eChapters

The history of evolution reveals that life on Earth has gradually gone enriching itself by adding more and more varieties to it. A variety of organisms as of today exhilaratingly blossoms in the biosphere. The organisms are divided into three broad categories based on their distinctive characteristics, viz. plants, animals, and microorganisms. The other broad categories all the organisms on Earth are placed in are the five kingdoms, viz. Protista, Monera, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. These kingdoms encompass living organisms based on their cell type (prokaryotic or eukaryotic), cell number (unicellular or multicellular), genetic recombination type (binary fission, asexual or sexual type), or feeding behavior or mode of nourishment (autotrophic or heterotrophic).

Agrobiodiversity is a key resource for humanity. All of the food retirements humanity depends on are fulfilled by agrobiodiversity. Not only this, fodder, fiber, firewood, and many other basic needs of humankind are also met by agrobiodiversity. Human’s dependence on agriculture - not only for survival and sustenance but also for socioeconomic progress, maintenance and celebration of cultural ethos, physical, intellectual, emotional, ethical, and aesthetic development, and psychological contentment and happiness - is inevitable.

Agrobiodiversity is critical for food security for the entire humanity as well as for the food sovereignty of a country. If we are to usher in a sustainable future - that is, a future to be witnessed by healthy, vibrant, and happy humanity (Singh 2019) - there is no choice other than protecting, conserving, and augmenting agrobiodiversity.

All of nature’s biodiversity is not visible. Biodiversity can also not be studied and/ or understood by looking at and analyzing it with the naked eye. A great proportion of the planet’s biodiversity flourishes in the ecosystems not directly accessible to us and the organisms in the sizes our eyes cannot record. The soil biodiversity is more interesting and more varied than we have understood and appreciated. The biodiversity in the soil - together with the physical environment - constitutes what we can call the pedosphere. Biodiversity in the pedosphere is distinguishable from that of the biodiversity above the soil surface. One is nonplussed by an understanding of some of the unbelievable features and functions of the pedosphere biodiversity.

The Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) held on the occasion of the historical Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 underlined the significance of biodiversity conservation for various tangible and non-tangible benefits as well as one of the key factors for sustainability. However, the conservation of soil biodiversity for realizing sustainability

Nutrition is the basis for life to prosper and sustain in the biosphere. There are two modes of nutrition in all species: self-nourishment and crossnourishment. Self-nourishment goes on in the category of organisms known as autotrophs. Cross-nutrition is maintained by the category of consumers categorized as heterotrophs. The autotrophs nourish themselves by utilizing inorganic molecules and energy available in nature, while the heterotrophs derive the nutrients that the autotrophs ‘manufacture’ for themselves. In other words, the heterotrophs derive nutrients from organic molecules. These organic molecules are derived either from the autotrophs directly or from the consumers dependent on autotrophs.

Autotrophs derive energy in its free form (e.g. light) or that available in inorganic molecules (e.g., CO, 

A large number of genetic resources, species, and ecosystems are under severe threat. Many species have gone extinct and many more are being pushed towards extinction. Most of the ecosystems have also gone into what we can call functional extinction. The major factors becoming threats to biodiversity are anthropogenic. Human activities, in essence, are not benevolent for biodiversity to flourish in natural systems. Burgeoning human populations are the root cause of biodiversity destruction. Changing human lifestyles fed by a materialistic economy are further acting as catalysts for the ever-increasing human populations to destroy biodiversity evolved over millions of years amid terrestrial conditions favorable for the origin and prevalence of an astonishing variety of life forms on Earth.

There is hardly any threat to biodiversity due to natural factors except those inherent in the designs of natural evolution. A species at a certain point of time in its evolutionary history is destined to vanish, but the void in nature created due to this loss is filled by the evolution of new life forms. Not only the void is filled, the nature gradually goes on enriching itself 

Most of the ecosystems prevailing on Earth have ceased to be virgin. They are now modified following anthropogenic designs. The Blossoming of a community in its climax stage is a rare sight. As human intervention with nature has gone on increasing, all types of biodiversity - genetic, species and community, and alpha, beta, and gamma - have been put under stress. The Earth has already lost much of its diversity due to anthropogenic factors and now it seems to be under severe stress due to climate change, which is also largely due to human-induced environmental disruptions.

Continuous loss of biodiversity at an alarming rate is posing a serious threat to life on earth. With this dismal state of the environment, we cannot usher in a sustainable future. We do not have the right to snatch the future from our younger generations. The Earth belongs to our children more than it does to us. The Earth belongs to future generations more than it does to present generations. Conservation of biodiversity is a matter of ethics. Ethics has the human face of biodiversity. Economic attributes of biodiversity have importance, but ethics of life 

Sustainability does not denote a fixed state of things. It is a dynamic phenomenon: a phenomenon that tends to advance towards a higher state of being. The range of a journey of sustainability extends from nothing to everything, from a simple system to a more complex system, or from an unstable or less stable system to a stable or more stable system. Speaking in ecological terms, the transformation of unproductive desert land into a forest in ecological climax over time is how the phenomenon of sustainability works.

