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The concept of origin of cultivated plants was first developed by A de Candolle and the geographic centres of variability were developed by Vavilov. He identified Asia as a major centre with “Indian centre” of North East region as primary or secondary centre of origin for many crop plants. Plant genetic resources are of great importance as they form the basic raw materials to meet the current and future needs of crop improvement programmes. A wider genetic base, thus, assumes priority in plant breeding research aimed at developing new varieties for increased crop production (Paroda, 1991). This diversity comprises of native landraces, local selections, elite cultivars and wild relatives of crop plants. The collection and conservation of this diversity in a systematic manner is the primary responsibility of all plant genetic resources institutes/centres. The mention of use and cultivation of fruits can be seen in epics like ‘Ramayana’. Plant genetic resources are thus our heritage, which need conservation for posterity. During the long period of domestication, utilization and cultivation, a wide array of fruit crop variability got generated by natural means and through both conscious and unconscious selection. Huge wealth of variability also got generated/adapted and diversified by crop introductions in the exotic environment or through migration of human population.

Introduction

Leafhoppers belong to the family Cicadellidae and constitute one of the largest families in the exopterygotan Hexapoda. Recent estimates of species for the world range between 35,000-45,000 species though little over 22,600 species are now described (Dietrich, 2004a). The leafhoppers belong to the order Hemiptera and suborder Auchenorrhyncha.
 
Leafhoppers can readily be recognized from other members of the Auchenorrhyncha by the presence of two or more rows of spines on hind tibiae and by the pronotum not extending back over abdomen. Their close relative, the Membracidae, have pronotum extending back over the abdomen. From planthoppers (Delphacidae) with which they are often confused, they can be recognized by the position and structure of antennae. The leafhopper antennae are placed between eyes compared to beneath the eyes in planthoppers; the second segment of the antenna (pedicel) is small without externally visible sensillae in leafhoppers compared to enlarged pedicel with prominent sensillae in the planthoppers. The movable large spur at the apex of hind tibia in plant hoppers is absent in the leafhoppers.

INTRODUCTION

Species of the Clupeiformes (Teleostei), commonly known as herrings, shads, menhadens, sardines, anchovies, and their relatives, are a major component of forage fishes in coastal ecosystems and dominate worldwide forage fish landings (Tacon and Metian, 2009a; FAO, 2020). Clupeiformes are globally distributed fishes with having nearly 419 marine, freshwater, and diadromous species (Bloom and Egan, 2018) and they are filter-feeding fishes that form large schools having a diverse group of trophic guilds and habitats (Bloom and Egan, 2018). Additional to providing ecological and economic support, clupeiforms contribute to global food security given their abundance, easy access, and exceptionally high nutrient content (FAO, 2018). In some human communities, clupeiforms comprise the major or the sole protein source (Alder et al., 2008; Mohanty et al., 2019). Historically, clupeiform presence has been associated with persistent human settlement, growth, and survival (Thornton et al., 2010; Levin et al., 2016).

Clupeiform fishes are ecologically diverse and span all aquatic habitats, including coastal and open marine environments, oceanic islands, estuaries, and freshwater rivers and lakes (Whitehead, 1985; Lavoue et al., 2013). Species can be restricted to marine, estuarine, or fresh waters, or they can be euryhaline, where a subset exhibit diadromy (Whitehead, 1985). Strictly marine clupeiforms (33.7% of all species) are distributed in every ocean, except for the Southern Ocean (Whitehead, 1985), while strictly freshwater species (17.8% of all species) are found on every continent except for Antarctica (Bloom and Egan, 2018). Major threats to clupeiforms are similar to those found for other groups of fishes (e.g., Roberts and Hawkins, 1999; Reynolds et al., 2005), with overexploitation as the leading threat for all clupeiforms in all habitats. While overexploitation may be the most prolific threat by impacting the highest number of clupeiforms, pollution may be the most detrimental, as it affects greater numbers of CR species. When compared to other economically and ecologically important fish groups globally assessed using the IUCN Red List methodology, clupeiforms have the lowest estimated percentage of threatened and NT species overall. Using the midpoint of species evaluated as elevated concern, roughly 11% are currently at high risk compared to approximately 22% of tunas and billfishes (Collette et al., 2011), 19% of sparids (Comeros Raynal et al., 2016), and 19% of groupers (Sadovy de Mitcheson et al., 2020).

