eBook Chapters

Introduction

Energy is the major source required to maintain the structure and function of all living cells. This energy is derived from oxidation of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins that is taken in the form of diet. The energy liberated from the process of oxidation is generally captured in the form of ATP, which is known as energy currency of the living cells. Each gram of carbohydrate and protein gives about 4 Kcal on oxidation, while each gram of fat gives about 9 Kcal. Oxidation means addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen from a compound or removal of electron from an ion or atom increasing its positive charge. Reduction means removal of oxygen or addition of hydrogen to a compound or addition of electron to an ion or atom decreasing its positive charge. Commonly the oxidation reactions are conjugated with reduction reactions and known as redox reactions. Redox reactions are often associated with release of energy. The redox chain constitutes chain of different compounds of increasing redox potentials between hydrogen and oxygen. The living cells depend on redox reactions for their energy requirements. The reactions start by removal of H2 from the substrate, which is then transferred to different components of redox chain, then finally to oxygen to form water. Components of redox chains have a redox potential higher than hydrogen and lower than oxygen.

Introduction

Biochemistry of blood is extremely complex. It plays vital role in maintaining homeostasis with in the body. Blood is a specialized connective tissue which is a fluid that circulates all through the body in cardio vascular system. Blood consists of 55 per cent of plasma and 45 per cent of cellular components.

Plasma: A straw coloured liquid component of blood. Understanding the chemical basis of plasma is very crucial for diagnosis and treating various conditions. The compositional breakdown of plasma can be put forth as 90-92 % of water that acts as transport medium for the remaining 8-10 % of the solutes. Solutes further can be classified as electrolytes (salts), proteins, Lipids, other nutrients and waste products.

Plasma electrolytes: These are the minerals found in the blood that are electrically charged. Their role is very crucial in lot of physiological activities like

• Maintaining the balance of fluids interior and exterior to the cells.

• Carries electrical signals all through the body

• Helps in contraction of muscles

• Regulates blood pressure

Introduction

Carbohydrates, the aldehyde/ ketone derivatives of the higher polyhydric alcohols, or compounds that yield these derivatives on hydrolysis, constitute of mainly four groups viz. monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. Energy comes mostly from carbohydrates, and products of their degradation are also used for the synthesis of other substances including fatty acids, cholesterol, amino acids etc They are also components of compound lipids, conjugated proteins, and some of their derivatives can even function as medications (e.g., cardiac glycosides, etc). Disorders such as glycogen storage disorders (GSDs) and galactosemia can be brought on by an inherited lack of certain enzymes in the metabolic pathways of various carbohydrates. Diabetes mellitus is characterized by disruption of the metabolism of glucose.

In ruminants, the end products of digestion are largely volatile fatty acids viz. acetic acid, propionic acid and butyric acid and some monosaccharides. As they pass through the ruminal epithelium, they undergo different degrees of metabolism. The fate of volatile fatty acids are as follows: Acetate as precursor to Acetyl CoA (TCA cycle; fat synthesis); Propionate as precursor to glucose (glycolysis; milk lactose) and Butyrate as precursor to Acetyl CoA (TCA cycle). All the digested and absorbed monosaccharides and volatile fatty acids enter into the liver, where two mechanisms operate such as withdrawal of carbohydrates from blood (e.g. glycogenesis; glycolysis etc) and release of glucose by liver to blood (e.g. glycogenolysis; gluconeogenesis etc). In case of monogastrics, the processes of digestion/ fermentation of carbohydrates especially occur in the small intestine. The fate of absorbed glucose and metabolic conversions in the animal body mainly comprise of storage as glycogen in liver and muscle (small amount); oxidation of glucose for providing energy (via Glycolysis pathway; other alternative pathways such as Hexose Monophosphate Pathway (HMP)/ HMP Shunt and Uronic acid pathway etc) and fat synthesis as well as storage in the form of fat in adipose tissue.

Introduction

Carbohydrates are essential organic biomolecules/macromolecules composed of carbon c., hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms, typically in a 1:2:1 ratio. They are one of the four major classes of biomolecules, alongside proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates play critical roles in energy storage, structural integrity and cell signaling. Carbohydrates with an aldehyde as their functional group are called Aldoses. Those with keto as a functional group are called Ketoses.

Classification of Carbohydrates: They are broadly classified into three major groups:

1. Monosaccharides: The simplest form of carbohydrates, consisting of a single sugar unit. They cannot be hydrolyzed to yield simpler forms of sugar. They can be subdivided into trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses, heptoses and octoses etc., depending upon the number of carbon atoms they possess. Important monosaccharides are:

• Glycerose / Glyceraldehyde (Aldotriose): Glyceraldehyde 6-phosphate is an intermediate in Glycolysis.

• Ribose (Aldopentose): found in Nucleic acids.

• Glucose (Aldohexose): The primary energy source for cells, known as blood sugar.

• Fructose (Ketohexose): Found in fruits (fruit sugar), a major component of sucrose.

• Galactose (Aldohexose): Known as brain sugar. It is a part of lactose sugar.

Introduction

Energy metabolism is the complex process by which living organisms convert nutrients into energy for survival, growth, and reproduction. It involves a series of interconnected biochemical reactions that occur within cells.

Key Components of Energy Metabolism

• Catabolism: The breakdown of complex molecules (carbohydrates, proteins, and fats) into simpler ones, releasing energy.

• Anabolism: The synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones, requiring energy input.

• ATP: The primary energy currency of cells, used to power various cellular processes.

• Enzymes: Catalysts that facilitate metabolic reactions.

Introduction

All enzymes are proteins, except a tiny subset of catalytic RNA molecules. Most of the classical metabolic enzymes are named by adding the suffix -ase to the name of their substrates or to a descriptive term for the reactions they catalyze. For example, urease has urea as a substrate. Alcohol dehydrogenase catalyzes the removal of hydrogen from alcohols (i.e., the oxidation of alcohols). A committee of the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (IUBMB maintains a classification scheme that categorizes enzymes according to the general class of organic chemical reaction that is catalyzed The six classes are Oxidoreductases, Transferases, Hydrolases, Lyases, Isomerases, and Ligases.