The term ‘sustainable development’ was first of all used in 1980 in the World Conservation Strategy (IUCN-UNEP-WWF 1980). However, this term was brought into the focus of the world for the first time in the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) Report, popularly known as the Brundtland Commission Report Our Common Future in 1987. Sustainable Development in the WCED Report has been defined as Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs.

The large and diverse livestock resources of India benefit millions of people in rural areas, enhancing their standard of living. The key elements of sustainable agriculture are livestock resources. India has a population of 535.78 million livestock. According to 20th livestock census 2019,India ranks first in the world for the number of buffalo (109.85 million), second in number of cattle (192.49 million), third for the number of sheep (74.26 million), fifth for the number of chickens and ducks (851.81 million), and tenth for the number of camels (2.5 lakhs). About 8.8% of India’s population is engaged by the livestock industry, which provides a living for two-thirds of the country’s rural communities.

A farming system is composed of several farm activities, such as cropping systems, horticulture, livestock, fisheries, forestry, and poultry, as well as the tools the farmer has at his disposal to raise these things profitably. However, a lot of definitions generally express the same concept, which is that it is a technique to achieve profitable and sustainable agricultural production in order to meet the varied needs of the farming community while sparing the natural resource base and environmental quality.

Drivers
• Unique aspects of the local climate and soil.
• Availability of resources and land labor.
• The current level of resource use.
• Economics of the proposed integrated farming.
• Farmer’s management skills

It is the common maintenance of bee colonies by humans in hives made of man-made materials. The majority of these bees are honeybees from the genus Apis, however there are others that make honey, like Melipona. There are also stingless bees kept. A beekeeper raises bees to produce bees for sale to other beekeepers or to collect honey and other goods that hives generate, such as beewax, propolis, flower pollen, and bee pollen, to fertilize crops. An apiary, often known as a bee yard, is a place where bees are kept.

It is believed that efforts to combat poverty and advance sustainable development must include both the development of livestock and energy-related activities The relationship between energy and livestock in alleviating poverty is less clear and has just recently grown increasingly significant, despite the fact that each of these issues has been identified separately(Steinfeld et al., 2006).

The number of people is expected to increase from 7.2 billion to 9.6 billion by 2050. (UN, 2013). This represents a 33% increase in population, but the demand for agricultural products will climb by approximately 70% during the same time period as the global quality of living rises (FAO, 2009). Livestock is essential for ensuring food security.

Integrated farming places a strong emphasis on the fundamental functions of agro-ecosystems, balanced nutrient cycles that are adapted to the demands of the crops, the health and wellbeing of the farm’s livestock, and a holistic management strategy that sees the entire farm as one connected system (Kochewad et al. 2017). Family farming, often referred to as integrated farming, provides the opportunity to profitably utilize the farm family’s available labor to the fullest extent throughout the year, leading to an increase in income and family contentment.

1.1 Introduction

Climate change is evident from the observation of increase in global average air and ocean temperatures, precipitation and extreme rainfall, widespread melting of ice, storms / storm surges flooding and rising global mean sea level, as recorded in the Fourth Assessment Report of IPCC. Eleven of the last twelve years (1995-2006) rank among the twelve warmest years in the instrumental record of global surface temperature (since 1850). 

2.1 Introduction

Agro-meteorological advisories relate the past, current and predicted future weather to agricultural activities. Behaviour of weather both in space and time, considerably affect the agricultural production. Year to year variations in crop production are generally depended to the abnormalities in the behaviours of weather. The mission of the Agromet Advisory Services (AAS) of NCMRWF is to maximise farmers’ profits by decreasing losses due to weather calamities and also by increasing the timeliness of operations in the crop field. An ideal AAS bulletin helps to reduce environmental pollution through the optimum use of chemicals in the crop filed. An ideal AAS bulletin should contain farm management information to weather based agricultural operations and available to the farmers in real time.

3.1 Introduction

One of the most important functions to the AAS units is to widely disseminate the advisory bulletins among the user community. A unit cannot be considered operational unless its bulletins are reaching the target masses. The dissemination is one way communication which is broadly speaking the process by which human beings share information, knowledge, experience, ideas and motivation. 

4.1 Introduction

The livestock/poultry have great capability for climatic adaptation and acclimatization. However in an open environmental condition their overall well-being and efficiency depends on day-to- day weather conditions. While certain breeds of livestock and poultry are considerably flexible to adjust themselves with the varying weather conditions, the others may have little adjustability. This has led to the development of weather/climate based livestock/ poultry management practices which include the general care. Nutrition and health managements for optimizing conditions for best yield in respect of milk, meat, eggs, wool, load carrying capacity etc. have been properly documented. 