All of nature’s biodiversity is not visible. Biodiversity can also not be studied and/ or understood by looking at and analyzing it with the naked eye. A great proportion of the planet’s biodiversity flourishes in the ecosystems not directly accessible to us and the organisms in the sizes our eyes cannot record. The soil biodiversity is more interesting and more varied than we have understood and appreciated. The biodiversity in the soil - together with the physical environment - constitutes what we can call the pedosphere. Biodiversity in the pedosphere is distinguishable from that of the biodiversity above the soil surface. One is nonplussed by an understanding of some of the unbelievable features and functions of the pedosphere biodiversity.

The Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) held on the occasion of the historical Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 underlined the significance of biodiversity conservation for various tangible and non-tangible benefits as well as one of the key factors for sustainability. However, the conservation of soil biodiversity for realizing sustainability

Introduction

The term ‘biodiversity’ comes from the words biological diversity and quite simply means the variety of all living things, including microbes, plants and animals– from single-celled organisms to the largest mammals and trees. Biodiversity also refers to genetic diversity within a species (essential for evolution) and also the diversity of the woodlands, wetlands and other habitats which provide the food, water and shelter for these species. Human life itself depends upon healthy ecosystems (e.g. wetlands, forests and grasslands) and the biodiversity that they contain. Biodiversity gives us many of the essentials of life – water, oxygen, food, clothing, and medicines, without which we could not survive, and therefore contributes greatly to our economy. Access to nature is also a popular form of relaxation that greatly enriches our lives and helps to keep us healthy. Species are linked in an infinite number of ways via food-webs and the habitats they share. If one species becomes extinct, it may affect many more. If too many species become extinct then whole ecosystems can collapse, with severe consequences for the way we live. Across the world, biodiversity is under threat from human activity such as over-intensive or inappropriate farming, large-scale commercial forestry, forest clearance, mineral extraction, pollution and urban development. Conservation of plant diversity assumes greater importance when the world is facing unprecedented loss of biological diversity. As per an estimate about 60,000 out of 2, 87, 655 species of plants known in the world are facing the threat of extinction.

Agro-ecosystems are defined as ecological and socio-economic system comprising domesticated plants and/or animals and the people who husband them, intended for the purpose of producing food, fiber, or other agricultural products. Agro-ecosystems are ecological systems transformed and simplified for the purpose of agriculture. In the case of agro-ecosystems productivity, these systems have Holling resilience if, in some state, they are able to maintain productivity and withstand stress or external shocks (e.g., due to lower rainfall and droughts). In many situations, biodiversity provides the link between stress and loss of resilience is a system (Perrings et al., 1995). Genetic variation within species and within population increases the ability to respond to the challenges of environmental stress (Mainwaring, 2001).

Plant biodiversity is the single greatest resource that man garnered from nature during the long cultural development phase. More than 2.5 lakh species of mosses, ferns, conifers and flowering plants and more than 50,000 plant species are yet to be documented, primarily in the remote and less studied reaches of tropical forests.

Vegetable crops in which rich diversity occurs in India are Cowpea, Common bean, Cole crops, Okra, Brinjal, Sweet potato, Taros, Yams, Sword bean, Velvet bean and Elephant foot yam. Wide diversity was observed in chives, leeks and other Allium spp in Kumaoun and Garhwal Himalayas; cluster bean in Western arid zone; lab lab bean in Deccan plateau; cucurbits in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh and leaf vegetables like Amaranth and Fagopyrum in Western Himalayan region. Tropical vegetables consist of solanaceus fruits (tomato, hot pepper, brinjal), cucurbits (water melon, muskmelon, cucumber, pumpkins and squashes, bottle gourd, chow-chow, ivy gourd, bitter gourd, ash gourd, round gourd, snake gourd, pointed gourd, sponge gourd, ridge gourd), malvaceous vegetables (Okra),legumes (common bean, lima bean, dolichos bean, cowpea, sword bean, winged bean), allium (onion, shallot, garlic, leek) and leaf vegetables (amaranth, spinach beet, Ceylon spinach). The indigenous vegetables both cultivated and wild have important role in household nutrition, economy and food security. There are 25 hot spots of biodiversity of which Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayan region are the most important ones. Indo-Myanmar region is one of the largest hot spots of the world and is the centre of origin of tuber crops like yams, taro, Amorphophallus and Alocasia. Tropical tuber crops form an important group of subsistence crops especially to those living in tropics and sub tropical zones. Tuber crops are the third important food crops after cereals and grain legumes. Major tuber crops are cassava, sweet potato, Asiatic yam, African yam, lesser yam, elephant foot yam, taro, tannia and country potato. Minor tuber crops are arrowroot, winged bean, yam bean, canna, safed musli and Jerusalem artichoke. Sweet potato is one of the world’s highest yielding crops.

