eChapters

Agro-inputs are either biological or chemical or inorganic compounds used in the production of agricultural and allied products. Some of the agro-inputs used in India are :

• In-organic fertilizers
• Pesticides which include insecticide, fungicide, nematicide and herbicide
• Seeds which include varieties, hybrids and genetically modified plant materials
• Vegetatively propagated planting materials
• Bio-fertilizers
• Organic inputs which include compost, vermicompost, enriched farm yard manure, oil meals and farm yard manure
• Bio-pesticides
• Bio-control agents
• Plant Growth regulators
• Micro-nutrients
• Farm machinery and agricultural tools and implements
• Animal feed
• Poultry feed.

The production and distribution of above mentioned agricultural inputs create agri-business opportunities. The agricultural input production inputs and distribution firms may be big companies like Madras Fertilizers, SPIC, FACT, EID Parry, Monsanto, Syngenta or MAHYCO and the like. They may also be small business firms like vermicomposting, coir pith decomposing.

Output of dairy products from animals, output from the poultry, goats, sheep, exotic birds, animal growth, their living environments and diseases affecting them, are known to be governed by weather conditions. Development of quantitative climate-animal relationships and efficient utilization of daily weather data for monitoring the various aspects, continues to be a significant research priority. Traditionally the major climatic factors on which attention has been focused are: temperature, humidity, solar radiation and length of day. The effects of these climatic elements on reaction of animal physiological parameters have been studied by measurements of (a) animal?s ability to prevent heat loss by such means as increased evaporative cooling from the body surface, (b) its ability to reduce heat production by lowering its metabolic rate through more efficient energy utilization (c) its ability to put up with a rise in body temperature or with the consequences of compensatory reactions. Experiments are usually done in climate chambers since field measurements often involve difficulties of interpretation in separating out the effects of climate from those of nutrition. Water consumption, water intake, insensible perspiration (diffusion moisture, different from the moisture which is actively secreted), protein intake, intra- and extra cellular volumes, plasma and blood volumes, body temperature, respiratory activity etc., of animals are all known to be affected in relation to changes in air temperature and humidity. Airflow also is an adjutant factor since it affects temperature and humidity. Significant seasonal changes have also been frequently recorded. These in turn, have profound effect on output of milk yield and several other animal products. Development of predictive techniques for assessment of milk yield or other products had been recognized as a thrust area, so as to develop suitable and viable strategies for storage; transport, marketing and distribution of several livestock products. Several gross relationships between climate and its influence on physiological and biochemical aspects of animal behaviour have been worked out in the past on seasonal basis but a more intensive study on short period stress effects on the output products in relation to prediction of output is the need of the hour. For pursuing research on these aspects, an appropriate understanding of the specific meaning and use of terminology such as ?thresholds?, ?optima?, ?normal?, ?extreme events? in more detail is considered appropriate. Methods of analysis also need to be addressed and evolved.

The sole science of meteorology is to deal with weather forecasting while livestock advisory based on weather forewarning is dealt with multidisciplinary approach in the field of livestock meteorology for the benefit of the livestock farmers. In this context, the current status of livestock advisory based on medium range weather forecasting is highlighted so that the tools for livestock advisory can be initiated and developed by the concerned for the benefit of livestock farmers in similar lines. Information on weather forecasting is used in various society linked sectors and animal husbandry component is one of them (Fig. 17.1).

7.1 Introduction

The practice of rainwater storage in the pond is quite common but still there is a need to improve its design. Most of the ponds used for rainwater storage are designed on thumb rule: either they are under or over designed. An over designed farm pond can meet the supplemental irrigation needs of the crop but it may not be economical. On the other hand, an under designed pond though economical, may not be able to meet the irrigation needs of the crops at all times. It is reported that in some case up to 20% of the farm area is used for construction of farm pond. These farm ponds are found not to be optimal. Although these ponds are able to meet the crop water demand at most of the stress periods, but considering the economics, they are observed not to be optimal. The big size farm ponds need large areas to be wasted for the digging of the structures. They need huge investment for their construction and lining. Hence, proper scientific studies are needed so that its storage becomes adequate to save the crops from the adverse effects of the drought in monsoon and to assure the possibility of growing a second crop in the winter and at the same time, it is economical also. Simulation studies by daily water balance models of both the crop field and the pond help to understand the availability of water in the pond to meet the supplemental irrigation demand of the crops.

9.1 Introduction

The water harvested in the farm pond is a very valuable commodity. Every care should be taken so that not a single drop is wasted. The two major forms of losses in farm pond are (i) evaporation losses and (ii) seepage losses. Evaporative water loss (E_loss) and losses due to seepage are the two vital natural outflow components of unlined farm ponds. Studies conducted byGuerra et al. (1990) and Pal et al. (1994) indicated that the seepage loss from unlined ponds amounts to 45-67 per cent whereas the E_loss constitutes 30 per cent of the total out flow from the system. Water losses by evaporation and seepage were 5.3 and 9 mm day^-1, respectively amounting to 70% of total storage in the ponds (Syamsiah et al.1994).

Estimate of evaporation across the country indicates that it is as high as 2000 mm in the semi-arid tropics. Annual average value of the evaporation loss varies from 1400 to 1800 mm across major parts of the country: the value being highest in west Rajasthan, parts of Saurasthtra and Tamilnadu and lowest in coastal Mysore, Bihar plateau and east M.P. Reliable statistics reveal that about 70 M ha m of water evaporates from the water bodies and land surfaces out of the total annual precipitation of about 400 M ha m received by the country. The total evaporation losses from the water surfaces are about 5 M ha m from the total storage of 15 M ha m in the reservoirs including ponds, lakes spread all over the country (Belgaumi et al.,1997). In this section, the methods to estimate the losses like seepage and evaporation and various techniques to control them are discussed.

Introduction

A system is a set of inter-related, interacting and committal elements acting calm for an accepted purpose and able of reacting as an accomplished to alien stimuli. It is artless by its own achievement and it has alien boundaries based on all cogent augment backs.

Farms are systems because several activities are carefully accompanying to anniversary added by the accepted use of the Grassland labour, Grassland and capital, by accident administration and by the collective use of the farmer’s administration capacity. The assay of farms is absolutely important to the accountable of development.

Relevance of the farming systems approach: Choosing behavior for agronomical development requires the use of advice about the absolute farming situation. After-effects of farming system from a circuitous alternation of committal and committal apparatus of elements that the agronomical enterprises of the rural household. At the centermost is the agriculturalist who takes accommodation in an attack to accomplish his aspirations, goals and adapted objectives aural the banned of technologies accessible to him. Uses inputs to get outputs in acknowledgment to the abstruse elements which are the accustomed ability award in any accustomed breadth akin what the farming system can be. The human aspect provides the framework for development and appliance of an accurate farming system.

Scheduling irrigation is the process of determining when to irrigate and how much to irrigate. Selecting the appropriate time span in between two irrigation and applying the required volume of water in each irrigation, ensures saving of water, minimize energy use, higher crop yield and lower production costs. Irrigation applied earlier than due date causes loss of water through evaporation or deep percolation and later causes water stress to plants and thereby affects the growth and yield of the plants. Scheduling of irrigation may be required in two field conditions: (i) when availability of water is adequate, (ii) when availability of water is limited.