The integrity of their natural protein structure is necessary for their catalytic activity. Catalytic activity is typically lost when an enzyme denatures or dissociates into its constituent subunits. An enzyme’s catalytic activity is always eliminated when it is disassembled into its constituent amino acids. Thus, the catalytic activity of protein enzymes depends on their primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures. Aside from their amino acid residues, certain enzymes don’t need any other chemical groups to function. Others need a cofactor, which is an extra chemical element. Cofactors can be complex organic or metalloorganic molecules called coenzymes, or they can be one or more inorganic ions like Fe2+, Mg2+, Mn2+, or Zn2+.

Introduction

Most glands of the body deliver their secretions by means of ducts. These are called exocrine glands. There are few glands that produce chemical substance that they directly secrete into the blood stream for transmission to various target tissues. These are ductless or endocrine glands. The secretions of endocrine glands are called as hormones. Therefore, it is a chemical substance which is produced in one part of the body, enters the circulation and is carried to distant target organs and tissues to modify their structures and functions. Hormones are stimulating substances and act as body catalysts. The hormones catalyze and control diverse metabolic processes. Despite their varying actions and different specificity’s depending on the target organ, the hormones have several characteristics in common with enzymes. They act as body catalysts resembling enzymes in some aspect. They are required only in small quantities. They are not used up during the reaction. They differ from enzymes because they are produced in an organ other than that in which they ultimately perform their action. The major hormone secreting glands are as follows— Pituitary, Thyroid, Parathyroid, Adrenal, Pancreas, Ovaries and Testes. The hormones are classified into following main classes according to the chemical structures:

The synthesis of humic substances is the least understood and the most intriguing aspect of humus chemistry. This has been one of the intensely- researched subjects for a long time. Formation of humic substances takes several pathways during the decay of plant and animal remains in soil and the four important ones are shown in Fig. 8.1.

Fig. 8.1: Mechanisms for the formation of soil humic substances

The classical theory by Waksman advocated humic substances as modified lignins (Pathway 1), but a vast majority of current crop of investigators favour a mechanism involving quinones (Pathways 2 and 3). Including sugar-amine condensation pathway (Pathway 4), all the four pathways must be considered as likely mechanisms for the synthesis of humic and fulvic acids in nature. It is absolutely possible that these four pathways may operate in all soils, though not to the same extent or in the same order of importance. 

Introduction

Lipids (dietary or body reserve) serves as the major source of energy for the body at the time of carbohydrate depletion. Triacyl glycerol (TG) forms the major part of lipids alongwith phospholipids, cholesterol and fat-soluble vitamins. The different forms of lipids are utilised by the body for generation of energy in the form of ATP. In addition, it serves as the source of essential fattyacids and vitamins for different metabolic purpose.

Dietary triacylglycerols (TG) are digested by lipase group of enzymes (lingual, gastric, pancreatic and intestinal) secreted by the digestive tract into free fatty acids and 2-monoacylglycerols. The 2-monoacylglycerols are either absorbed as such or hydrolysed into glycerol and fatty acids which are then absorbed independently. The glycerol and fatty acids are distributed to different tissues through circulation and utilised in the following ways

i. Storage in fat cells of adipose tissue in the form of triacylglycerols.

ii. Oxidised in peripheral tissues for production of energy.

iii. converted to glucose in hepatic cells in the process of gluconeogenesis.

iv. Synthesis of other derived compounds like steroids and eicosanoids in gonadal and other tissues

v. Synthesis of phospholipids and cholesteryl esters.

Introduction

Lipids may be regarded as organic substances relatively insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents (chloroform, ether, benzene, ethanol and other non-polar solvents, etc.), actually or potentially related to fatty acids and utilized by living cells. Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic or amphipathic biomolecules that play crucial roles in energy storage, cell membrane structure, and signaling. Unlike carbohydrates and proteins, lipids are not defined by a specific polymer structure but rather by their solubility in non-polar solvents. Broadly lipids are classified based on their function as ‘Storage lipids’ and ‘Structural lipids’. Some of them are co-factors, hormones, electron carriers, light-absorbing pigments and hydrophobic anchors of proteins.

Fatty Acids: Fatty acids are straight aliphatic chains with a methyl group at one end and a carboxyl group (-COOH) at the other end. They are the simplest form of lipids.

• Saturated Fatty Acids have no double bonds between carbon atoms, leading to straight chains (e.g., palmitic acid).

• Unsaturated Fatty Acids contain one or more double bonds, causing kinks in the chain (e.g., oleic acid). Fatty acids containing more than one double bond (polyunsaturated fatty acids/PUFA) are found in relatively minor amounts.

Introduction

According to the body needs, minerals may be divided into 2 groups like macrominerals and microminerals. Macrominerals are required in amounts greater than 100 mg/day. They include 6 elements like calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium and chloride. Whereas microminerals are also known as trace elements and are required in amounts less than 100 mg/day. They include 10 elements like chromium, cobalt, copper, fluoride, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, zinc and silicon. Some minerals are always required since small amounts of inorganic salts are always excreted Fruits, vegetables and cereals are the chief sources of the mineral elements in the diet. Milk products supply the majority of the calcium and phosphorus in the diet.

Milk and milk products are the richest source of calcium along with beans, leafy vegetables and egg yolk. It is absorbed from upper small intestine. Absorption of calcium is active process and requires calcium binding protein present in the intestinal mucosal cells. The absorption is regulated by vitamin D, parathyroid hormone, high protein diet, pH, high dietary lactate and citrate are the factors that promotes calcium absorption. Whereas high dietary phosphate, alkalinity and impaired fat absorption are the factors that inhibits calcium absorption. Of the total body calcium, 99 % present in bones and teeth in the form of hydroxyapatite and 1 % is present in body fluids and other tissues. Calcium in bones acts as a reservoir, which helps to stabilize calcium ions in plasma and extracellular f luid Parathyroid hormone and active vitamin D stimulate osteoblasts while estrogen hormone inhibits osteoclasts.