Biodiversity is the origin of all species of crops and domesticated and the variety within them. It is also the foundation of ecosystem services essential to sustain agriculture and human well-being. Today’s crop and livestock biodiversity are the result of many thousands years of human intervention. The biodiversity in vegetable crops is composed by the genetic diversity, as species diversity (inter specific diversity) and as diversity of genes within a species (intra specific diversity) referring to the vegetable grown varieties, and by the diversity of agro-ecosystems (agro-biodiversity).

Crop diversity is the variance in genetic and phenotypic characteristics of plants used in agriculture. Over the past 50 years, there has been a major decline in two components of crop diversity; genetic diversity within each crop and the number of species commonly grown.

Introduction

Corals are made up of hundreds of soft-bodied organisms called coral polyps that secrete, caco3 over time. It belongs to the phylum Cnidaria. Polyps varies in size from a pinhead to a foot in length. Each polyp has a symbiotic relationship with a host zooxanthellae, which gives color to the coral. Zooxanthellae absorb carbon dioxide, convert it through photosynthesis, and release oxygen and other essential nutrients, which are then utilized by the host polyp. All other photosynthesizing species, including corals, require adequate sunlight exposure. Most corals are therefore restricted to shallow, clean, and transparent environments.

6.1 Biodiversity

Biodiversity means biological diversity. It measures the variety of the earth’s animal, plant and microbial species; of genetic difference within species and of the ecosystems that support the species in its widest. Biodiversity is virtually synonymous with “life on earth”, this word was coined in 1985. Biodiversity is the degree of variety in nature and not nature itself.

SUMMARY

The primary requirement for sustainable agriculture is the maintenance of a satisfactory balance of water, air and salt in the root zone encouraging for plant growth. This balance can be achieved by sufficient drainage. About 22% of the World's irrigated area is affected by waterlogging and salinity. Vertical drainage by pumping can control the increase of ground water table in those areas where the ground water is of good quality. Horizontal sub-surface drainage in which the saline ground water is drained away through pipes and drains, is the other regularly used anti waterlogging methods. In bio-drainage system, the characteristic of the trees to transpire water is used to control the increase of ground water table. It is an alternative drainage method, which would be most economical and environmental congenial. But there are worries and doubts on the long-term sustainability of biodrainage. This chapter describes various aspects of biodrainage.

Biodynamic farming, a pioneering method of organic agriculture founded by Rudolf Steiner in the 1920s, emphasizes a holistic, ecological approach to farming. Central to this practice is the concept of viewing the farm as a self sustaining organism, integrating plants, animals, soil, and cosmic rhythms into a unified system. Biodynamic certification and standards are essential for ensuring that farming practices adhere to these holistic principles, providing transparency and credibility to consumers. This article explores the origins, principles, processes, and implications of biodynamic certification. It discusses key certification bodies, the rigorous standards they enforce, and the benefits and challenges associated with certification. Through detailed analysis, this article aims to offer a comprehensive understanding of how biodynamic certification supports sustainable agriculture and impacts the broader agricultural landscape.

Introduction

Organic farming is basically a holistic management system, which promotes and improves the health of the agro-ecosystem related to biodiversity, nutrient biocycles, soil microbial and biochemical activities. Organic and bio-dynamic farming emphasises management practices involving substantial use of organic manures, green manuring, organic pest management pratices and so on. It has also come to mean that it is a system of farming that prohibits the use of artificial fertilisers and synthetic pesticides.

Biodynamic agriculture is an advanced form of organic farming system that is gaining increasing attention because of its added advantage of soil health and food quality. It is an alternative variant where the chemical fertilisers are totally replaced by microbial (biological) nutrient givers such as bacteria, algae, fungi, mycorhiza, actinomycetes. Biological Pest management of crops is undertaken by employing predators, parasites and other plethora of natural enemies of pests, in addition to all the rest of option that help to avoid resorting to chemical pesticides. These agents could be augmented into farms or promoted through such activities that favour their flourished activities. Composting, Green manuring, crop rotations. Intercropping, mixed cropping etc. as well as bird perches, trap crops promote such biological activities.

Biodynamic farming, rooted in the early 20th-century spiritual insights of Rudolf Steiner, has evolved into a globally recognized approach to agriculture that emphasizes the interconnectedness of soil, plants, animals, and cosmic rhythms. This article explores the principles and practices of biodynamic farming and traces its development across different regions of the world. It examines the contributions of international organizations and movements in promoting biodynamic practices, enhancing sustainability, and advocating for ecological harmony. The article also delves into the challenges and opportunities faced by biodynamic farmers globally and assesses the impact of biodynamic farming on soil health, crop quality, and community well-being. By highlighting case studies and initiatives from various countries, the article aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the global biodynamic farming movement and its role in shaping the future of sustainable agriculture.