In the places where water is adequate scheduling of irrigation follows full irrigation with time sequence of minimum number of irrigation to ensure maximum yield and high water use efficiency. When water is limited its use is rationalized by using at the sensitive stages of the plants and withholding irrigation at other stages. The sensitive stages so selected that by using the available water provides possible maximum yield.

8.1 Working Capital Management – I

Working Capital Management: Working capital is a measure of firm’s efficiency and its current financial health. Managing the operational capital is called as working capital management.

Every firm has short term assets and short term liabilities, they are also known as current assets and liabilities. It is calculated by subtracting short term liabilities from short term assets. The working capital ratio determines if the firm is financially stable, and has enough short term assets to cover its short term debts.

Working capital management ensures that the company has enough monetary liquidity to meet short term debts. Structuring an effective working capital management is a great way to enhance the income. Ratio analysis and management of individual components of working capital are two primary importance of working capital management.

Ratio analysis: Process of determining and analyzing numerical relationships in accordance to financial statements like balance sheets, income statements and cash inflow statements is known as ratio analysis. The primary purpose of ratio analysis is to appraise the operating and financial performance of an economic activity and determine its efficiency, profitability, liquidity and solvency. It also helps in getting a brief idea about comparative valuation by comparing ratios of different companies in the same sector.

Inventory Management: Inventory management involves overseeing the purchase of new items and managing the existing ones. It aims to create such a purchase plan that will ensure effective delivery of materials. Two most used inventory management strategies are ‘the just-in-time method’ and ‘material required planning.’ In former one the firm plans to receive items at the time of need rather than maintaining high inventory levels, and the latter one is based sales forecasts.

Cash Management: Cash management is process of collecting, managing and utilizing the cash inflow to optimize the short term financial stability. The key component in accomplishing this task is solvency. Successful cash management is useful when any unexpected demand for cash occurs out of the blue.

Abstract

Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D.Don) Soo, a plant species native to Indian Himalayas (Badola and Aitken, 2003; Ved et al., 2003), is one of 110 orchids known for their medicinal properties (Jain 1991; Lal et al., 2004). Known earlier as Orchis latifolia auct. non Linn., D. hatagirea has traditionally been used in indigenous system of medicine in India as ‘Hatajari’ or ‘Salam Panja’. The plant has therapeutic, ornamental and ecological significance (Gupta et al., 1998; Vij et al., 1992; Kala, 2000a). Due to over extraction from nature for medicinal use, the species has become threatened and categorized as critically endangered species (Ved and Tandon, 1998; Kala, 2000b; Ved et al., 2003; Bhattarai et al., 2014). This contribution provides insight into the botanical background, distribution, medicinal importance, threat status, cultivation and commercial aspects, and strategies for its conservation and sustainable utilization.

Abstract

A very strong shallow focus submarine earthquake (of magnitude 9.0) occurred off the west coast of Sumatra Island due to the movement of Indian Plate and Burma Plate on 26th December 2004 at 06:18:53 IST. A vast area around its epicentre was rocked including Andaman and Nicobar Islands and parts of the eastern and western coasts of the Indian mainland. This earthquake had generated a global tsunami, which had also pounced on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the coasts of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala and caused severe damage to the coastal population and infrastructure. Considering the devastation of this tsunamigenic earthquake, the Department of Science & Technology, Govt. of India has launched a coordinated programme for imparting S & T inputs with futuristic approach to support rehabilitation programme in the affected areas on a sustainable manner. The main objective of the programme is to generate geospatial databases on damages and risk zonation using pre and post-tsunami remote sensing (RS) data along with collateral attribute data in GIS platform. This paper speaks on the damage assessment (both natural / physical resources and human resources) caused by the earthquake and tsunami covering parts of Andaman Islands along with strategies for risk management and constraints and alternatives for micro level planning.

Keywords: Tsunamigenic earthquake, Damage Assessment, Remote Sensing and GIS, Andaman - Nicobar.

Milk production in India is a subsidiary activity of agriculture in contrast to the organized dairy sector in the western countries. Farmers and landless labour maintain one to five milch animals. As a result, small quantities of milk are produced in a scattered manner. Due to this reason, milk procurement models from western countries, such as bulk cooling and bulk transportation are not applicable under Indian conditions. Collection of small amounts of milk is scattered over long distances and, therefore, poses a formidable challenge in maintaining the quality attributes and keeping costs down.

3.1. Rural Milk Collection

A systematic approach to rural milk collection suitable for the tropical climate and techno-economic conditions prevailing in India has been developed, based on the indigenous experience gained over the past few decades. In the first phase, extensive surveys are undertaken in the milkshed areas, where the milk plant is to be established. The second phase involves ‘route planning’ taking into account, availability of quantities of milk, access to roads for plying vehicles and distance from the site of dairy plant. Then zones are identified, representing equal costs of collection and transportation. In the third phase, planning is done for locating the primary collection centres as well as chilling centres, where, milk can be cooled to 4ºC before transporting to the milk plant. Milk may be collected from individual producers either by the contractor or by forming village level cooperative societies.

Respiration is the oxidative breakdown of complex substrate molecules such as starch, sugars, and organic acids normally present in plant cells to simpler molecules such as carbon dioxide and water. Concomitant with this catabolic reaction is the production of energy and intermediate molecules that are required to sustain the myriad of metabolic reactions essential for the maintenance of cellular organization and membrane integrity of living cells. Since respiration rate is so tightly coupled to the rate of metabolism, the measurements of respiration provide an easy non-destructive means of monitoring the metabolic and physiological state of tissues, e.g., the events of senescence and ripening are often signaled by abrupt changes in respiration.

Maintaining a supply of high-energy compounds like adenosine triphosphate (ATP), nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) and pyrophosphate (PPi) is a primary function of respiration. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide plays very important role in mitochondrial matrix (Moller and Ramusson, 1998). The overall process of aerobic respiration involves regeneration of ATP from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (P_i) with the release of carbon dioxide and water. If glucose is used diphosphatas substrate, the overall equation for respiration can be written as follows:

Fresh fruits are an important component of our diet since they provide essential nutrients like minerals and vitamins and are often attractive to the consumer because of their taste, texture, colour, aroma and flavour. Fruits of different species are botanically different, and they may be derived from various parts of the flower, including the pericarp, mesocarp and receptacle. Growth of fruit tissues is initiated shortly after fertilization and accompanied by the accumulation of food reserves donated by the parent plant. Fruit ripening corresponds to a number of physiological, structural and biochemical changes, which make the fruit attractive to the consumers. These changes include physical changes, viz. the changes in colour, texture, taste, aroma and flavour, and the metabolic changes such as changes in the level of enzymes and gene expression. The varieties of mechanism, which exist in different fruits to bring about a series of these changes to make them attractive for consumption, have been summarized in Table 9.1.