Introduction

A pentose sugar, one or more phosphate groups, and a nitrogenous base (purine or pyrimidine) make up a nucleotide. Phosphodiester bonds, which connect the 5’-hydroxyl group of one pentose to the 3’-hydroxyl group of the next, bind nucleic acids together as polymers of nucleotides. RNA and DNA are the two different forms of nucleic acids. RNA nucleotides contain ribose, while uracil and cytosine are typical pyrimidine bases. Thymine and cytosine are common pyrimidine bases, and DNA contains 2’-deoxyribose in its nucleotides. In both RNA and DNA, adenine and guanine are the main purines. There is ample evidence to suggest that genetic information is encoded in DNA The Avery MacLeod-McCarty experiment, in particular, demonstrated how DNA obtained from one bacterial strain may infiltrate and change the cells of another strain, giving it some of the genes from the donor. The Hershey-Chase experiment demonstrated that a bacterial virus’s DNA contains the genetic instructions needed for the virus to replicate in a host cell, but not its protein coat. Watson and Crick proposed that native DNA is made up of two antiparallel chains arranged in a right-handed double helical configuration based on a compilation of numerous published data points. A-T and G-C, two complementary base pairs, are created by hydrogen bonds inside the helix. 10.5 base pairs are stacked per turn, perpendicular to the double helix’s long axis, at a distance of 3.4 Å. There are various structural configurations for DNA A- and Z-DNA are two variants of the Watson-Crick form or B-DNA The DNA molecule bends as a result of certain sequence-dependent structural differences.

Introduction

Protein metabolism is a complex and multifaceted process that plays a crucial role in the overall health and function of living organisms. At the most fundamental level, protein metabolism involves the synthesis, breakdown, and utilization of proteins, which are essential macromolecules that serve a wide range of structural, functional, and regulatory roles within the body.

The process of protein synthesis, or translation, begins with the transcription of genetic information stored in DNA into messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules. These mRNA molecules then serve as templates for the assembly of specific sequences of amino acids into polypeptide chains, which ultimately fold into the three-dimensional structures of functional proteins. This highly regulated process is essential for the production of the diverse array of proteins required for cellular processes, tissue repair, immune function, and numerous other physiological activities. In contrast, protein degradation, or catabolism, refers to the breakdown of proteins into their constituent amino acids. This process is mediated by various proteolytic enzymes, such as endopeptidases, exopeptidases, and dipeptidases, which cleave the peptide bonds that hold the amino acid residues together Protein degradation serves important functions, such as the recycling of amino acids for energy production or the synthesis of new proteins, the removal of damaged or misfolded proteins, and the regulation of cellular signaling pathways.

Introduction

Proteins are complex biomolecules composed of amino acids, playing crucial roles in virtually all biological processes. They serve as enzymes, hormones, structural components, signaling molecules etc.

Structure/ Levels of Organization of Proteins

Generally, Proteins are polymers of L-alpha amino acids, linked by peptide bonds. The sequence and structure of these amino acids determine the protein’s function. Protein structure is hierarchically organized into four levels:

1. Primary Structure

• The linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain, determined by the genetic code.

2. Secondary Structure

• Local folding of the polypeptide chain into structures such as α-helices and β-pleated sheets, stabilized by hydrogen bonds.

Introduction

Human and animal body comprises of various tissues that are the functional unit of organ functioning and coordination. The tissues are further consisting of well differentiated cells that makes the tissue to behave in a special way for a particular purpose. The animal tissues are divided into epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous tissues. Epithelial tissues form the protective covering and inner lining of the body and organs. Connective tissues develop from the mesodermal cells of the embryo. they support and bind other tissues in the body. The muscular tissue develops from the mesoderm of the embryo and meant for movement and locomotion. Nervous tissue makes up the peripheral and the central nervous system and is responsible for initiation and transmission the nerve impulse. The tissues are biochemically composed of water, lipid, protein, ash, and carbohydrate along with other mineral and vitamins that are needed for its basic functioning. The extracellular matrix (ECM) forms a major component of connective tissue that forms layer and surrounds the cells or tissues meant for protection, signalling and communication. The protein component of ECM basically includes collagen, elastin, keratins, fibrillin, fibronectin, laminin and proteoglycans. Collagen is the major protein component of connective tissue that provides tensile strength, shape and fixes the organ in its position. Collagen is not homogenous rather consists of around 19 different types of proteins. There are around 30 variants of protein found in collagen. collagens type I and type II are respectively found in skin and bone. Collagen is triple helical polymer of highly elongated fibrils consisting of around 1000 amino acids majority of which consists of glycine along with proline and hydroxyproline. The forces like hydrogen bonds, covalent bonds, electrostatic, hydrophobic, and van der Waals are responsible for stabilizing the structure of collagen.

Introduction

Vitamins are the organic derived accessory food factors apart from carbohydrate, lipid and proteins meant for specific biological functions, optimum growth and health of an organism. These factors are are required in minute amount in the diet for proper functioning of biological enzymes. The term accessory factors were given by Hopkins to the essential nutrients present in the natural foods. Funk (1913) coined the term vitamine to the active principal present in rice polishings. Vitamins are classified into two categories like fat soluble A and water-soluble b Vitamins A, D, E, K are fat soluble whereas Vitamins B and C are water soluble. The B group of vitamins include vitamin B1, B2, B6, biotin folic acid, B12 etcall the fat-soluble vitamins are isoprenoid in nature consisting of repeating isoprenoid units. And meant for diversified functions. The water-soluble vitamins are heterogenous group of compounds generally not stored in the body and readily excreted in urine. These are mostly act as coenzymes for the vital biological enzymes deficiency of which reflects in the form of various deceases.

Vitamin A, include retinoid group of compounds like retinol, retinal and retinoic acid Retinol is a primary alcohol containing β-ionone ring with isoprenoid units, double bonds and hydroxyl group. Naturally it exists as ester of long chain fatty acids. Retinal is the aldehyde form whereas Retinoic acid is the acid form. Carotene is provitamin A normally found in plant origin foods that in the intestine gives rise to two moles of retinal by enzyme carotene 15-15-dioxygenase. Diet contains retinol esters and p-carotene. Retinol esters are hydrolyzed into fatty acids and retinol that absorbed into intestinal mucosal cells. p-carotene Is absorbed and converted into retinal by p-carotene dioxygenase. Retinal then converted into retinol. In the intestinal mucosal cells, retinol re-esterifies with fatty acid to form retinol ester.