Introduction

The dawn of the 21st century brings with it unprecedented challenges for agriculture - challenges that demand a departure from conventional practices and a harmonious integration of spirituality and sustainable methodologies. In this pursuit, Bio Dynamic Farming emerges as a beacon, guiding farmers to cultivate not only crops but also a deeper understanding of the spiritual dimensions intertwined with the earth's rhythms. Rooted in the visionary teachings of Rudolf Steiner and his anthroposophical principles, Bio Dynamic Farming transcends the mechanistic view of agriculture, offering a holistic paradigm where spirituality and sustainable agriculture dance in unison.

Biodynamic farming is a holistic agricultural system that emphasizes the interrelationship between soil, plants, animals, and cosmic forces. A cornerstone of this practice is the use of biodynamic preparations, which are specialized herbal and mineral formulations applied to the soil, compost, and plants to enhance their health and vitality. This article delves into the origins, development, and specific types of biodynamic preparations, including their ingredients, preparation methods, and application techniques. By exploring both the scientific and spiritual dimensions of these preparations, the article aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of their role in biodynamic farming. It also examines the empirical evidence supporting their efficacy, addresses common criticisms, and discusses future research directions.

Summary

Bioenergy is the subject of increasing attention around the globe and represents an important issue in the present context. The rise of commodities prices, the negative impact on food security, and climate change represent different challenges to be overcome before the full potential of bioenergy can be realized. Bioenergy issues related to agriculture needs special attention for its development. Bioenergy development is always linked with rural economy. Farmers, having the choice to convert their food crops to fuels crops, naturally expect a high return from their farmland, thereby generating a scenario where food production gets depleted. The optimal production of bioenergy can be generated by using the wasteland present in different area. This way, food security for the future generation can be maintained along with optimal growth of bioenergy.

9.1 Introduction

The rapid growth of industrialization and population significantly affect on the demand of ethanol as an alternate fuel. Generally, conventional crops like sugarcane and corn become unable to meet the demand of bioethanol, due to their primary role in food and feed. Therefore, lignocellulosic biomass from agriculture waste is attractive precursor for bioethanol production. Biomass is renewable organic material, abundant and cost effective. Ethanol production from agriculture waste has been projected an economically attractive option for industrial sector. However, sugar and starch derived ethanol have a more theoretical yield as compared to lignocelluloses, theses sources are insufficient for bioethanol production. The major agricultural wastes including rice straw, corn straw, wheat straw and sugarcane bagasse etc. can subsequently used for ethanol production. Rice straw has a highest worldwide potential for bioethanol production (205 giga liter) followed by wheat straw (104 giga liter), corn straw (58.6 giga liter), and finally for sugarcane bagasse (51.3 giga liter)¹.

A bio fuels is environmentally friendly options for power generation. Most of the fossil fuels are biological in nature. These are plant forms that, typically, remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and give up the same amount when burnt. The bio fuels are therefore considered to be “CO₂ neutral”, not adding to the carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere. The type of bio fuel used will depend on a number of factor, chief amongst them being the available feedstock and the energy that can be used locally.

India import 70% of the oil it uses, and the country has been hard by the increasing price of oil, uncertainty and environmental hazards that are concerned with the consumption of fossil fuels. In this context, bio fuels constitute a suitable alternative source of energy for India. There are two examples of bio fuels are Ethanol and Bio diesel (Renewable Diesel)

Ethanol can be made from biomass material containing sugar, starches, or cellulose (starch and cellulose are complex from of sugar)

Introduction

Fertilizers are natural or man-made compounds applied on the plant ,soil or water for enhancement of natural soil or water nutrients for improvement of growth , fertility of soil (Edgerton 2009) or water. These make accessible vital macro-nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, sulfur, and magnesium) together with various micronutrients (zinc, copper, iron, boron, and molybdenum) to plants (Alley and Vanlauwe 2009) and animals.

Use of biofertilizers in agriculture and their advantage
 
Bio-fertilizers or bio-inoculants

These are productions containing living organisms such as nitrogen fixers or phosphorus solubilises which are useful for agricultural production. Biofertilizers play a significant role in improving soil fertility and plant growth. By fixing atmospheric nitrogen both in association with plants and without plants solubilize insoluble soil phosphates into soluble phosphates there by increasing the availability of phosphorus secrete growth promoting substances and supplies to the inoculated plants.