Because of the variety of ways in which these quality attributes are generated, there are significant differences existing in enzymes involved in ripening of different types of fruit. Once initiated, these physiological and biochemical modifications continue until the fruit is in peak condition for consumption. If the fruits are not harvested at appropriate stage of maturity, these changes continue and make them more susceptible to mechanical damage, infection and senescence. Since harvesting fruits at right stage of their maturity is critical, it is important to understand the biochemistry of fruit ripening process fully. This chapter will highlight the biochemical and metabolic changes involved during fruit ripening to make the fruit acceptable for potential consumers. Some of the possible genetic manipulations, which can be done to delay the onset of these ripening related changes, are given in later part of the chapter.

In India, the total losses of vegetables due to inadequate post-harvest handling, transportation and storage facilities have been estimated at least 25-40%. However, in some vegetables, the post-harvest losses may be as high as 80-100%. Being highly perishable nature of the vegetables, the losses always increase as the produce moves from harvesting to the consumer. Vegetables with a loss of as little as 5% in fresh weight show shrivelled, wilted and staled appearance, which makes the vegetable tissues tough, non-crispy and unpalatable, and eventually, lowers their saleability and consumer acceptability considerably.

Improper harvesting, handling, transportation, storage and distribution of vegetables result in significant post-harvest losses. In such situations, the reduction in post-harvest losses of perishables becomes more essential in countries like India. If these losses are minimised by handling and storing the produce carefully, the following gains can be realised:

The Jammu and Kashmir State lies in the extreme North of the Himalayas and constitutes about 67.5 per cent of the North West Himalayan region. The State is predominantly a mountainous state with all the major Himalayan ranges and trans-Himalayas adequately represented. The State of Jammu and Kashmir located in the north Western corner of India, extends between 32^o-17' and of 37^o-50' North parallels of latitude and 73^o-26' and 80^o-30' East of meridians of longitudes and 81^o East of Greenwich. The State on the basis of physiography may be divided into three main regions (i) outer Himalayas which comprise of Jammu province (ii) lesser Himalayas which comprises of Kashmir Valley and (iii) inner Himalayas which comprise of Ladakh province. Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh regions have distinct agro climatic characteristics. Jammu region has two different climatic zones depending primarily on altitude. Lower hills & plains bear subtropical climate with hot dry summer lasting from April to July. The summer monsoon commences around first fortnight of July and fading away in early September. This is followed by dry spell from September to November. Winter is mild and temperature seldom touches freezing point. In the high reaches of Chenab valley, the climate is moist temperate, winter is severe and varied quantity of snow is received. The Kashmir valley with Pir Panjal Mountains on its South and Karakoram on its North receives precipitation in the form of snow due to western disturbances. The winter is severely cold and temperature often goes below 0°C. Summers are warm and dry and autumn is again cool and sometimes wet. Ladakh is situated in eastern mountain range of Kashmir. This is one of the highest ranges in the world. It is a cold desert receiving very little precipitation. The temperature remains below the freezing point during winter due to its high altitude.

Bihar’s economy is highly dominated by agriculture and allied sectors. Around 85 to 90 percent of the population still lives in rural areas, where agriculture along with animal husbandry, is the main source of their livelihood. In Bihar, the gross and net sown area is estimated at 8.26 and 5.64 million hectares, respectively. Nearly 60 per cent area under cultivation in the state is rainfed (Anon, 2008). The region comes under sub-humid subtropical monsoon climate. Most of the annual rainfall (almost 85 per cent) received from south-west monsoon, occurs during June to September (Sattar, 2010). There are three crop growing seasons in the state commonly known as kharif, rabi and zaid. The important kharif season crops, which are planted in May-June and harvested in September–October, are rice, maize, sesame, sorghum and bajra. Pigeon pea is an important long duration pulse crop sown during kharif season as sole crop or intercropped with maize. The important rabi crops which are sown in October–November and harvested in February–March are wheat, rabi maize, potato, chickpea, lentil, rapeseed, mustard, barley. Zaid crops, which are cultivated in short growing season extending from March to May in between rabi and kharif seasons, are also called summer crops, which include green gram, cowpea and sesame etc. Rice, wheat, maize, pulses and oilseeds are grown in all the districts. Sugarcane is also an important annual cash crop. However, the choice of crops, their varieties and crop rotation varies across different agro climatic zones. Rainfed crops during both kharif and rabi seasons in the state mostly experience moisture stress at different phases of growth and produce lesser yield. Like most parts of the country, crop production in Bihar is largely dependent on the performance of south-west monsoon.

A bill to provide for regulating the quality of seeds for sale, import and export and to facilitate production and supply of seeds of quality and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. Be it enacted by Parliament in the Fifty-Fifth Year of the Republic of India as follows

Abstract

High precision Geodetic Global Positioning System measurements have become important for studying present-day tectonics in active orogenic belts such as the Himalayas. Geodetic Global Positioning System measurements in the Darjiling-Sikkim Himalayas (DSH) during 2000-2004 indicate that the frontal part of the Darjiling Himalaya is locked to the Indian plate and statistically negligible shortening is accumulating there at present. While this observation is in conformity with observations made in Nepal to the west of the DSH, it differs in the fact that about ~ 12 mm/yr of convergence is accommodated in the DSH and the western Bhutan Himalayas as opposed to about ~ 20 mm/yr in Nepal Himalaya. About 16 mm of convergence is accommodated in the Arunachal Himalaya, to the east of DSH, of which about 6 mm is accommodated in the Lesser Arunachal Himalaya. These observations indicate that there is a fair amount of heterogeneity in the way convergence is accommodated along the length of the Himalayan arc and the Himalayan seismic hazard estimations need to account for this. Seismicity patterns in the DSH indicate that active deformation in the area is driven by strike-slip as well as thrust tectonics. Strain accumulation in the DSH during 2000-2004 appears to be dominated by strike-slip tectonics in the region and about ~ 4-5 mm/yr of sinistral strike-slip is observed along a NNE-SSW trending near-vertical fault identified in the area (named as the Gish transverse fault).

Abstract

This paper presents a kinematic analysis for explaining the spatial and temporal variations of deformational structures in the Cuddapah Proterozoic orogenic belt, South India. This belt shows virtually undeformed, flat-lying sedimentary rocks in its western margin, whereas strongly deformed and folded rocks in the eastern boundary. The structural variations indicate increasing deformation in the east direction, implying a relative tectonic convergence from the east side. Based on the corner flow theory, we use a viscous model to determine the heterogeneous strain field in the asymmetric convergent zone, and explain varying deformations from the foreland to hinterland. According to this model, the strain field in the hinterland part varies in a pulsating manner with progressive crustal thickening, giving rise to multiple deformational structures in the course of a single continuous tectonic movement. We also studied the strain field in finite element models considering the gravity forces, and obtained similar results. The foreland vergence of deformational structures in the Cuddapah belt indicates a top-to-west horizontal shear during the overall horizontal contraction. Our numerical models show that this horizontal shear component in the foreland region is likely to be associated with a vertical shear component in the hinterland.