15.1 Introduction

Color of food is the most sensitive part of any commodity as it is the one of the organoleptic characteristic to be noticed and one of the main ways of visually assessing a food before it is consumed. The people associate certain colors with certain flavors and the color of food can influence the perceived flavor in anything from confectionary to beverages. For this reason, food manufacturers add dyes to their products. Sometimes the aim is to simulate a color that is perceived by the consumer as natural, such as adding red coloring to glace cherries, but sometimes it is for effect, like the green ketchup that was launched by Heinz in 2000. If the flavor of a food product is inconsistent with the color, the flavor can often be perceived incorrectly, for example an orange flavored drink colored green could be perceived to taste of lime. In addition, the color of a food substance is important indicator of its freshness. While all of us are aware that food with bright or unnatural colors likely contains food coloring but only few people know that natural foods such as oranges and salmon are sometimes also dyed to mask natural variations in color. The color variation in foods throughout the seasons and the effects of processing and storage often make color addition commercially advantageous to maintain the color expected or preferred by the consumer. Some of the primary reasons include:

For many soil borne diseases, effective and economic control methods are not available. Several soil borne pathogens have developed resistance to many fungicides. The beneficial microbes are also affected by fungicides. Many fungicides pose health hazards by polluting food and water and cause direct toxicity of heavy metals and carcinogenic risk. In the context of growing worldwide awareness of environmental pollution and development of fungicide resistant strains of pathogens, biological method of suppression of disease causing organisms have been recognized as the safest approach for plant disease management.

Biological control of plant diseases is the suppression of populations of plant pathogens by living organisms. Amongst beneficial microorganisms, isolates can be selected which are highly effective against pathogens and can be multiplied on artificial media. Application of such selected and mass produced antagonists in high densities once or several times during a growing season is called “augmentative biological control”.

Bioconversion refers to the recycling and reprocessing of organic waste materials using the system of biological decomposition or biodegradation into value added products. Composting is one way of conversion of organic waste into manures. It is defined as a method of solid waste management whereby the organic component of the solid waste stream is biologically decomposed under controlled conditions to a state in which it can be handled, stored or applied to the land without adversely affecting the environment.

Composting provides a partial solution to an issue of great concern in many communities. All around the world, landfills are filling up, garbage incineration is becoming increasingly unpopular, and other waste disposal options are becoming ever harder to find. Composting provides a way not only of reducing the amount of waste that needs to be disposed of, but also of converting it into a product that is useful for agriculture. Composting reduces waste, makes us less dependent on landfills, and decreases greenhouse gas emissions. Composting recycles essential nutrients back into the soil and promotes a prolific soil ecosystem.

Abstract

With increasing population and subsequent human requirements; the generation of municipal solid waste (MSW) has increased all over the world. In India, the safe disposal of the municipal solid waste still remaines a problem for the authorities concerned. Depending upon the nature and type of the MSW, there are physical and chemical methods for the disposal of the waste, but these methods have their own limitations. Those limitations may be overcome by biological methods. Higher number of microorganisms are present in MSW which may either be pathogenic or nonpathogenic. These microorganisms may play a vital role in bioconversion of MSW into compost. The compost thus produced is useful in increasing soil fertility and reducing the concentration of the waste.

Introduction

More than a third is covered by drylands in the terrestrial land surface, which have a harsh and vulnerable natural condition (Maier et al., 2014). Due to insufficient water availability, dry areas have a scant population of vascular plants, as well as poor availability of the nutrient turnover with poor availability of the resources as a result of severe temperatures (Adeel, 2008). Biological soil crusts or Biocrusts commonly protects the soil surface in dry environments and it is considered “ecosystem engineers” of arid and semiarid areas, as well as signs of ecosystem health (Briggs and Morgan, 2011; Bowker et al., 2008). They are connected in dryland ecosystem restoration level or degradation (Assouline et al., 2015). When compared to chemical or physical crusts, biocrust is the largest word that explicitly implies that these are the crusts which are dependent on the living organisms’ activity.

Abstract

Cultural knowledge on food and beverages is as old as human civilization. However, the traditional knowledge related to food habits and ecosystem conservation has been found to be unique in each cultural and ethnic group across the world. From time immemorial, the Nyishi tribe of Arunachal Pradesh has developed an unique set of traditional knowledge that allows the better utilization of food bioresources of their natural surrounding to sustain their livelihood. Historically, such knowledge was transmited through customary laws, folklore, and oral literature. Literature studies have revealed the lack of scientific investigation on ethnobiology of traditional food bioresources used by the Nyishi tribe of Arunachal Pradesh. Hence, in the present investigation, an attempt has been made to unveil the hidden age-old cultural food and beverage knowledge practised among the Nyishi of Papum Pare and Lower Subansiri district of Arunachal Pradesh. A total of 63 plant and 41 animal species have been reported during field survey in 4 circles covering a total of 12 different localities which includes rural, semi-urbans and urban type ecosystem in the 2 selected districts.

Abstract

Mahua (Madhuca spp.) is an important tree in India, with high socio-economic, environmental and spiritual values. We carried out this study among the local communities of Azamgarh district (eastern Uttar Pradesh) and with the Gond and Baiga tribes from Raisen and Dindori districts, Madhya Pradesh. Among the five mahua species found in Indian subcontinent, Madhuca latifolia is widely distributed in the north and central plains, the focal area of our study. Mahua has been vital to the survival of these communities, particularly the Gond and Baiga tribes, from the time immemorial. It has been a major source of food energy in the form of sugar, seed oil and alcohol. As well, different parts of the tree are used as ethnomedicine. The tribal people’s high regard for mahua is reflected by its sustainable and regulated use. In this study, we present an in-depth analysis of conservation, management and sustainable use of mahua, and also suggest its role in socio-economic adaptation, with particular reference to climate change.