Boost to crop production has been the ultimate goal of researchers involved in agriculture so as to feed the ever-increasing human and domestic herbivorous animal populations. Crop production is not only constrained by the limited inherent potential of available varieties currently in use, but is also largely affected by the limitations of soil nutrient availability and damages by diseases, insects and weeds. To counter later challenges, augmentation of soil nutrients through use of biofertilizers in integrated nutrient management programmes and restricting the use of chemical pesticide by integrating biopesticides in plant protection programmes has received much attention in recent years because of consumer’s preference for organic food.

Sustainable crop production depends upon the rational use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides along with organic manures for better soil health. Owing to the constant production of crops from the soil, the latter is being depleted gradually of its nitrogenous and other nutrients. An ordinary crop takes about 25 lb of nitrogen (N) from an acre. It is, therefore, necessary to replenish the soil with the elements, which are removed by the crops year after year. Moreover, in recent years increasing fertilizer costs, and concern for sustainable soil productivity and ecological stability in relation to use of chemical fertilizers, have emerged as issues of vital concern. Furthermore, heavy reliance on chemical fertilizers tends to favour economically those farmers with large hectarage. These considerations have led to a renewed interest in the biofertilizers and organic manures such as FYM, compost and green manures. Biofertilizers which are formulations of bacteria, blue green algae or fungi helps in sustainable agriculture production either by providing plants with fixed nitrogen, available P or by other plant growth promoting substances. Organic matter (OM) is the life of the soil because it contains all the essential elements required for plant growth.

Introduction

Biofertilizers are microbial preparations containing living or latent cells of efficient strains of nitrogen fixing, phosphate solubilizing and cellulose decomposing microorganisms intended for seed or soil application and designed to improve soil fertility and plant growth by increasing the number and biological activity of beneficial microorganisms in the soil.

The objects behind the application of biofertilizers /microbial inoculants to seed, soil is to increase the number and biological / metabolic activity of useful microorganisms that accelerate certain microbial processes to augment the extent of availability of nutrients in the available forms which can be easily assimilated by plants. The need for the use of biofertilizers has arisen primarily due to two reasons i.e. though chemical fertilizers increase soil fertility, crop productivity and production, but increased / intensive use of chemical fertilizers has caused serious concern of soil texture, soil fertility and other environmental problems.Use of biofertilizers is both economical as well as environment friendly. Therefore, an integrated approach of applying both chemical fertilizers and biofertilizers is the best way of integrated nutrient supply in agriculture.

Biofertilizers, thus include i) Symbiotic nitrogen fixers- Rhizobium sp. ii) Non-symbiotic, free living nitrogen fixers- Azotobacter, Azospirillum etc. iii) Blue Green Algae (BGA) inoculants- Azolla-Anabaena, iv) Phosphate solubilizing microorganisms (PSM)- Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Penicillium, Aspergillus etc. v) Mycorrhiza vi) Cellulolytic microorganisms

Increasing food need, decreasing land availability and concurrently attenuating synthetic nutrients supply envisage the use of alternate supplementary inputs for the cultivation of crops. India is among the few nations where systematic farming started thousands of years ago. It was not only the source of income but was also a way of life. Agricultural activities and the techniques adapted to suit local needs and conditions. Different farming systems were followed by the farmers in different areas according to their needs and weather conditions. The produce was usually shared with other communities of the society involved in other professions. Almost all the nutrients removed by the crops were recycled to the soil directly or indirectly (Yadav and Mowade, 2005). In economic terms, the system followed by the then farming community was highly cost effective since all the inputs needed were locally available and practically no expenditure was incurred except labour. The traditional agriculture was though less productive but self-sufficient. With the advent of modern scientific discoveries, agriculture also changed its face, and with the introduction of high yielding varieties, synthetic fertilizers and effective plant protection measures through chemicals, Indian agriculture made rapid strides in the shape of Green Revolution. As an upshot of Green Revolution, the grain production increased two and a half folds in about three decades with a marginal increase in net-area under cultivation.