5.1 Introduction

Weather is one of the most important factors which determine success or failure of agricultural production. It effects every growth phases and development of plant. During the growing period of the crop, any variability in the weather condition such as delay in monsoon, excessive rainfall, drought, flood, heat or cold wave affects the crop growth and finally reduces the quality and quantity of crop yield. These losses due to weather hazards can be reduced by taking proper crop management in time and by applying accurate weather forecast. Weather forecast also provides guidance for selection of crops and varieties best suited to the local climatic condition. 

6.1 Introduction

One of the key challenges in the 21^st century is that Agromet Advisory Services (AAS) have to respond to an unpredictable and changing climate. In India Gramin Krishi Mausam Sewa (GKMS) is the umbrella project for Agromet Advisory Services (AAS) and it intends to link AAS to different sources of knowledge and innovations to respond to the climate change at root level farmers. The main aim of GKMS is to create effective, efficient and synergistic linkages to improve the delivery of these AAS to the farmers. GKMS works under the frame work of India Meteorological Department (IMD) which seeks to enhance the livelihood of every Indian farmer. 

7.1 Introduction

The occurrence of extreme weather events like drought and flood is increasing in Bihar due to climate change. Bihar receives nearly 80% of annual rainfall during June to September which is quantitatively enough for growing most of the crops. However, aberration in temporal and spatial distribution of rainfall makes the crops vulnerable to drought as well as flood. Rainfall is the most important factor for planning of crop production in rainfed areas. The information on annual, seasonal and weekly rainfall of a region is helpful to design different agricultural operations like field preparation, sowing, irrigation, fertilizer application as well as overall crop planning (Singh et al., 2008). Zone I and zone II of Bihar are receiving too much rainfall which causes flood in this region whereas zone III B is identified as rainfed region which has low, erratic and uncertain rainfall pattern with frequent dry spells during the monsoon season. Hence kharif cropping is tricky operation in this region and sudden crop failures is a common phenomenon due to frequent dry spell or early withdrawal of monsoon. In India many scientists studied on rainfall probability pattern (Suchit et al., 2012) and they concluded that rainfall occurrence is certain at greater than or equal to 80 % probability, while 50% probability is the medium limit of certainty and may involve dry spell risk. Based on these climatic and probability factors, the study was carried out for four different locations situated in different agro climatic zones of Bihar for interlinking the rainfall probability pattern with the crop planning pattern in those regions.

A. Mixing and Homogenization

1. I.ntroduction to Mixing and Homogenization

In the food industry, mixing and homogenization are fundamental procedures that are essential to the production of a wide range of food items. To produce the desired qualities and final result with uniformity and consistency, various ingredients are blended. Ensuring product quality, stability, and customer happiness are contingent upon these processes.

Importance of Mixing and Homogenization

Mixing and homogenization are paramount for several reason

A. Novel Dehydration Technologies

Dehydration, the process of removing moisture from food products, is crucial for enhancing shelf life, reducing weight and volume for transportation, and preserving nutritional value. Traditional dehydration methods, such as sun drying, air drying, and freeze drying, have been widely used for centuries. However, advancements in food technology have led to the development of novel dehydration technologies that offer improved efficiency, quality retention, and sustainability.1. Vacuum Microwave Dehydration

Vacuum microwave dehydration is a cutting-edge dehydration technique that combines the advantages of removing moisture from food products while preserving their color, flavor, texture, and nutritional content (fig 1).

A. Non-thermal Processing

Non-thermal processing encompasses a diverse range of food preservation and treatment techniques that do not rely on heat as the primary means of achieving microbial inactivation or quality preservation. Unlike conventional thermal methods such as pasteurization and sterilization, which involve exposing food to elevated temperatures for a specified duration, non-thermal processing methods operate at or near ambient temperatures. These innovative technologies offer several advantages, including the preservation of sensory attributes, retention of nutritional quality, and minimization of detrimental effects on food texture and f lavour (fig 1).

Distillation, leaching, and extraction

A. Distillation

Distillation is a widely used separation process in various industries, including chemical, pharmaceutical and food processing. It is particularly important in the production of alcoholic beverages, essential oils, and purified water. Distillation works on the principle of exploiting differences in the volatility of components in a liquid mixture to separate them based on their boiling points.

Principles of Distillation

Distillation is a time-tested and versatile separation technique employed across a myriad of industries for separating components of liquid mixtures. Its effectiveness lies in its ability to leverage differences in boiling points among the various constituents of a mixture.