Pesticides are the chemical substances that kill pests and herbicides are the chemicals that kill weeds. In the context of soil, pests are fungi, bacteria, insects, worms, and nematodes etc. that cause damage to field crops. Thus, in broad sense pesticides are insecticides, fungicides, bactericides, herbicides and nematicides that are used to control or inhibit plant diseases and insect pests. Although wide-scale application of pesticides and herbicides is an essential part of augmenting crop yields; excessive use of these chemicals leads to the microbial imbalance, environmental pollution and health hazards. An ideal pesticide should have the ability to destroy target pest quickly and should be able to degrade nontoxic substances as quickly as possible.

The ultimate “sink” of the pesticides applied in agriculture is soil. Soil being the storehouse of multitudes of microbes, in quantity and quality, receives the chemicals in various forms and acts as a scavenger of harmful substances. The efficiency and the competence to handle the chemicals vary with the soil and its physical, chemical and biological characteristics.

Abstract

Various cropping systems and ecologies illustrate the positive use of chemicals both as fertilizers and pesticides and organic/biological sources within the frame work of Integrated Plant Nutrition and Plant Protection System (IPPS). While considering the organic/biological sources, green manures seem to be the best alternative that may largely suffice to the organic matter requirements of the soil under crop cultivation. Green manuring can be defined as a practice of ploughing or turning into the soil undecomposed green plant tissues for the purpose of improving physical structure as well as fertility of the soil. “Green manure” refers to fresh plant matter, which is added to the soil largely for supplying the nutrients contained in its biomass. The agricultural practices consisting of growing and ploughing under a green crop or addition of a green organic matter in the form of leaves and other succulent parts from outside to improve soil productivity is known as green manuring. In this review, advantages of green manuring, decomposition of green manure,   process of decomposition, factors affecting decomposition and effects of green manuring have been discussed in detail.

8.1 Introduction

Rising petroleum prices, increasing threat to the environment from exhaust emissions and global warming have generated an intense international interest in developing alternative non-petroleum fuels for engines. The use of vegetable oil in internal combustion engines is not a recent innovation. Rudolf Diesel (18581913), creator of the diesel cycle engines, used peanut vegetable oil to demonstrate its invention in Paris in 1900. In 1912, Diesel said, “The use of vegetable oils as engine fuel may seem negligible today. Nevertheless, such oils may become, in the passing years, as important as oil and coal tar presently.” Nowadays, it is known that oil is a finite resource and that its price tends to increase exponentially, as its reserves have being decreasing¹.

India ranks sixth in the world in total energy consumption and needs to accelerate the development of the sector to meet its growth aspirations. The country, though rich in coal and abundantly endowed with renewable energy in the form of solar, wind, hydro and bio-energy has very small hydrocarbon reserves (0.4 % of the world’s reserve). India, like many other developing countries, is a net importer of energy, more than 25 percent of primary energy needs being met through imports mainly in the form of crude oil and natural gas. The rising oil import bill has been the focus of serious concerns due to the pressure it has placed on scarce foreign exchange resources and is also largely responsible for energy supply shortages. The sub-optimal consumption of commercial energy adversely affects the productive sectors, which in turn hampers economic growth².

7.1 Introduction

A biodiesel fuel is an environmentally friendly, renewable, biodegradable fuel that is produced at domestic facilities from vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled grease from restaurants. In accordance with the Renewable Fuel Standard, biodiesel meets the requirements for biomass-based diesel as well as the requirements for advanced biofuels as a whole. Biodiesel is distinct from renewable diesel, also known as “green diesel.” In its pure, unblended form, biodiesel is also known as B100 or neat biodiesel. Biodiesel is used to fuel compression-ignition engines in the same way as petroleum diesel. Alternatively, biodiesel is a liquid biofuel that can be used in diesel engines alone or blended with diesel oil. The fuel is obtained through the chemical conversion of vegetable oils or animal fats combined with alcohol.

11.1 Biodiesel Chemistry

Biodiesel is a mixture of methyl esters of long chain fatty acids like lauric, palmitic, stearic, oleic and so on. It is produced by the transesterification of animal fats and vegetable oils – all of which belong to a group of organic esters called triglycerides. Typical examples are rape/canola oil, soyabean oil, sunflower oil, palm oil and its derivatives, etc. from vegetable sources, beef and sheep tallow and poultry oil from animal sources and also from used cooking oil. The chemistry is basically the same irrespective of the feedstock. The chemistry of biodiesel is given in Fig. 11.1.

Introduction

In 1990, the magnitude of fungal diversity, that is, the actual number of species worldwide, was estimated conservatively to be at least 1.5 million. Of the 1.5 million estimated fungi, it has been estimated that 14,000 species produce fruiting bodies of sufficient size and suitable structure to be considered macro-fungi which can be called mushrooms. Of these, about 50 % or 7,000 species are considered to possess varying degrees of edibility and more than 3,000 species from 31 genera are regarded as prime edible mushrooms. To date, only 200 of them are experimentally grown, 100 economically cultivated, approximately 60 commercially cultivated and about 10 have reached an industrial scale of production in many countries (Hawksworth, 2001). Of the 14,000 species of mushrooms in the world, around 700 have known for medicinal properties. Thus, mushrooms have vast prospects as sources of medicines. The early herbalists were more interested in the medicinal properties of mushrooms than in their basic value as a source of food. Humankind has constantly searched for new substances that can improve biological functions and thereby make people fitter and healthier. About 3.5 billion people worldwide, all over half of the world populations rely on plant-based medicines and dietary supplements for their primary health care. Of the plant materials involved in medicines or health tonics, quite a few are fungi. The practice of using fungi as herbal medicines can be traced in different early records of the ‘materia medica’. The earliest book on medicinal materials the “Shen Nongs Herbal” recorded the medicinal effects of several fungi such as Ganoderma lucidum, Poria cocos, Tremella fuciformis, Polyporus umbillatus and other unidentified fungi. The most famous of all work on the traditional medicines “Pen Ts’ao Kang Mu” which was compiled by Li Shi-Zhen of the Ming Dynasty recorded the medicinal fungi totaling more than twenty species, including Ganoderma lucidum, Poria cocos, Polyporus umbellatus, Lentinula edodes, Termitomyces albuminosus, Auricularia auricula, Pleurotus ostreatus, Armillaria mellea etc. A very unique insect-infecting fungus, Cordyceps sinensis, was for the first time taken as a medicinal fungus in the book “Essentials of Materia Medica”. There have been new discoveries and developments in the field of medicinal fungi, which have greatly enriched the treasure house of our traditional medical and medicinal sciences. As a result of large number of scientific studies on medicinal mushrooms in the past three decades, the traditional uses of many mushrooms have been confirmed and new wider uses found. Some traditionally important and leading medicinal fungi in the Oriental medicines are presented below