Abstract

Microbes are ubiquitously found in the environment. Their interaction with other living organisms could either be pathogenic or beneficial in nature. Soil as a rich source of microbes, researchers have extensively studied the plant-microbe interactions. The soil microbes supply the nutrients deficit plants with essential growth elements such as nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, etc. and improve the texture and quality of the soil. Due to the destructive nature of chemical fertilizers to soil and environment, it was required to generate a more ecofriendly means of increasing the soil fertility. This led to the development of microbes based biofertilizers. The primary benefit of biofertilizers is to promote a healthy soil environment along with supplying essential nutrients to the plant. Again, biofertilizers can be tailor-made according to the specific plant or the climatic conditions. Fungal and bacteria based biofertilizers, either alone or in combinations are formulated for the plants. Lately, liquid fertilizers are increasingly finding their use in the biofertilizer industry due to their ease in manufacture and prolonged effect on plant growth. The scope of this chapter lays on the currently popular biofertilizers and recent trends in the biofertilizer industry.

Biofertilizers act as complementary and supplementary sources of plant nutrients. Biofertilizers help in increasing the biologically fixed atmospheric nitrogen and enhancing phosphorus availability to the crops. Among the biofertilizers for increasing nitrogen supply, nitrogen fixing bacteria (Rhizobium, Azotobacter and Azospirillum), blue green algae (BGA) and Azolla are important. The availability of phosphorus is improved by phosphorus solublizing microorganisms (PSM) and mycorrhizae (VAM).

Rhizobium is of vital importance to various pulses and some of the oilseeds and fodder legumes as 80–90 per cent of their nitrogen requirement is met through biological nitrogen fixation (BNF). Rhizobium fixes atmospheric nitrogen ranging from 50–60 kg per ha in groundnut, 100–300 kg per ha in alfalfa. In pulses it is estimated at 50–110 kg/per ha. Field studies indicated a yield increase of 14–53 per cent due to Rhizobium inoculation. Nitrogen left over the demand of legumes in combination with the nitrogen present in roots of the legumes will enhance the soil fertility. Consequently the nutrient needs of the subsequent crop from applications will be reduced.

Biofertilizers

Definition: Biofertilizers are defined as preparations containing living cells or latent cells of efficient strains of micro–organisms that help crop plant’s uptake of nutrient by their interaction in the rhizosphere when applied through seed or soil. They accelerate certain microbial process in the soil which augments the extent of availability of nutrient in a form easily assimilated by plants.

Types of biofertilizers

There are some types of biofertilizers:

1. Nitrogen fixing biofertilizers
2. Phosphorus solubilizing biofertilizers
3. Phosphorus mobilizing biuofertilizers
4. Biofertilizers for micro–nutrients
5. Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria

Preparations containing living cells or latent cells of efficient strains of microorganisms that help crop plants to uptake of nutrients by their interactions in the rhizosphere when applied through seed or soil.

Accelerates microbial processes in the soil.

2.1 Introduction

Microbes are the oldest form of the life on earth. These organisms date more than 3 billion years to a time when they were covered with oceans. They are so tiny in size that million microbes can fit into the eye of a needle. Without microbes, we can’t live. Thus, understanding microbes is vital to understanding past and future. Microbes play vary roles in the earth’s environment recycling dead plant and animal matter through the soil, removing CO₂ from the atmosphere by photosynthesis in the oceans and nitrogen from the atmosphere to form nitrogenous fertilizers plants. Microbes play an important role in nutrient recycling, management, organic matter, decomposition and increasing the crop productivity and quality against diseases. Over the past century, many of the basic scientific principles of plant nutrition and soil fertility have been explained. In developed countries, inorganic chemical fertilizers have been widely accepted as a major source of improving and maintaining soil fertility. Plants need sufficient nutrients in proper balance for normal growth and development. Seventeen plant nutrients are essential for proper crop development. Each is equally important to the plant, yet each is required in vastly different amounts. Our understanding of nutritional needs of crop plants begin from the famous five year willow tree experiment conducted by J.B. van Helmont (1579–1644).

According to Li and Tian (2012) a pure-culture planktonic growth of bacteria is rarely found in natural environments.There is a physical interaction between the bacterial cells in biofilms (Kolenbrander, 2002; Watnick and Kolter,2000).The bacteria can organize into groups and can form well-organized communities. They also communicate for coordinated activities (Davey and O toole,2000; Watnick et al., 2000; Nadell et al., 2009). Quorum-sensing mechanisms are common in prokaryotic and single-celled eukaryotic organisms like fungi (van Bodman et al, 2008; Sordi and Muhlschlegal, 2009). For any biofilm structure to develop a high level of cell density is important (Kolenbrander et al., 2002; Kuramitsu et al., 2007 and Webb et al., 2003) and also for checking the effect of antibiotics against planktonic organisms in exponential growth phase using MIC and MBC.This can predict the antibiotic efficacy against rapidly dividing bacteria in acute infections. Papanna, Shobharani and Agrawal Renu (2010) studied the interception of quorum sensing signal molecule