Introduction

Germination is the growth of a plant contained within a seed; it results in the formation of the seedling, it is also the process of reactivation of metabolic machinery of the seed resulting in the emergence of radicle and plumule. The most common example of germination is the sprouting of a seedling from a seed of an angiosperm or gymnosperm. The seed of a vascular plant is a small package produced in a fruit after the union of male and female reproductive cells. All fully developed seeds contain an embryo and, in most plant species some store of food reserves, wrapped in a seed coat. Most seeds go through a period of dormancy, where there is no active growth; during this time the seed can be safely transported to a new location and/or survive adverse climatic conditions until circumstances are favourable for growth. Dormant seeds are ripe seeds that do not germinate because they are subject to external environmental conditions that prevent the initiation of metabolic processes and cell growth. Under proper conditions, the seed begins to germinate and the embryonic tissues resume growth, developing towards a seedling. In short, seed germination is the ability of a seed to develop in to a normal plant under favourable conditions in the soil (ISTA, 1985) or the process by which the dormant embryo wakes up and begins to grow is known as seed germination.

2.1 Introduction

Perfumery, the art of making perfumes, began in ancient Egypt but was developed and further refined by the Romans and the Arabs. The history of perfume began in antiquity. The word perfume is used today to describe scented mixtures and is derived from the Latin word, “per fumum”, meaning through smoke. Although perfume and perfumery also existed in East Asia, much of its fragrances are incense based. The world’s first recorded perfume maker Tapputi was mentioned in a Cuneiform tablet from the 2nd millennium BC in Mesopotamia. Perfume and perfumery also existed in India. The earliest distillation of Attar was mentioned in the Hindu Ayurvedic Charaka Samhita. The Bible describes a sacred perfume, consisting of liquid myrrh, fragrant cinnamon and cassia. In Islamic culture, perfume usage has been documented as far back as the 6^th century and its usage is considered a religious duty. Al-Kindi in the 9^th century wrote a book on perfumes entitled ‘Book of the Chemistry of Perfume and Distillations’ that has more than hundred recipes for fragrant oils, salves, aromatic waters and substitutes or imitations of costly drugs.

ABSTRACT

Plants play an important role in human survival and contribute to sustainable development as they are the major source of different bioactive compounds such as taxol, digoxin, reserpine and vinblastin used directly as drug and medicines for human diseases. As plants are basic need and requirement for living, they are used as herbal remedy, and known to produce lead compounds for semi synthesis of higher activity or lower toxicity. Indian Himalaya regions are repository of more than 8,000 plants species and out of which 50% are endemic and unique due to thepresence of morphological and chemical structure of peculiar characters. Most of the plant used in Indian traditional system of medicines such as Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha or Amchi described for different formulations and ethnomedicinal applications had distributional range restricted to the hills and the valleys of Himalayas. Hence, in this communication, an attempt has been made to present economic plants of Himalayan origin used as ethnomedicine, wild food plants as vegetables, herbal teas, homemade soups, wild salads, chutney, underground snacks, alcoholic drinks, nutrients as burnt powder and other human usages. Besides, this unique Himalayan plant has potential to be used as wild source for the development of new drugs and medicines which can sustain future to human survival and had the ability to produce medicine against deadly diseases. It is estimated that 80% of the world population uses traditional medicine made from herbal botanicals to cure disease and illness. It is of the record that 122 compounds obtained from ethnomedicinal plants is globally used as drugs. This indicates that tribal knowledge on plants and drug discovery cannot be separated, and newdrugsfor uniquedeadly diseases can be discovered only from ethnobotanical leads. More than 5,000 species reported from Indian Himalayas are of ethnobotanical values and they are used as medicine or wild food by different tribal communities. It can be concluded that Himalayan tribals are endowed with strong culture associated with botanicals and have age-old tradition with respect to the use of wild plants as food and medicine. Plants provide a real substitute for the primary health care systems in hills and valleys, and definitely going to serve as jewel for mankind in near future to come.

1. Introduction

India, as a party to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), has obliged to document a whole range of organism diversity within her territorial boundaries, make all attempts to conserve these bio-resources and monitor the efficacy of the conservation measures adopted. With its diverse ecological conditions and unique geographical location, Indian landmass supports rich diversity of algal flora. However, this algal wealth needs to be systematically surveyed and documented from all possible habitats. Ecological patterns emerged from recent studies within India are assessed with the identification of knowledge gaps and conservation implications in algal systematics.

During last one decade, great advances have been made in the field of Algology/Phycology throughout the world. Over the years algae has attained a greater reputation and popularity because of its economic importance, particularly as food, for commercial products, water contamination, toxin production, sewage oxidation, municipal water purification in fisheries and above all for the study of fundamental scientific information. But before the algae put in to such important use, it is imperative to have a baseline data about the material in question. Without knowing the status of algal resources of any area one cannot have projections for their utilization or gain knowledge of their ecological role and functions. The taxonomy of algae is, therefore, a prerequisite for all applied fields of algae apart from academic interest. Recent global surveys have revealed that there is lack of knowledge about fresh water algal diversity of tropical countries including India.

1. Introduction

The gymnosperms constitute a distinct subdivision of spermatophytes, the seed bearing plants. The term ‘gymnosperm’ is derived from Greek words, gymnos, naked and sperma, seed, which indicates that these are naked-seeded plants, i.e., those in which the seeds are not enclosed within the fruits but are borne freely exposed on an open carpel. In contrast in the angiosperms the seeds are enclosed within a closed carpel (ovary). The first known use of the term gymnosperm was given by Theophrastus in 300 BC in his book “Enquiry into Plants” to describe “plants with unprotected seeds”. Goebel (1905) rightly described gymnosperms as “Phanerogams without ovary”. The Scottish botanist, Robert Brown in 1825 first distinguished gymnosperms from angiosperms. At one time they were considered to be single class of seed plants, called Gymnospermae, but taxonomists are now tend to recognise four distinct divisions of extant gymnospermous plants - coniferophyta (Pinophyta), Cycadophyta, Ginkgophyta and Gnetophyta. Geological history reveals that all divisions of gymnosperms have been distinct groups since their origin.

Among the gymnosperms are plants with stems that may barely project above the ground and others develop into the largest trees on the earth. The extant gymnosperms are a small group of plants comprising ca. 1026 species belonging to 83 genera and 12 families (Christenhusz et al. 2011). They are distributed throughout the world, with extensive latitudinal and longitudinal ranges. Economically, gymnosperms are of outstanding value, fulfilling the greater proportion of our timber as well as resin requirements. They are also the dominant forest makers of the world and in addition they play a leading role in the preservation of the environment (Sahni 1990). By far the largest group of living gymnosperms is the conifers (pines, cypresses and relatives), followed by cycads and Gnetales (Gnetum, Ephedra and Welwitschia).

Glycosides are compounds containing a carbohydrate and a non carbohydrate residue in the same molecule. They are the complex polysaccharides which are chemically heterogeneous collection of substances, which have in common one property that the molecules are linked together and contain at least one sugar unit. The term glycoside represents a group of compound containing glucose and one or more basic or acidic organic compound in chemical combination. When the sugar other than glucose is present, it is called glycoside. Each sugar is linked through a glycosidic bond to either a non sugar component, aglycones, (aglycone or aglucone is the nonsugar molecule in glycosides).