Abstract

Irrigation tanks (Traditional water harvesting structures) are our heritage handed over to us by our ancestors and are the lifelines of villages. Tanks are small irrigation structures predominantly serve small and marginal farming communities to sustain the agriculture production by supplementing the monsoon rains. There will be festivities in the villages if its irrigation tanks get filled. A proper maintenance of the tanks will prevent famine, starvation and unemployment and bring in prosperity. In most of the Southern states in India, the major threats to tanks are mainly from the encroachers, inefficiency in the functioning of tank system and improper use by the government itself. Tank irrigation in Andhra Pradesh has played a vital role in the development of its agricultural economy. There are around 79,000 small and minor irrigation tanks providing water for irrigation and domestic use, supporting grazing land, fuel wood growth and ground water recharge. Many of these tanks are hydrologically linked in chains (called tank cascades) that cut across administrative boundaries. With deteriorating tank systems, marginal and small farmers are increasingly at the mercy of monsoon and are forced into a cycle of deprivation and debt. These ancient irrigation systems still function as a crucial element in supplying water for agriculture, and they constitute one of the richest sources of wetland biodiversity in the country. A tank system in a cascade has a small reservoir catchment, the reservoir, a strip of trees downstream of the reservoir that act as wind-breaking barrier, paddy fields, and the village. The village tanks play significant role in food production sector and provide employment in the rural sector. In addition to providing irrigation water, the tanks made the micro-climate pleasant and cool, provided a rich biodiversity and agro-biodiversity

Anacardium occidentale is a medium-sized tree, spreading, and evergreen, much branched; grows to a height of 12 m. When grown on lateritic, gravelly, coastal sandy areas, it rarely exceeds 6 m and develops a spreading habit and globose shape with crown diameter to 12 m but, if grown inland on loams; it reaches 15 m tall and is much branched, with a smaller (4-6 m) crown diameter. The root system of a mature A. occidentale, when grown from the seed, consists of a very prominent taproot and a well developed and extensive network of lateral and sinker roots. Leaves simple, alternate, coriaceous, glabrous, obovate, rounded at ends, 10-18 x 8-15 cm, with short petiole, pale green or reddish when young and dark green at mature. Rai and Vatsala (1985) studied the dermal morphology and stomatal ontogeny of Spondias pinnata Kurz., Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr., Anacardium occidentale L., Holigarna arnottiana Hook. F. and Mangifera indica L. are studied. The cuticle is thick in H. arnottiana, A. occidentale and M. indica, but is thin in S. pinnata and L. coromandelica. Based on the shape of epidermal cells, the five species are categorised into three: cells in both upper and lower epidermis sinuous (A. occidentale, H. arnottiana, S. pinnata); upper sinuous and lower polygonal (M. indica) and upper polygonal and lower sinuous (L. coromandelica). Stomatal ontogeny aperigenous (L. coromandelica), paramesoperigenous (A. occidentale) and anisomesogenous (M. indica, H. arnottiana). S. pinnata is peculiar in that it possesses three different types of stomata, aperigenous, hemiparamesoperigenous and paramesoperigenous; whereas, in all the other four species, only one type of stomatal ontogenesis exists. Except S. pinnata, all the other species possess epidermal appendages. Unicellular trichomes occur in A. occidentale and H. arnottiana, and multicellular glandular trichomes in A. occidentale, M. indica and L. coromandelica. The multicellular hairs are found in A. occidentale in specialized pockets in two rows on either side of the major veins - a unique feature which is reported for the first time.

The word biodiversity refers to the variety of living organisms (flora and fauna). Biodiversity or Biological diversity is defined as the variability among all living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and ecological complexes of which they are part. Wilson, 1988 defined ‘Biological diversity’ or ‘biodiversity’ as that part of nature which includes the differences in genes among the individuals of a species, the variety and richness of all the plant and animal species at different scales in space i.e. local, regional, country wise and global, andvarious types of ecosystems- both terrestrial and aquatic-within a defined area.

The diversity of agro-ecosystems

Biological diversity deals with the degree of nature’s variety in the biosphere. This variety can be observed at three levels i.e., genetic, species and ecosystem.

a) Genetic Diversity

Genetic diversity refers to the variation at the level of individual genes. Tremendous amount of genetic diversity exists within individual species. This genetic variability is responsible for the different characters in species. Genetic diversity is the raw material from which new species arise through evolution. Today, the genetic diversity is made use to breed new crop varieties, disease resistant crops.

Organic producers, on the other hand, are looking for varieties that are suited to their local climatic and soil conditions and are not susceptible to disease and pest attack. Research has shown that in general these characteristics are more likely to be found in the older native cultivars. For example, conventional wheat grown in an organic system will have reduced protein content, whereas the selection of a variety suitable for the particular growing conditions will provide higher protein, and thus higher baking quality wheat to be grown. Research has also indicated that yields and disease resistance are better in native cultivars as opposed to modern varieties for vegetables (tomato, cucumber and melon) grown in an organic system.

Biodiversity provides the building blocks for sustainable food, health and livelihood security systems. It is the feedstock for both the biotechnology industry and a climate-resilient farming system. Because of its importance for human well-being and survival, a Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was adopted at the UN Conference on Environment and Development held at Rio de Janeiro in 1992. The Convention’s triple goals are conservation, sustainable use, and equitable sharing of benefits. CBD defines biological diversity as follows:

Variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.