Biofilms play an important part in biotechnology, immunology, biofouling and biodeterioration (Fleming and Wingender, 2001; Dunne, 2002). When the pathogenic cells adhere to the surface, it has been found that the transcription of the EPS genes get stimulated (Dunne, 2002). If EPS gene expression are monitored it can provide a good understanding of biofilm phenotypes (Allison and Sutherland, 1997; Helm and Naumann, 1995; Petersen et al., 2005). EPS serves many functions. It also enables the bacteria to capture nutrients (Pontefract,1991).The formation of biofilm goes through a mechanism which is different from species to species. Even the matrix thickness can be different from 0.2 to 1.0pm depending on the species and doubling time of the cells as thickness of 10 to 30 nm has been found in some bacteria species (Sleytr,1997). The cells secrete polysaccharides, proteins, nucleic acids and glycoproteins. Adherence on solid surfaces by microorganisms is a very complicated process that depends mostly on extracellular molecule production (Czaczyk and Myszka, 2007). The biosynthesis of EPS provides an optimal environment in which genetic material between the cells can be exchanged. This is needed for cell identification and the antigenic properties are helpful in serological characterization of the cells. Among the various compounds of extracellular carbohydrates are acetate esters, pyruvtes, formates, succinates, polysaccharides and proteins (Sutherland, 2001a).

Introduction

Biofilm formation is a series of complex process and accomplished mainly in five stages -Reversibleattachment, Irreversible attachment or colonization,Proliferation, Maturation &Dispersion. Usually biofilms comprise 10% of dry mass that represent microorganisms while the rest 90%derived from the matrix of biofilm. Microbial biofilms are aggregates of microorganisms embedded in self-produced matrices and adhere to an abiotic or biotic surface. Firstly, Marshall et al. (1971) threw light on the concept of biofilms &it’s complexity was discussed by many researchers. According to Donlan and Costerton (2002) “Biofilm as a structured community of microbial cells enclosed in a self-produced polymeric matrix and adherent to a surface to interface, and to each other” still remains the most appreciated definition of biofilms (Mishra et al., 2022). Basically, microbial biofilms are complex, dynamic and three dimensional heterogeneous structures in which cells are interconnected by EPS (Extracellular Polymeric Substances). Biofilms are found to be resistant against UV light, metal toxicity, antimicrobials and other chemical agents like soaps, detergents, disinfectant and other cleaning agents. Future insight the immense need to implicate effective methods for elimination of biofilms from the environment.

Microbial life abounds on a solid substrate. Water and some nutrients are sufficient to allow the microbial construction called biofilm. Biofilm-associated infections (BAI) can enhance chronic infections in which the bacterial pathogens can persist causing cross-contamination of the food products.

Giaouris et al. (2014) worked on the meat processing and biofilm formation by foodborne bacteria. Work on seafoods has been well worked by Mizan et al. (2015). Habimana et al. (2010) studied them in feed industry on Salmonella versus host resident flora strains. Lin et al. (2017) have studied the characteristics of some food borne pathogens. In a study by Rao et al. (2020) cold atmospheric plasma can be a solution to prevent biofilms.Ferriol-Gonzalez et al. (2020) worked out that bacteriophages can be helpful to remove biofims. According to Przekwas et al. (2020) in early stage of growth of the biofilm use of ascorbic acid can be helpful for the removal of biofilms. Apples can be protected from pathogenic bacteria by protecting them using harmless bacteria. It leads towards the development of alternative foodborne-pathogen-control strategies. Listeria monocytogenes is a big concern in the NE part of India.

Joana et al.(2016) have written a critical review on biofilms and have discussed newer methods to study biofilms. These have given a deep knowledge on the physiology, structure and composition of biofilms. More polar amino acids were present in ABPs but QSPs were made up of higher number of neutral amino acids.This helps in recognition. Web application WebLogo help in generating sequence logos (Crooks et al., 2004). The uncharged polar amino acid is present at the first, third and fifth positions.The basis of SVM model is on the amino acid composition of the peptides. The Weka model is based on selected eight inputs which is trained on the NT5 dataset and is accurate, sensitive and specific.Peptide drugs are FDA approved and a total of 242 sequences of biotech peptides/proteins are available at the Drug Bank database. To identify potential anti-biofilm activity for characterization the peptide sequences are submitted on the module of dPABBs. The prediction outcomes are displayed under the ‘Putative ABPs’ section(http://ab-openlab.

