration rates but simultaneously chilling injury is again hindrance in commercialization. Postharvest rot is major problem in storage. Therefore, focused research is needed to standardize the storage temperature and alleviation of chilling injury.