Sustainability does not denote a fixed state of things. It is a dynamic phenomenon: a phenomenon that tends to advance towards a higher state of being. The range of a journey of sustainability extends from nothing to everything, from a simple system to a more complex system, or from an unstable or less stable system to a stable or more stable system. Speaking in ecological terms, the transformation of unproductive desert land into a forest in ecological climax over time is how the phenomenon of sustainability works.

The term ‘sustainable development’ was first of all used in 1980 in the World Conservation Strategy (IUCN-UNEP-WWF 1980). However, this term was brought into the focus of the world for the first time in the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) Report, popularly known as the Brundtland Commission Report Our Common Future in 1987. Sustainable Development in the WCED Report has been defined as Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs.

Demographic explosion, environment pollution, habitat destruction, enlarging ecological footprint, widespread hunger and unsustainable lifestyles, and potential adverse changes in climate all threaten the future of human food, water, health and livelihood security systems. 2010 appears to mark the beginning of uncertain weather patterns and extreme climate behaviour. Events like temperature rise, drought, flood, coastal storms and rise in sea level are likely to present new challenges to the public, professionals and policy makers. Biodiversity has so far served as the feedstock for sustainable food and health security and can play a similar role in the development of climate-resilient farming and livelihood systems. Biodiversity is also the feedstock for the biotechnology industry. Unfortunately, genetic erosion and species extinction are now occurring at an accelerated pace due to habitat destruction, alien species invasion and spread of agricultural systems characterised by genetic homogeneity. Genetic homogeneity increases genetic vulnerability to biotic and abiotic stresses. To generate widespread interest in biodiversity conservation, the UN General Assembly has declared 2010 as the International Year of Biodiversity.

The history of evolution reveals that life on Earth has gradually gone enriching itself by adding more and more varieties to it. A variety of organisms as of today exhilaratingly blossoms in the biosphere. The organisms are divided into three broad categories based on their distinctive characteristics, viz. plants, animals, and microorganisms. The other broad categories all the organisms on Earth are placed in are the five kingdoms, viz. Protista, Monera, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. These kingdoms encompass living organisms based on their cell type (prokaryotic or eukaryotic), cell number (unicellular or multicellular), genetic recombination type (binary fission, asexual or sexual type), or feeding behavior or mode of nourishment (autotrophic or heterotrophic).

Biodiversity, coined by W. G. Rosen in 1985, is the variety of life on Earth. It is the occurrence of different kinds of organisms and the complete range of varieties adapted to different climates, environments and areas being constituents of food chains and food web of biotic interrelationship. Biodiversity refers to totality of genes species and ecosystems of a region. Biodiversity differs from place to place. Biodiversity is the biological wealth of world.

There is continuous depletion of biodiversity due to increasing population resources consumption, urbanization and pollution. The basic reason for concern is that biodiversity is being lost even before it attains its size. Loss of biodiversity would check evolutionary capability of biota to cope up with environmental loss.

INTRODUCTION

Biodiversity  refers to varieties of life on the Earth including  animals, plants, microbes and genes within them, their habitats and ecosystems and all variations within a given ecosystem, biome or entire planet. Biodiversity is the basis of life on Earth, important for the functioning of ecosystems, provides us with products and services without which we cannot live. Consider our food range in India. It ranges from Indian bread (chapatti), rice and rice products and related curries and other varieties made out of different vegetables. These food items are made of wheat, paddy, maize, bajra, ragi, potato, tapioca, sweet potato,  yams and corns, pulses like pigeon pea, green and black gram, Bengal gram, soyabean, vegetables like tomato, brinjal, cucumber, pumpkin, drum stick, bitter gourd, snake gourd, bottle gourd and various gourds, French bean, amaranth and  so many leafy  vegetables, spices and condiments like chilly, cardamom, ginger, turmeric, pepper, nutmeg, clove, cinnamon, cumin, coriander, fenugreek etc. This is the diversity of food we have in India. Similarly, all other groups such as herbal medicine, ornamentals, timber and non-timber species are also very diverse.

Most of the ecosystems prevailing on Earth have ceased to be virgin. They are now modified following anthropogenic designs. The Blossoming of a community in its climax stage is a rare sight. As human intervention with nature has gone on increasing, all types of biodiversity - genetic, species and community, and alpha, beta, and gamma - have been put under stress. The Earth has already lost much of its diversity due to anthropogenic factors and now it seems to be under severe stress due to climate change, which is also largely due to human-induced environmental disruptions.

Continuous loss of biodiversity at an alarming rate is posing a serious threat to life on earth. With this dismal state of the environment, we cannot usher in a sustainable future. We do not have the right to snatch the future from our younger generations. The Earth belongs to our children more than it does to us. The Earth belongs to future generations more than it does to present generations. Conservation of biodiversity is a matter of ethics. Ethics has the human face of biodiversity. Economic attributes of biodiversity have importance, but ethics of life 

The term biodiversity is abbreviated from two different terms ‘biological’ and ‘diversity’. Biodiversity is also called biological diversity. The term biological diversity was first coined by wildlife scientist and conservationist Raymond F. Dasmann in 1968. The same term i.e. natural heritage was used in the United State. Geneticists describe it as the diversity of genes and organisms. Biologists define biodiversity as the sum of genes, species and ecosystems of a region.

Biodiversity is determined by the wholesome number of different species in a particular area. It helps to strengthen the stability of an ecosystem and leads to a healthy biosphere. Existence of biodiversity is crucial for the functioning of the ecosystem and is the foundation of life on earth as it generates products and services for the existence of all living organisms on the earth.

Biodiversity

Biological diversity, or biodiversity, is the scientific term for the variety of life on Earth. It refers not just to species but also to ecosystems and differences in genes within a single species. Everywhere on the planet, species live together and depend on one another. Every living thing, including man, is involved in these complex networks of interdependent relationships, which are called ecosystems. Healthy ecosystems clean our water, purify our air, maintain our soil, regulate the climate, recycle nutrients and provide us with food. They provide raw materials and resources for medicines and other purposes. They are at the foundation of all civilisation and sustain our economies. It’s that simple: we could not live without these “ecosystem services”. They are what we call our natural capital.