Food Plant Hygiene

A. I.mportance of Food Plant Hygiene:

1. Ensures the Safety and Quality of Food Products: Proper hygiene practices within food processing facilities play a critical role in safeguarding the safety and quality of food products. By adhering to stringent hygiene protocols, including thorough cleaning, sanitation, and preventive measures, facilities can effectively prevent the contamination of food products by harmful microorganisms, chemicals, or physical hazards. This helps minimize the risk of foodborne illnesses and ensures that consumers receive safe and wholesome food products. Additionally, maintaining cleanliness and hygiene in food proce

The extreme temperatures those are consequences of present-day global climate changes are considered as major abiotic stresses for crop plants. Different studies clearly show that temperatures exceeding the limits of adaptation substantially influence the metabolism, viability, physiology, and yield of many plants. Plants exposed to extreme temperatures often show a common response in the form of oxidative stress. However, the extent of damage caused by extreme temperatures depends greatly on the duration of the adverse temperature, the genotypes of the exposed plants, and their stage of growth. There is ample need to develop temperature tolerance in crop plants by exploring suitable strategies. Numerous research findings support the notion that induction and regulation of antioxidant defenses are necessary for obtaining substantial tolerance against environmental stress. The development of genetically engineered plants, by the introduction and/or overexpression of selected genes, would to be one feasible strategy. However, plant adaptation to either high temperature or low temperature is a multigenic response which is very complex in nature. Thus the task of identifying the traits those correlate with stress tolerance is incredibly difficult for researchers. Plant response to continuous light depends on plant tolerance and can be modified by alteration in temperature, light intensity, CO2 level, and other environmental factors.

Most food legumes have a long history of domestication almost as long as cereals, and during this time they have been subjected to conscious and unconscious selections for better adaptation to environmental condition as well as better seed yield. In general, crops during their ontogeny faces a number of abiotic stress viz., excessive and/or low soil water stress, soil salinity stress, high as well as low temperature stress. It has been well documented that crop yields would be greater in many cropping regions if more water were available. 
Availability of water for agriculture is being challenged increasingly because of growing demand for water from other sectors such as industry, urban use, and for social and environmental purposes. Water stress may conceivably arise either from an insufficient or from an excessive water activity in the plant’s environment. Many physiological characteristics are correlated with the water potential of mesophyll tissue but the correlations are species specific. There is a general hierarchy of sensitivities among general physiological activities. Most sensitive are cell expansion, cell wall synthesis, protochlorophyll formation, and nitrate reduction. Generally turgor pressure is still accepted as the best indicator of water stress in plants. The specific mechanism by which turgor regulate physiological function probably relate to cell walls and membranes. Cell membrane structure, and spatial arrangement of enzyme, transport channels, cellulose synthesis rosettes, and receptor proteins may be dependent on turgor pressure.

We do not know when intercropping began nor why early civilizations fostered its use. Whether by design or accident, intercroppinq dominated early agriculture and is still practiced in many areas of the world. With the advent of “modern” agriculture, intercropping began disappearing from many areas. This shift was driven primarily by mechanization and specialization. Despite pressures to abandon intercropping, it has survived and flourished Inereasing interest in sustainability and environrnental concerns have drifted attention back to intercropping as a means of better utilization of resources while preserving the environment.
Through intercropping, farmers can achieve the full production of the main crop and also an additional yield (bonus) associated with an increased plant population of the second component. Hence, intercropping can increase incomes obtained by smallholder farmers in areas where labor is not shortage, through reduction of economic risk and market fluctuation resulting from growing a single crop which is more prone to natural hazards and helping the farmers in better utilization of land by having more than one crop produced per unit area. Though all intercrops produced higher productivity, the farmers could better use the appropriate population of component crops in intercropping systems in order to maximize yield of both crops as well as total productivity. It is, therefore, important to support intercropping systems with appropriate agronomic practices such as timely irrigation, pest protection and the likes to sustain the cropping system in the countries where labor is not problem for proper management in general even though sometimes sole cropping may became more productive.

Marginal land areas will need to be used to meet the increasing requirement of future generations, especially in developing countries. These marginal areas commonly impose abiotic stresses on crops due to factors such as salinity, drought, flooding, low nutrients and aluminium or heavy metal toxicity. As a consequence, the growth and yield of crops from such areas is typically low and their quality in also poor. Endogenous plant growth regulators play an important role in regulating plant responses to abiotic stress by sensitizing growth and developmental processes. While the physiological and molecular mechanisms linked to the role of ABA and cytokinins in stress tolerance are well explained, there is growing interest to elucidate the associations of auxins, ethylene, gibberellins, brassinosteroids, and polyamines in stress tolerance mechanism and also on possible cross talk mechanism among different growth regulators during stress tolerance acquisition. Identification and characterization of the gene regulating synthesis of different endogenous growth regulators and recent progresses on hormonal signaling, mutant research, and physiological actions have provided scope for manipulating their biosynthetic pathways for developing transgenic crop plants with enhanced abiotic stress tolerance. Researches have also provided some leads in exploiting the potential of growth regulators in enhancing the resistance to abiotic stresses of crops. Plant growth-regulators (PGRs), are biochemical and chemical compounds stimulates plant growth and productivity when applied, even in small quantities at appropriate plant growth stages. These are being extensively used in agriculture to enhance the productivity in agricultural crops. Their central role in plant growth and development is through nutrient allocation and source-sink transitions while most of the plant bioregulators (PBRs) stimulate redox signaling under abiotic stress conditions.