Abstract: Snapdragon, a decorative ornamental, is used as model plant for genetic and biochemical study. These are popular flowering potted plants, bedding plants and cut flowers around the world due to their flowering floriferousness, wide range in flower colour, size, and shape with numerous phenotypes (Tall Giant/ Grandiflora, Super Giant, Dwarf, Semi-dwarf, Miniature, etc.) series (Butterfly, Rocket Hybrid, Sweet Heart, Pixie, etc.) and cultivars available in market. Hybrid seed production transformed the crop; continued domestication by flower breeders produced a wide range of flower colours and flower patterns. The increasing knowledge of the inheritance of traits and molecular genetics techniques are valuable tools aiding modern snapdragon breeders. Snapdragons are of the few floriculture crops which have genetic evolutionary race history, precise elucidation of taxonomic relationships between taxa, genomic maps, and advanced molecular genetics. In particular elucidation of the genes involved in control of floral development and in anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway has enabled precision in the creation of new flower colours or modification of floral symmetry and expression.

Keywords: Antirrhinum, taxonomy, flower shape, structural genes, molecular biology.

1. INTRODUCTION

Exotic means anything of foreign origin and something not of native growth. Exotic vegetables are those species introduced to a country or location. Broccoli, Brussels sprout, Knol- Khol, Red Cabbage, Lettuce, Asparagus, Baby Sweet Corn, Chive, Garden beet, Kale, Swiss chard, Parsley, Parsnip, Chinese cabbage and Leek are important exotic vegetables. These generally require cool temperature.

Due to increasing foreign culture and increasing living standards, the demand of exotic vegetables is continuously increasing in cosmopolitan cities and five star hotels. These are good in taste and have high nutritive value. Most of the exotic vegetables can be used in salad and soups. These crops are very remunerative.

In urban areas only few part time grower devote time to the production of exotic vegetable. Exotic vegetable farming is profitable venture that require little capital and become source of livelihood to the farmer. The increase in their output level and profit will contributing to food security in the country. About 50% world population living in the cities. The rapid urbanization poses new challenges for food security. It is hard for most of the cities in the developing countries to provide sufficient employment for rapid increasing population. Some district of Maharashtra like Pune, Nasik & Satara now growing exotic vegetables like asparagus and broccoli. Cherry tomato, leek, lettuce, red cabbage & baby corn are also important as exotic vegetables.

In HP cultivation of Exotic Vegetable like asparagus, broccoli, lettuce, leek, chinese cabbage, snow pea, and parsley start picking up in Theog, Matyana, Saproon Valley, Sirmour, Katrain, Manali, Narkanda & Sanj Valley. These vegetables are beneficial for health as they are rich in phyto-chemicals and neutraceuticals. India is endowed with a wide range of tropical, sub-tropical and temperate agroclimatic conditions, therefore almost all kinds of vegetable crops grown around the world can be cultivated in one or the other corner. There is a lot of potential for exotic vegetables for domestic and export market. Important one are:

1. INTRODUCTION AND IMPORTANCE

Flower arrangement is a very old art. In India, the flowers have been earlier arranged in temples and during festivities. The first rules of ikebana were laid down in Japan more than a thousand years ago. Flowers have been widely used for interior decoration, but they were cut from the garden and simply massed into water-filled containers to brighten the home. The beauty of the display relied upon the blooms themselves rather than the aesthetic appeal of the design. Even at homes and venues of festivals/functions/on auspicious occasions, flowers are used in a big way in the form of garlands, wall hangings, and floor decorations. Flower arrangements grace table tops, window sills, corners, fire places, and so on to suit the occasion.

Flower arrangement may be defined as the art of organizing and grouping together plant materials (flowers, foliage, fruits, twigs etc) to achieve harmony of form, colour and texture, thereby adding cheer, life and beauty to the surroundings.

Various types of arrangements are chosen, as appropriate to the area and occasion. Medium sized ‘round’ arrangements are often provided at the guest relations executives’ desk in the lobby and on coffee tables in the lounges. In most five-star hotels, one can see huge, spectacular arrangements in the loggies. Table arrangements for conferences must be low so that guests may see over them. At informal banquets, large arrangements may be seen. At wedding banquets, wall arrangements using gerberas are very popular, now a days. On special occasions and festivals, a large amount of flowers is required for making up various types of arrangements. The extent to which flowers are used in hotel interiors depends on the degree of luxury provided, the number of special functions held.

The housekeeper is responsible for all flower arrangements and their placement. Simple arrangements such as a bud in a vase can be done. Alternatively, flower arrangements may be provided on contract, in which case the arrangements are brought in and taken away at agreed times and little or no floral work is carried out on the premises. Arrangements like running water, containers, buckets, vases, scissors and flower pots are important.

1. FRUIT CROPS

1.1 Physiological Disorders

A wide variety of physiological disorders are found in apple fruit, but the susceptibility varies with variety, pre-harvest factors and post harvest conditions. Disorders can be considered in three categories:

1. Disorders that develop only on the tree: Most important is watercore in which intercellular air spaces in the core and cortical tissues become filled with liquid, Presence of watercore in fruit at harvest creates problems in certain varieties such as ‘Delicious’ because fruit with moderate or severe watercore can develop breakdown during storage.
2. Disorders that develop on the tree and during storage: Bitter pit is a disorder characterized by development of discrete pitting of the cortical flesh. Rapid cooling, CA storage and application of postharvest calcium drenches may be able to reduce its occurrence.
3. Disorders that develop during storage: Senescent breakdown disorders, chilling disorders and disorders associated with inappropriate atmospheres during storage are common disorders. The most common disorders associated with temperature and atmospheres are superficial scald, soft scald, low temperature breakdown, brown core, internal browning, low O2 injury, and high CO2 injury.

Importance

Ajwain is an important seed spice and is also useful for its medicinal values. It is a traditional potential herb for curing many ailments in human and animals. It is usually used as a digestive aid, relieves abdominal discomfort due to indigestion and antiseptic. The seeds of ajwain is bitter, pungent and contain 2-4.4% brown coloured oil known as ajwain oil. The main component of this oil is Thymol, which is used as gastrointestinal ailment, lack of appetite and bronchial problems. Thymol is also used in toothpaste and perfumery (Joshi, 2000). Seeds are also used for curing abdominal pains, abdominal tumors and piles (Krishnamoorty and Madalgeri, 1999). In southern parts of India dry ajwain seeds are powdered and soaked in milk, which is then filtered and fed to babies as it relieves colic in babies. It can be used as digestive mixture in large animals.

Pulses can be grouped into kharif and rabi pulses according to their temperature requirements. In India chick pea, pea, lentil and beans require relatively less temperature and are grown in rabi season, whereas others are confined to kharif season. However, kharif pulses can also be grown in pre-rabi on stored soil moisture or as irrigated crops in rabi and summer seasons.

Pulse crops have long tap root system which extracts soil moisture from deeper layers. Water uptake across the depth of rooting zone is not uniform. In general 40 per cent of the total water uptake occurs from first one fourth of the rooting zone, 30 per cent from the second, 20 per cent from the third and remaining 10 per cent from the last one-fourth region of total rooting depth (Nageshwararao and Writ, 1994). Plants often maintain higher root length densities than required in the surface layers to facilitate rapid uptake of recent rain/irrigation before it evaporates.