The term biodiversity is used by Walter and Roses in 1985. Biodiversity means the existence of a large number of different kinds of animals and plants which make a balanced environment. According to “Convocation on biological diversity (1992)”-Biodiversity is present in terrestrial, ocean and aquatic ecosystem. This diversity present in between same species, different species and in different ecosystem.

Biodiversity encompasses the different kinds of life we find in one area— the variety of animals, plants, fungi, and even microorganisms like bacteria that make up our natural world. Each of these species and organisms work together in ecosystems, like an intricate web, to maintain balance and support life. Biodiversity refers to all species and living things on Earth or in a specific ecosystem. Biodiversity brings together the different species and forms of life (animal, plant, entomological and other) and their variability, that is to say, their dynamics of evolution in their ecosystems. Traditionally, there are three levels of biodiversity: genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity. But what does each of these levels really mean.

Abstract

Mushroom has a great potential in India. Its production is gradually increasing at the annual rate of 7%. The total mushroom production in India is 1.13 million tones and on the other hand, mushroom production annually in china is 18.2 million tones. There are a no. 07 wild mushroom available in the world and medicinal properties much as anti Candida, anti tumor (including cervical, uterine, stomach cancer) and antis viral are rotally present. Of the entire wild mushroom tested, T. glolulum has the highest amount of protein, ask, Calcium, phosphorus and iron. A total of 172 wild mushrooms have been reported home NE India and majority of the wild mushroom is of the order Agaricales. There is a need to make a concerted study of the mushroom biodiversity and its use for economic activity.

Abstract

Elaboration of mycotoxins by several moulds in different agricultural commodities has been reported to be widespread. The mycotoxins are reported to cause variety of health hazards in different animals including Chicks, cow, horse, rat, Mouse, pig, rabbit, dog, including man. More than 150 species of moulds are reported to elaborate chemically and biologically diverse toxic metabolites. These mycotoxins  are known to induce variety of diseases commonly known as mycotoxicoses.The fungi which elaborate mycotoxins are diverse belonging to different groups of fungi.Mycotoxigenicity of these moulds not only differ among different genera but also among different species.  Some fungi such as Aspergillus flavus, A. terreus, Penicillium griseofulvum, P.expansum, P.nordicum, P.verrucosum, Fusarium acuminatum, F.culmorum, F. graminearum, F.moniliforme, F.oxysporum, F.solani, F. tricinctum and Cheatomium globosum are known to produce more  one  type of mycotoxin which differ in their chemical structure and biological activity.

Abstract

Studies were carried out on 110 seedling trees of aonla growing at Tikker area of district Sirmaur, Ghanatti area of district Shimla and Kandaghat & Arki areas of district Solan to know the extent of divergence for various fruit characters by using non-hierarchical cluster analysis. Maximum co-efficient of variability was observed for fruit volume (38.63 %). First component gave maximum Eigen root value (7.286) and maximum percent variation (45.54 %). All 110 genotypes got clustered into eight clusters and the distribution of genotypes from different location was random. Maximum genotypes (30) entered in cluster 3 and minimum (5) in cluster 8. Intra-cluster distance varied between 1.877 (Cluster 5) to 3.137 (Cluster 8). The inter-cluster distance ranged between 3.006 (Cluster 3 & 4) to 11.677(Cluster 5 & 8). Wider genetic base is the prerequisite for breeding to get better recombinants and segregants. So, genotypes of Cluster 5 & 8 can be used for future aonla breeding programmes.

Nutrition is the basis for life to prosper and sustain in the biosphere. There are two modes of nutrition in all species: self-nourishment and crossnourishment. Self-nourishment goes on in the category of organisms known as autotrophs. Cross-nutrition is maintained by the category of consumers categorized as heterotrophs. The autotrophs nourish themselves by utilizing inorganic molecules and energy available in nature, while the heterotrophs derive the nutrients that the autotrophs ‘manufacture’ for themselves. In other words, the heterotrophs derive nutrients from organic molecules. These organic molecules are derived either from the autotrophs directly or from the consumers dependent on autotrophs.

Autotrophs derive energy in its free form (e.g. light) or that available in inorganic molecules (e.g., CO, 

Abstract

Our biological heritage, from genes to ecosystems, is threatened on a global scale. Biological species, the prime focus on biodiversity, provide all our basic requirements such as food, medicine, fuel and things for well being, make nature’s sustainability through purifying air and water, pollinating crops, etc. and motivate us at a deep emotional level. During the course of human civilization and consequent urbanization process biological species and environment have been degraded. It is estimated that about 20% of all species are expected to be lost within 30 years and 50% or more by the end of the 21^st century [36]. The current rates of species extinction are 1000–10,000 times higher than the background rate of 10-7 species per year inferred from fossil record. Today, we seem to be losing two to five species per hour from tropical forests alone. This amounts to a loss of 16 m population per year or 1800 populations per hour. This led to biodiversity crisis in the global level [23,26,35] and generated an outpouring of research on biodiversity for the last 25 years. As a result we could have a general understanding about the distribution of biodiversity, the proximate causes (habitat loss, habitat fragmentation, habitat degradation, invasive species, pollution, resource exploitation) contributing to its loss, sketches of the root causes of biodiversity loss, and the outlines of better management policies. Since the establishment of the convention on biological diversity in 1992, conservation of biodiversity has become a priority concern on the international agenda.

1. Introduction

Cold-Arid areas are unique eco-systems lying in the north-western Himalaya. The Himalayan mountain ranges can broadly be grouped in two categories 1) the Himalayan ranges extending to the south of the main range including the greater Himalaya and 2) the trans-Himalayan ranges to the north of it. The cold-arid areas are situated in the Trans-Himalayan ranges which comprise of the Zanskar Range, the Ladakh Range and the Karakoram Range. The Ladakh region is situated in the rain shadow of the Himalaya and is dry and arid. To its south lie the Himalayan mountains, in west lies the Kashmir, in east lies the Tibet and the northern boundaries are flanked by the Karakoram ranges.