Plant–water relations concern how plants control the hydration of their cells, including the collection of water from the soil, its transport within the plant and its loss by evaporation from the leaves. Flow of water through plant and soil over macroscopic distances is driven by gradients in hydrostatic pressure. Over microscopic distances it is driven by gradients in water potential. Evaporation of water from leaves is primarily controlled by stomata, and if not made good by the flow of water from soil through the plant to the leaves, results in the plants wilting. Plant water deficit is initiated as the crop demand for water exceeds the supply. The capacity of plants to meet the demand and thus avoid water deficit depends on their “hydraulic machinery.” This machinery involves firstly the reduction of net radiation by canopy albedo, thus reflecting part of the energy load on the plant. Secondly, it determines the ability to transport sufficient amount of water from the soil to the atmosphere via the stomata in order to provide for transpiration, transpirational cooling and carbon assimilation. Water is transported by way the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum and it is largely controlled by the resistances in the continuum as determined by root, stem, leaf, stomata and cuticular hydraulic resistances. The gross effects of deficient and of excessive soil moisture on plant growth are well known, but controversy has existed for many years around the question whether the so-called “‘available moisture” is equally available for plant growth or available only with such increasing difficulty that plant growth functions are retarded before the wilting point is reached. Various measurable aspects of plant growth do not respond in the same manner to increasing moisture stress. Crops will respond to irrigations, although measured soil moisture stress is quite low. Problems of relating plant growth to soil moisture stress conditions varying with both time and soil depth are considered. Soil factors affecting density or depth are reviewed and several ways weather factors influence soil, -moisture-plant-growth relations summarized.

Partitioning of assimilated carbon among sink organs is a critical factor that controls the rate and pattern of plant growth. Environmental stress often restricts resource availability while successful acclimation sets in motion processes that restore the supply. A key mechanism contributing to regulation of carbon partitioning is an expression of genes that control activity of the enzymes which initiate sucrose metabolism at specific sites and stages of ontogeny. Drought stress not only limits the size of the source and sink tissues but the phloem loading, assimilate translocation and dry matter portioning are also impaired. However, the extent of effects varies with the plant species, stage, duration and severity of drought. Crop production faces many challenges, due to changing environmental conditions and evolving needs for new plant-derived materials. 
The extreme temperatures those are consequences of present-day global climate changes are considered as major abiotic stresses for crop plants. Temperatures exceeding the limits of adaptation substantially influence the metabolism, viability, physiology, and yield of many plants. Plants exposed to extreme temperatures often show a common response in the form of oxidative stress. However, the extent of damage caused by extreme temperatures depends greatly on the duration of the adverse temperature, the genotypes of the exposed plants, and their stage of growth. Numerous research findings support the notion that induction and regulation of antioxidant defenses are necessary for obtaining substantial tolerance against environmental stress. Plant adaptation to either high temperature or low temperature is a multigenic response which is very complex in nature. Plant response to continuous light depends on plant tolerance and can be modified by alteration in temperature, light intensity, CO2 level, and other environmental factors.

Though the pesticide application represents viable solution to pest control, however indiscriminate use poses threat to target as well as non-target crops. The side effects of pesticides therefore have to be considered based on their use and on the agricultural system to which particular pesticide is used. Studies should be implied on effects and persistence of pesticides in crops and is consequent effects on soil microbial flora and associated nitrogen metabolism. Safe alternate methods like development of relatively cheaper biopesticide should be encouraged. More efficient methods have to be developed and validated for dissipation of pesticide residues in food grains. Human health and environment has gained great importance in the modern world. The widespread use of insecticides has resulted in problems caused by its interaction with the natural biological systems. Study showed that higher amounts of acetamiprid have some negative effects on corn plant physiology. Thus, the use of pesticide should be controlled following the standards of developed countries to protect health and the environment.

WHO defines Disaster as “any occurrence, that causes damage, ecological disruption, loss of human life, deterioration of health and health services, on a scale sufficient to warrant an extraordinary response from outside the affected community or area”

Nuclear Disasters

What is NUCLEAR ENERGY or NUCLEAR POWER?

It is the energy released in nuclear fission or nuclear fusion.
Motive power generated by nuclear reactor.
Where atomic energy of a substance get converted in to electrical energy.

Efforts to Mitigate Natural Disaster at National and Global Level

What is A ‘Disaster’?

It as ‘an event that has occurred unexpectedly with destructive consequences’ - (UNOCHA 2005). 
It as ‘a calamitous event resulting in loss of life, great human suffering and distress, and large scale material damage’ - (IFRC2005).
None of the international agencies take animals into account in their definitions

“It  is not uncommon for animals to exhibit behavioral changes before an impending disaster. Wild animals often vacate areas, gather in strange groupings and sometimes will even enter into human habitats they normally avoid,” animal behavior expert Diana L.Guerrero said.Three days before the earthquake, thousands of toads roamed the streets of Mianzhu, a hard-hit city where at least 2,000 people have been reported killed.