Pulse crops have a unique position in sustainable crop production as they provide proteinaceous food of high nutritive value and keep the soil alive and productive. India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses in the world which accounts for 32 per cent of global area and 28 per cent of world’s pulse production. But the yield levels of these pulse crops are not satisfactory as it is grown as a neglected crop. Besides, extensive damage caused by insect pests is another major constraint for low yield of pulse crops. On an average annually 2.5 to 3.0 million tonnes of pulses are lost (Rabindra et al., 2004) with a monetary value of nearly Rs.6,000 crores due to ravages of insect pest complex (Reddy, 2009 and Panda et al. 1998). About 250 insects have been recorded feeding on these pulse crops in different parts of India (Narang, 1990) of which maximum damage is caused by the pod borer complex along with some sucking pests and foliage feeders. Sap feeders viz., aphids, whitefly, leaf hopper, thrips ; defoliator viz., leaf roller, hairy caterpillars etc are major threats to the crop during vegetative stage whereas the pod borers and pod sucking bugs are of major concern during reproductive stage. About two dozen insect pests are very important and found occurring on one or the other pulse crop frequently causing variable degrees of damage. A list of the very common insect and mite pests infesting different pulse crops (Table 1) and the extent of loss caused by different insect pests to some important pulse crops documented by the IIPR, Kanpur (Table 2) are furnished below.

ABSTRACT

The Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) is a group of rhizosphere-colonizing bacteria producing substances which increase the growth of plants and/or protect plants against pathogens. The use of PGPR has become rather common practice and is on the rise in many regions of the world. Inoculation with PGPR also aims at reducing the application of potent ially pollut ing chemical fertilisers and pesticides. Biocont rol microorganisms have unquestionable potential for managing plant diseases, insect pests and nematodes besides increasing crop productivity. Interest in biological control has recently been intensified because of imminent bans on effective pesticides, widespread development of pesticide resistance in insect pests and plant pathogens and a general need for more sustainable pest control strategies. Active and long-term colonization of the root surface of the plant and effective expression of disease-suppressive traits are generally considered prerequisites for successful suppression of horticultural crop diseases by rhizobacteria. The important mechanism of biocontrol by PGPR involve competition and production of antibiotics such as 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol (DAPG), pyoluteorin (PLT), pyrrolnitrin, phenazine-1-carboxylic acid (PCA), 2^-hydroxy phenazines and phenazine-1-carboxamide (PCN). Siderophores, including pyochelin and pyoverdine which chelate iron and other metals also contribute to disease suppression by conferring a competitive advantage to biocontrol agents for the limited supply of essential trace minerals in natural habitats. Induced systemic resistance (ISR) is a state of increased defensive capacity developed by the plant when appropriately stimulated, through activation of latent resistance mechanisms induced by diverse agents including rhizobacteria. Microplants are first grown in vitro under aseptic conditions devoid of microorganisms. They are then transferred to a post vitrum substrate for acclimatization. By creating a beneficial rhizosphere in microplants at an early stage, the plants could be better protected against biotic and abiotic stress that occurs in the greenhouse or in the field. The beneficial rhizosphere can be created by biotization of microplants with PGPR. The search for PGPR to control postharvest decay of fruit crops has been actively pursued and promising strategies have been practiced nowadays. Biological control of postharvest diseases of perishable horticultural crops with PGPR is complex and involves a number of mechanisms to suppress the development of the disease. PGPR, being a potential candidate in disease management through multiple mode of action, it becomes highly imperative to know its different role in the management of plant pathogens.

2.0. Introduction

Before dealing with the various processes involved in the processing of fruit and vegetables or any food commodity on commercial scale, it is necessary to consider certain important factors such as investment, site, building, water supply, staff, labour etc. which are essential for the successful running of the food processing plant. Processing plant is the premises, buildings, structure and equipment used in the preparation, processing, handling, transportation and storage of any food commodity / fruits and vegetables / the processed products. The design and layout of the food processing plant is of great importance, besides other important factors. The food processing plant may be single storeyed or multi-storeyed depending upon capacity of production and viability of the plant e.g. if the production of the plant is assumed to be small and processing plant have to run only for short duration during the year then single storeyed processing plant can serve the purpose. Plant layout, product layout and process layout are the most important components for setting up of food processing industry and can determine the working efficiency of unit. Sanitary requirements in food processing plant are also important for marketing of the prepared product in national and international market. Sanitary requirement is as important in food processing plant as is the treatment of the effluent waste. For setting up of the food processing plant certain guidelines have been laid out by FPO, 1955.

Social research concentrates more on socio economic variables to find out effects of the events that take place in social system. The magnitude of variation in the variables assumes to bring variation on the effect. The variables relating to farmers of small farms are many and they are specific to farming system of the coastal ecosystem. Such variables were grouped under personal, social, economic, communication behaviour, marketing behaviour, farming behaviour and training. The sub variables under each heading were given in the following table.

6.1 Introduction

Torrefaction is a thermophilic process of biomass conversion into a solid, friable, homogenous coal-like material, which has better fuel characteristics than the original biomass. Torrefaction involves the heating of biomass material in the absence of air at 250 to 300°C temperature. Torrefaction produces high-grade hydrophobic nature solid biofuels from various streams of woody biomass or agro residues.Torrefied biomass has high energy density then the original biomass which make torrefied biomass as renewable alternate source for power generation in coal power plant. Torrefied biomass being hydrophobic in nature can be stored easily for longer duration with negligible biological degradation. At 250-300°C temperature volatilization has been taking place and around 30% mass of the biomass is reduced as compared to original untorrefied biomass with net energy loss of approximately around 10%.The end product is a predictable, homogeneous, hydrophobic, high value solid biofuel with far higher energy density and calorific value than the original biomass feedstock. During the torrefaction process a combustible gas is released, which can also utilised to provide heat to the process. The process diagram of torrefaction process is shown in Fig. 6.1.

As stated by Murashige’s definition, artificial seed (or synthetic/synseed) technology was initially restricted to species in which somatic embryogenesis was possible. Later, Bapat and co-workers (1987) proposed to broaden the technology to the encapsulation of various in vitro-derived propagules, and they used axillary buds of Morus indica as a first example of this new application. The new concept paved the way for the encapsulation of explants other than somatic embryos, and to the formulation of a new definition of artificial seeds (Aitken-Christie et al. 1995) as “artificially encapsulated somatic embryos, shoots, or other tissues which can be used for sowing under in vitro or ex vitro conditions”. In other words, the “new” artificial seed, lost the original bond of containing an embryo (zygotic or somatic), can now contain any kind of explant from tissue culture (such as axillary buds, shoot tips, nodal segments, bulblets, protocorms, callus samples, cells) which, following ‘germination’, will evolve into a plantlet or a shoot (artificial seed conversion) or will produce new cell proliferation (artificial seed regrowth).

Realization of synthetic seed technology requires manipulation of in vitro culture system for large-scale production of viable materials for preparation of synthetic seed, subsequently conversion into complete plants under in vitro as well as in vivo conditions. Somatic and gametic embryogenesis that enhanced axillary bud proliferation are the efficient techniques for rapid and large-scale multiplication of desirable plant species. Plant tissues such as somatic embryos, apical shoot tips, axillary shoot buds, embryogenic calli, and protocom-like bodies are potential micropropagules that have been considered for creating synthetic seeds. Encapsulations of somatic embryos, apical and axillary shoot buds, and regeneration of whole plants from them have been reported for a number of plant species (Redenbaug et al., 1986; Mathur et al., 1989; Ganapathi et al., 1992; Lulsdorf et al., 1993).