A  disaster  (from  Latin  meaning,  “bad  star’)  is  the  impact  of  a  natural  or man-made event that negatively affects life, property, livelihood or industry often  resulting  in  permanent  changes  to  human  societies,  ecosystems  and environment.  The  event  itself  is  not  a  disaster;  it  is  the  impact  that  is  a disaster. Their possibility of occurrence, time, place and severity of the strike can  be  reasonably  and  in  some  cases  accurately  predicted  by  technological and scientific advances. Hence, we can to some extent reduce the impact of damage  though  we  cannot  reduce  the  extent  of  damage  itself.  Despite  the severe impacts suffered – including trauma, starvation, dehydration, infection, disease and shock-animals are often the silent victims of disasters, and there is a real need around for the provision of effective training and management programmes to ensure that their survival and welfare are adequately accounted for. This demands the study of disaster management in methodical and orderly approach.The World Health Organization (WHO) defines a ‘disaster’ as any occurrence that  causes  damage,  destruction,  ecological  disruption,  loss  of  human  life, human suffering, deterioration of health and health services on a scale sufficient to  warrant  an  extraordinary  response  from  outside  the  affected  community or area (WHO, 1999). It is an event, concentrated in time and space, which causes social, economic, cultural and political devastation and which affects both individual people and communities (Kumar, 1998). 

‘FRUIT’, “a food, drink and medicine, neatly packed by nature in attractive, handy and easy-to-open containers”, is a sensible definition indicating significance of fruits in human life. In botanical terms, fruit is a ripened ovary and in horticultural science it is the plant product, which is edible on ripening. From the nomadic age to present day civilized life, man has used fruits as food. Human civilization is irrevocably linked with the culture of fruit plants and trees. References of larges number of fruits in the very ancient literature of different languages throw light to this fact.

Fruits exhibit vast diversity in various forms, shapes and aspects. According to climatic requirements, they are temperate, tropical and subtropical crops. Major tropical and subtropical fruits include mango, banana, citrus, grapes, litchi, pineapple, papaya, sapota, guava, mangosteen, avocado, jack, ber, passion fruit etc. Fruits can be grown in very rich and favourable climatic conditions, but some fruits are adapted to adverse conditions of dessert (date palm), moisture-stress arid zones (aonla, ber, custard apple) and saline regions. Fruit plants vary in morphological traits such as plant size and shape. They may be herbaceous as banana and pineapple, shrubs as cherries and phalsa, small trees as ber and limes, big trees as mango and jack and vines as passion fruit and grapes. Fruits are of different sizes and shapes also. The range is from very small berries of phalsa to very big fruits of durian and jack. Taste wise variation is also very clear in fruits. We have very sweet fruits (litchi, sapota, dates and banana) acidic/sour ones (aonla, tamarind, bilimbi) and fruits with specific sugar/acid blend (varieties of mango, grapes, oranges).

Orchard is a long-term investment and careful planning and resource analysis prior to establishment is essential. Lack of attention and care in the initial stages of orchard development results in irreversible damages. Essential resources for successful orcharding can be broadly grouped into two categories as biophysical and socioeconomical. Biophysical resources include land, soil, agrochemicals, planting materials, irrigation and manpower, while socioeconomic factors are finance, security, market, technical knowledge, transport, storage and social amenities.

Selection of crops and varieties should be done carefully, the most important factor being market demand. Popular fruit crops, which have demand in local markets, can definitely be a good choice. Previous experience and expertise of growers of selected locality can be made use before finalizing plans.

SITE SELECTION

Factors like climate, soil, availability of water, trained labour and inputs like fertilizers and plant protection chemicals should be considered. Accessibility to market, railway station, transport, nearness to road, storage facilities and processing units which facilitate expeditious disposal of perishable fruits, help in getting good returns from orchards. Successful fruit growing in a particular locality depends to a great extent on the natural factors especially climate and soil.

Fruit crops can be classified into many groups or categories based on certain criteria, which may vary according to climatic and soil requirements, growth habits and of late with consumer rating. Horticultural and botanical classifications are two important types of classification followed in fruit plants. Classification often helps to identify the names and to group the plants. It also gives an account about relatedness among them which further suggest the breeding possibility and grafting compatibility. Different types of classifications followed are discussed here:

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON CLIMATIC REQUIREMENT

Fruit plants are classified based on their climatic adaptability and it is also known as ecological classification. In horticultural point of view, this classification has got much significance. Fruit growers can select crops suited to a particular region by following the demarcations given here. Fruit plants are categorized into the following groups in this classification.

Temperate fruits

Fruit crops need exact climatic requirements for their growth and development, flowering and fruiting. These plants are grown only in places where winter is distinctly cold, they are deciduous and become dormant during this season. Plants should be exposed to specific chilling temperature for certain period for flower induction. These plants are suitable to higher elevations and they can withstand frost. eg. Apple, plum, peach, pear, almond, walnut.

BANANA

Musa paradisiaca L

F. Musaceae

Banana, an antique food crop of the world is known as the ‘Apple of the Paradise’ and botanically named as Musa paradisiaca. Plants of the Musaceae family as a whole are strictly old world plants which are believed to be originated in the hot, tropical regions of S. E. Asia (Simmonds, 1962). Malaysia is considered as the primary centre of origin of M. acuminata (AA and AAA cultivars) and from there, it spread to India and Burma where M. balbisiana is the native. In the IndoBurman peripheral area, natural hybridization of acuminata and balbisiana types occurred and thus India is regarded as a major centre of origin for more the 300 types (AB, AAB and ABB cultivars) out of the 600 types of Musa germplasm. Mention of plantain in Ramayana (2000 BC), Arthsastra (250 BC) and in Chilappathikaram (500 AD) suggests the antiquity and long period of domestication of banana fruit in India. Present day type/cultivars were originated through natural hybridization, mutation and polyploidy breeding and perpetuated through vegetative propagation.

It was introduced to East Africa even before Christ and to the Mediterranean region about 650 AD. It reached the New World in 1516 AD and its cultivation is distributed throughout the warmer countries situated in the region between 30⁰ N and 30⁰ S of the equator. Now banana is grown widely in 130 countries like Brazil, China, India, Ecuador, Columbia, Venezuela, Florida, Panama, Cuba, Uganda, Tanzania, Zaire, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Honduras, Nigeria, Fiji, India, Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Australia etc. and total (world) area is 88.5 lakh ha with a production of 97.2 million tonnes. Fifty per cent of the global production is from India, Ecuador, Brazil and China.

AVOCADO

Persea americana Mill.

F: Lauraceae

Avocado, also known as butter fruit gained importance over years as one of the most nutritive fruits. Demand for this fruit increased over the past few years and now it has become an important fruit in international trade.

Original home of Avocado is Mexico in Central America and grows wild all over South America. The Spanish explorers took this fruit to Spain during 1601. It was introduced to Jamaica in about 1650. Avocado was first reported in Mauritius in 1780, Florida in 1833, California in 1856 and Zanzibar in 1892, but its cultivation started extensively in these areas during 1900 (Purseglove, 1974). It was introduced to South and West Coasts of India about 100 years ago from Ceylon. Avocado is now growing in most of tropical and sub tropical countries.

Avocado is grown commercially in USA, Israel, South Africa and Australia. USA, Israel, and South Africa are main exporters. In India, it is mainly grown in South where it is centred on hill slopes of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Coorg and in selected regions of Karnataka and Maharashtra.

AONLA

Emblica officinalis Gaertn

F: Euphorbiaceae

Aonla is one of the most important minor fruits of Indian origin, which is predicted to be the ‘fruit of the 21^st century’ even though it existed from time immemorial. It is also called as ‘Indian gooseberry’, ‘amla’, ‘nelli’, ‘amlaki’, ‘amali’, ‘ambala’ and ‘amalakamu’ in different parts of India. This species is indigenous to tropical SouthEastern Asia precisely the Central and Southern India. The crop is seen in Sri Lanka, Malaysia and China. In India, aonla is being cultivated on a commercial scale in northern parts comprising Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat.

Large number of edible fruits exists in tropics and subtropics of world. Many of such fruit species are identified, domesticated and are being utilized for various purposes, though their full potential has not been exploited. There is yet another group of plants producing edible fruits with great potential in different parts of world, which are not at all being grown and utilized by people other than in a very localized manner. Such under and un-utilized fruits are made the subject for detailed study. They are evaluated for their nutritive value, potential uses for other purposes, for possibilities of commercial cultivation in suitable areas and chances for marketing. Since all of them may not be acceptable for fresh consumption as table fruit, product diversification should be thoroughly evaluated to gain popularity for such plants. Practices and techniques employed for utilizing these fruits by local people where these plant species are seen at present can be scientifically and systematically refined for commercial exploitation.

Broad spectrum of agro climatic conditions and diversity in people’s preference for taste offer great chances to identify right fruit to a particular region for commercial cultivation in India. In this context, significance of under and un-utilized fruits for exploiting potentials become more clear. Identification of such plant species in different regions, extend and method of present utilization, nutritive value and pomological significance of the products, specific climatic and cultural requirements for successful growth and development should be documented as first step for exploitation of lesser known fruit species. Some of the under and un-exploited fruit species prevalent in tropical and subtropical conditions are discussed. In addition to this, attempt is made to incorporate an exhaustive list of plant species, which have potential for utilization as fruits and are rarely exploited at present. These are confined to only limited localities where people use produces for various purposes and are in most cases little known to other parts of world.