Plant tissue culture is mainly referred to as mass-multiplication of in vitro derived plantlets grown under controlled environment. Subsequently, the production of artificial seeds from in vitro grown plant propagules is also a method of mass-production of true-to-type plantlets. Micropropagation allows rapid and mass production of high quality, disease free and uniform planting material irrespective of the season and weather. Micro-shoots on being transferred to ex vitro conditions are exposed to abiotic (altered temperature, light intensity and humidity conditions) and biotic stress conditions i.e. soil micro-flora, so there is need for acclimatization for successful establishment and survival of plantlets (Deb and Imchen, 2010). In order to increase growth and reduce mortality in plantlets at the acclimatisation stage, research has been focused on the control of the environmental conditions (both physical and chemical) and to acclimatize the plants to compete with soil microflora (Mathur et al., 2008). In this chapter methods of acclimatization of plantlets derived from simple plant tissue culture or from synthetic seeds are discussed.

Nutritional significance of tannins in feeds and fodders

Tannins are widely distributed in many types of browse plants, tree leaves, forages and feed ingredients. The structure of tannins are not completely well defined but they are polymers of phenolic and aliphatic hydroxy compounds. Although tannins and related polyphenols are considered as protein binders and, protease and cellulolytic inhibitors, they can also exert beneficial effects on rumen fermentation. There are two forms of tannins viz., hydrolysable and condensed. Hydrolysable tannins are considered to have less deleterious effects on protein digestion since these types of tannins might get hydrolysed under acidic gastric condition and release bound proteins. Attempts have been made to utilize this to advantage in protection of proteins from rumen degradation.The condensed tannins are resistant to hydrolytic degradation. The reduction in digestibility due to condensed tannins is not clear whether it is due to specific interference with cellulases or precipitation of proteins.

Certain feed ingredients have been incorporated as a source of tannins, in the diets of ruminants to benefit ruminal fermentation and performance. Inclusion of Bengal gram husk as a source of tannins in the diet of sheep prevented potentially digestible carbohydrate in the rumen, but digested post ruminally (Sreerangaraju et al., 2000).

3.1 Chemistry of greenhouse gases (ghgs)

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are atmospheric-gases that have capabilities to absorb and radiate-back the infrared (IR) radiation in the earth-atmosphere system (Figure 3.1). In this process the atmospheric-gases absorb and radiate- back IR radiation in lower atmosphere effectively emitting and absorbing heat energy heat energy. They maintain the heat budget of earth-atmosphere and keep our plant warm. If we typically see the chemistry of those gases, the key point is that they should have dipole moments. This is the property which makes them capable to absorb and radiate-back the range of IR radiation. In a molecule when valence-electrons are not equally shared in a bond between the two atoms, a slight positive charge is developed above one atom and a negative charge on the other atom. That charge difference of the different atoms in a molecule generates the dipole moment. For instance, in water vapour (H₂O- vapour), an unequal sharing of electrons and or separation of charge causes dipole moment. In H₂O, the centre has a positive charge at the hydrogen atoms and negative charges are located on the oxygen atom. The magnitude of dipole- charges, vibration and stretching of O-H bond generates certain frequency of the oscillating dipole moment that actually regulates the absorption capacity of IR radiation by H₂O vapour.

Genetics forms the basis of human life. All individuals have a physical and physiological self, determined by the interactions of genes and environment. Pharmacogenetics is the connotation used to study how heritability affects an individual’s response to drugs.494 The term ‘Pharmacogenomics’ represents systematic identification of all human genes, their products, interindividual variation and intraindividual variation in expression and function over time. It focuses on candidate genes and may include transcriptome and proteome information that affect drug metabolism, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics. It helps in predicting the patient’s response to a drug and to design new drugs495. Pharmacogenetics is study of single genes and the effects on drug response while pharmacogenomics is related to overall variation in genome. A gene is considered polymorphic when a mutation appears in more than 1% population, which may be present in the form of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), simple sequence length polymorphism (SSLP) and nucleotide addition or deletion. After the Human Genome Project, study in this field is accelerated dramatically. It was found that out of 1.4 million SNPs identified in the human genome, over 60,000 are present in the coding region496. These SNPs lead to miscoding of the various proteins that plays crucial role in the biological processes. If a point mutation is present in the gene coding region for various drug-metabolizing enzymes, drug target and drug transporters, it can lead to many non-therapeutic and unpredictable drug responses. In United States, over two million people suffer from severe adverse drug reactions per year and about 100,000 cases are life threatening497.

Introduction

Food is an important contributor to human well being and is essential for sustaining life. From this point of view food is expected to contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, protein fat, vitamins and other essential minerals which support life. The food production initially started for individual sustenance which slowly developed in to a community requirement necessitating the involvement of man and machinery for various activities concerned with food. The progress from famine in many parts of the world to the level of self-sufficiency and the role of science and agriculture have been absolutely significant in many parts of the world. India is no exception and the green revolution during the post 1960s and the succeeding blue and white revolution ensured the self-sufficiency in India.

Of late food acts as a vehicle for inclusion of hazard in food meant for human consumption. According to Grunert (2005), factors responsible for the alarmingly higher rate of concern by public include significantly higher number of food scares in public domain, critical understanding of production and processing of certain food products sold in the market as well as the diversified food choices of the consumers in different parts of the world. Besides, the increased awareness of the consumers on food related health issues also have its share in the increased concern on food at large.

Presently food is considered as a commodity which crosses international border concurrent with the human movement and hence quality has become a major concern. The traditional food is getting replaced with value added products, particularly ready to cook, ready to eat, partially cooked products, etc. consequent to life style changes. In order to meet the demand of the trade, the conventional processing is getting replaced by community processing or industrial processing with increased number of players in the primary production, processing, transportation and other value chain activities prompting larger product control. In the process, consumers are exposed to a variety of products produced as business ventures in modern food production systems needing efficient quality control and quality assurance to tackle the issues of quality. The increased incidence of hazards in both raw materials and final products consequent to the absence or inappropriate production schedule calls for increased food safety concerns. Besides the shelf-life of the products, addition of chemicals during the production also add to the concern.

During the latter part of the 20^th century, rapid economic development in most countries coupled with population growth propelled the inevitable demand for more food and manufactured goods. However, requirement of more food is placing unprecedented demands on agriculture and natural resources. Humans have made agriculture the dominant environmental threat by clearing forests, cultivating marginal lands, and intensifying farming in sensitive landscapes and watersheds. Most of the land use systems in the tropics are characterized by a rapid decline in productivity and high rates of soil and environmental degradation which need to be addressed in a proper way.