Abstract

Carbohydrates are the primary product of photosynthesis and key source of energy in plant and therefore play important role in plant growth and development. Plant carbohydrates are classified into two categories structural carbohydrates and Non-structural carbohydrates (NSCs). NSCs are main component of vegetative tissue and inside the cell they are present in plastids, cytosol, apoplast and vacuoles. Starch is the storage carbohydrate and is used in unfavorable condition on other hand soluble sugars support functions like supporting new growth and defense as they are intermediary metabolites, osmolytes, and substrates for transport. Under unfavorable condition carbon assimilation is less than the plant demand and under such condition these NSC act as “food pantry” which allow sessile plants to cope up unfavorable condition. Pattern of NSC accumulation may also differ for canopy/distal branches, stems and roots, depending on how drought has affected transport of NSC within the plant. These NSCs protect plants during desiccation and against freezing damage by stabilizing proteins complexes and membranes. Thus, NSCs are important carbohydrates for the growth and development of plant during normal as well as in stressed condition.

Abstract

Carbon is the backbone for the life of all living beings. Carbohydrates are metabolic currency of plants as they provide building blocks for energy and biomass accumulation. Carbohydrates include both structural and Nonstructural carbohydrates. Structural carbohydrates like cellulose and lignin are long chain molecules for the building of plants reserves and structural support. These are main constituents of plant cell wall, stem, stalks etc. Non-structural carbohydrates (NSC) like monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, sugar alcohols are important constituents in plants metabolism. The Non-structural carbohydrates (NSC) pool is very important for plant to meet the inadequate carbon requirement under night and stressful conditions. The quantity and distribution ratio of NSC in different tissues is an ecophysiological feature to understand the adaptive strategies of plants. Substrate for biosynthesis of NSC produced from photosynthesis. Sucrose and starch majorly involved in transport, energy metabolism, osmoregulation of plants.

Abstract

Plants store structural carbohydrates (SCs) and Non-structural carbohydrates (NSCs) to buffer source–sink interactions at various phases of growth and under diverse environmental conditions. Structural carbohydrates (cellulose, lignin, hemicelluloses) provide structural integrity to the plant and the Nonstructural carbohydrates (sugars and starch) plays important role in growth, respiration, osmotic regulation, defence and helps in maintaining the carbon balance. Abiotic stresses such as drought, heat, salinity, and lodging etc. restrict the growth and development of plant which culminates into lower yield. Hence, the role of Non-structural carbohydrates needs to be elucidated for achieving desired crop improvement interventions to mitigate the harmful effects of climate change and having sturdy crop system. Improving our understanding of whole-plant sink–source dynamics and further optimising them will have far-reaching consequences in the near future.

Abstract

The current photosynthesis of flag leaf is the most crucial source of assimilates that are essential for grain development in wheat. Translocation of these assimilates from the leaf to grain takes place in the form of sucrose. However, environmental cues that influence assimilate balance between the leaf and the developing grain which act as source and sink respectively determine grain yield prospects of wheat. The assimilate translocation system that links source and sink can also play a significant role. Hence, this aspect of assimilate supply has been a focus of research over the past few decades for crop improvement particularly under abiotic stress environment that tend to alter source-sink balance by impairing physiological and developmental processes in plants. Grain growth is mainly triggered when the primary assimilates meet the metabolic needs of the developing grains through the current photosynthesis or through assimilates stored in the form of Non-structural carbohydrates in stem. Hence, the improvement of photosynthetic capacity to synthesize sucrose, its storage remobilization, and utilization becomes imperative under abiotic stresses. Various aspects of Non-structural carbohydrates in wheat stem have been estimated, and efforts have been made to reveal the mechanisms of assimilate partitioning. In this context this chapter discusses strategies to improve grain yield with greater insights into the photosynthetic carbon assimilation, the pathways actively involved in the transport of sucrose from source to sink and their utilization at the sink organ. The information related to assimilate supply to the developing wheat grain under high temperature and drought stress conditions can provide opportunities to translate this knowledge into traits for improvement of climate resilience in wheat.

Abstract

Global consumption of wheat during 2021/2022 marketing year reached to 787.4 million metric tons (https://www.statista.com/aboutus/our-researchcommitment/1239/m-shahbandeh). It shows about 4.4 million metric tons increase from the previous year. With the increase in population a significant increase in wheat production is needed to feed 9.7 billion mouths by 2050. A very limited effort can be directed to increase area under wheat production. Diseases and pests of wheat cause significant reduction (>30%) in production and 11-15% of total post-harvest losses of food grains were reported in India, which equates to about 20 million tonne (Basavaraja et al. 2007) and more than AUD10 million per year (Singh 2010). Thus, saving wheat from diseases can significantly contribute to the 2050 food security goal.