Agriculture has changed radically since the end of World War II. Productivity of most crops has scaled to new levels because of the adoption of new technologies, machines, increased chemical inputs, and government policies. However, continuing agricultural production without harming the environment is a challenge, which must be tackled along with economic growth. Some of the environmental issues related to agriculture are top soil loss, groundwater contamination, air pollution, greenhouse gas emission, decline of family farms neglect of the working conditions of farm labourers, new threats to human health and safety by the spread of new pathogens, economic concentration in food and agricultural industries, and disintegration of rural communities (Brodt et al, 2011). This situation prompted world nations, political leaders, scientists and planners to pay more attention to the concept of sustainable development. As a concept, sustainability is concerned with the continuity of environmental economic, and social aspects of human society.

Introduction

The green revolution which initiated in India during 1960’s to 1980’s was an attempt to overcome the then prevailing threats of food scarcity and lack of foreign exchange. The food scarcity was a result of severe drought which engulfed the country as well as the political situation it had to face after its short period of gaining independence (Reddy, 2010). The only way out to overcome the acute food scarcity was intensive agriculture, with the use of high yielding varieties, chemical fertilisers and pesticides which heavily boosted agriculture production in India. The remarkable increase in production and productivity resulted in non-judicious use of chemical inputs to extract the maximum from the degrading soil. This marked the era of soil, water and air pollution and extreme health hazards to all life forms.

Rachel Carson’s “Silent spring” in 1962 was an insight into the path of DDT the then prevalent pesticide through its effect on the food chain as well as the environment. She was one among the scientists to raise her voice against the indiscriminate use of pesticides. The evident impacts raised concerns over the continued use of chemical inputs (Lairon, 2010). The situation warranted the reduced or limited use of chemicals in agriculture which resulted in an “organic movement”. This caused a slow, but evident shift in the interest of growers and consumers towards organic agriculture for health security, food safety, quality and better returns (Niggli et al., 2007).

This review is an attempt to analyse the various factors affecting the safety and quality of organic food products in comparison with conventional food. Drawing a proper conclusion was a difficult task due to the limited availability of scientific papers published in this aspect, indication of only trends rather than solid proofs and non-revelation of non-significant data regarding related experiments. However, this review could evaluate the positive and negative aspects of organic cultivation and food production from the available data, so as to suggest measures for improving the quality and safety of organic food products.

Number of individuals in a population increase under favourable environmental conditions. Sudden or violent changes in the environment or in the biological characteristics of the individual could lead to decline. Fluctuation in the population is usually because of the effect of a combination of several factors responsible for their survival, growth and reproduction. It is necessary to understand the cause of such fluctuations for better scientific management of the population as well as the habitat (Acharya, 2000). In most of the studies, community has largely been expressed in terms of species richness, abundance, density and diversity. All these have been used as indicators of habitat quality, because an increase in the value of the component is generally thought to reflect larger amounts of the necessary resources to sustain larger population within a given area. Moreover, it is believed that if the factors determining the distribution of the animals are known, predictions can be made concerning the responses of animals to specific perturbations and hence, such animals can be used to monitor environment quality (Gokula, 1998).

Introduction

Rice is the staple food for over half the world’s population. China and India alone account for ~50% of the rice grown and consumed. Rice provides up to 50% of the dietary caloric supply for millions living in poverty in Asia and is, therefore, critical for food security. Globally, share of Asia continent in rice production is more than 90% followed by America (5.2%), Africa (3.4%) and Europe (0.6%). It is becoming an important food staple in both Latin America and Africa. Record increases in rice production have been observed since the start of the ‘Green Revolution’. However, rice remains one of the most protected food commodities in world trade. Rice is a poor source of vitamins and minerals, and losses occur during the milling process. Populations that subsist on rice are at high risk of vitamin and mineral deficiency.

The Indian population of 1.32 billion is projected to reach 1.53 billion by 2030 A.D. Goyal and Singh (2002) estimated a demand of 146 million tonnes of rice (taken as 50% of total cereals) by the year 2030. On the other end of the scale, 3^rd projection puts rice demand to be 156 million tonnes by 2030 (ICAR, 2010). To meet this, it is immensely necessary to increase the productivity levels without adversely affecting the natural resource base. Achievement of the targeted production would be an uphill task in the coming decades with the shrinking natural resource base, deteriorating soil health and soil productivity, declining input use efficiency, plateauing of yields in irrigated ecologies and lack of a major yield breakthrough in rainfed ecologies. Further, slowdown in the growth rate of cereal production and growing population pressure have emerged as formidable challenges for the future food and nutritional security in India. These challenges will be more extreme under emerging situations of natural resource degradation, high energy demands, volatile markets and risks associated with global climate change (Jat et al., 2016; Lal, 2016). Since, rice is the staple food for our country’s food security primarily depends on this wonderful crop. Globally rice is cultivated now in 167 million ha with annual production of around 769 million tonnes (499.3 million tonnes, milled rice) of rough rice and average productivity of 4.6 tonnes/ha (3.62 t/ha, milled rice) of rough rice (FAO STAT, 2017). In Asian countries, >90% of the rice is produced and consumed. The other continents in which rice is grown are Africa (7.78% of the global area), South America (6.4%) and North America (1.4%).

Introduction

It is already established that mathematical modeling aims to describe the different aspects of the real world, their interaction, and their dynamics through mathematics. It constitutes the third pillar of science and engineering, achieving the fulfillment of the two more traditional disciplines, which are theoretical analysis and experimentation. Nowadays, mathematical modeling has a key role also in aquaculture. The problem is the complex modeling other than counting. Modeling and reasoning with data of different kinds can get extremely complex. Data streams are common source of Big Data. Now the task is to collect, prepare, represent, model, reason, visualize and additional issues like usage, quality, context, streaming, scalability. A few publications are available on modeling of fisheries and aquaculture in Indian context with live examples of modeling (Roy, et al. 1998, 2002, Roy et al., 2002, Ghosh et al., 2017, Roy, et al., 2006, Roy et al., 2008, 2012). A book on exclusively with various types of model applicable in fisheries and aquaculture has been published (Roy et al., 2009). In all these earlier publications conventional statistical and econometrics techniques are applied. But today there is sea change in this field with the advancement of technologies like artificial intelligence, machine learning, and big data analytics. There are attempts to apply these cutting edge technologies aiming sustainable productivity through efficient management of resources. In the following sections an attempt has been made to present an overview of the advances in analytics along with a briefing on what was developed in the past, and what is available today. Before proceeding to the analytics, I am presenting the scenario of basic characteristics of data along with different types of data generated today with automation of aquaculture industry.

Introduction

Arid Horticulture denotes cultivation of fruits and vegetables under dry and arid regions. Arid region in India is stretched over 39.54 million ha (31.71 million ha is under hot arid region and 7.38 million ha under cold arid region) comprising about 12.02% of the total area of the country. Most of the precipitation in north-western arid region takes place from July to September. Occasional frost has also been a grave issue for horticultural crops, especially, aonla and moringa (Dhandar and Saroj, 2004). The region is exemplified by low and erratic rainfall with extremes of temperature (1–48°C), high wind velocity and sandy soils (Bhandari et al. 2014). Growing of annual crops restricted only a particular season of the year is the merely source of livelihood for the inhabitant of these region. These crops often encounter abiotic stresses like drought, hot and desiccating winds during their growth period leading to poor productivity. These regions have tremendous potential for cultivation of perennial fruit trees.