Introduction Shrimp aquaculture is a rapidly growing sector worldwide due to transform the intensive cultural practices. The demand for shrimp in the global trade market has increased significantly. The commercially farmed shrimp species, Pacific white leg shrimp, P. vannamei, dominate the market compared to tiger shrimp, P. monodon. Achieving higher shrimp aquaculture production often involves employing high stocking densities and large volumes of feed. This intensification can lead to increased waste and the accumulation of toxic substances, resulting in water pollution, requiring costly management measures to address these issues (Liu et al., 2019; Abakari et al., 2021). Therefore, addressing waste management and water quality concerns is crucial for sustaining the productivity and profitability of shrimp aquaculture operations. In addition to these, several other associated problems – decline in available land resources, escalated environmental pollution, the spread of recurring diseases, the emergence of drug-resistant microorganisms, and the impacts of climate change – with the development of shrimp aquaculture were reported (Santos and Ramos, 2018). To avoid these issues, it is essential to regulate and implement sustainable shrimp aquaculture practices that can be achieved through species and system diversification and environmentally sustainable technologies. Adopting these BFT systems allows for a more sustainable and resilient aquaculture operation (Zhao et al., 2016; 2021).

The diets of over two-thirds of the world’s population lack one or more essential mineral elements. This can be remedied through dietary diversification, mineral supplementation, food fortification, or increasing the concentrations and/or bioavailability of mineral elements in produce (biofortification) involving aspects of soil science, plant physiology and genetics underpinning crop biofortification strategies, as well as agronomic and genetic approaches currently taken to biofortify food crops with the mineral elements most commonly lacking in human diets: iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), iodine (I) and selenium (Se).

1. Introduction

Total population of India is estimated to cross 1.64 billion in 2050. Increasing population, decreasing economic status of Farmer, improper diet and nutrition, fixed farm land, degradation of cultivable land and malnutrition in Indian population is major key problem in 2 to 3 decades. More than 600000 children below 5 year age die due to improper nutrition each year in developing countries (White and Broadley, 1998). All the data provide a scary image about future. Almost 60% of the malnutrition children are iron deficient. Iron deficiency is very common among the girls; 30% each are deficient in zinc and iodine. The incomplete diet and malnutrition can lead to several disorder and degrade the human health (Shuman, 1998).

Introduction

Biofortification, also known as biological fortification, involves enhancing the nutritional content of food crops to improve bioavailability for the human population. This is achieved through the use of modern biotechnological techniques, conventional plant breeding, and agronomic practices. Unlike our current agricultural system, which primarily focuses on increasing grain yield and crop productivity, biofortification addresses the nutritional needs of the human population. The prevailing approach has led to a rapid increase in micronutrient deficiency in food grains, contributing to higher rates of micronutrient malnutrition among consumers. Biofortification presents a one-time investment that offers a cost-effective, long-term, and sustainable solution to combat hidden hunger (Sow and Ranjan, 2021a). Once biofortified crops are developed, there are no ongoing costs associated with purchasing fortificants and adding them to the food supply during processing. Agronomic biofortification methods involve the physical application of nutrients to temporarily enhance the nutritional and health status of crops. The consumption of such crops subsequently improves human nutritional status. Successful implementation of the biofortification initiative requires farmers to receive support for using micronutrient fertilisers on fortified cultivars and marketing assistance. Despite challenges, the biofortification of millets holds a promising future in addressing the issue of malnutrition.

Introduction

Biofortification is the development of nutrient dense staple food crops using the best conventional breeding practices and modern biotechnology, without sacrificing agronomic performance and important consumer preferred trait (Nestel et al., 2006). It provides a comparatively cost-effective, sustainable, and long- term means of delivering more micronutrients (Saltzman et al. 2014). This approach not only will lower the number of severely malnourished people who require treatment by complementary interventions but also will help them maintain improved nutritional status. Moreover, biofortification provides a feasible means of reaching malnourished rural populations who may have limited access to commercially marketed fortified foods and supplements. Micronutrient malnutrition (MNM) is the major constrain to provide nutritional security to world population of underdeveloped and developing countries. Among the 20 major risk factors of the global burden of disease estimates, Fe deficiency ranks 9th and Zn deficiency ranks 11th, while in the high mortality countries, including India, they rank 6th and 5th, respectively (WHO 2002).

Due to inadequate intakes of vitamins and minerals, half of the world's population suffers from micronutrient malnutrition. An adequate amount of wholesome as well as diverse foods are required for the proper growth and development. In addition to calories requirements, these foods should provide various nutrients. In India, ~70% of children do not get the required calories either due to lack of enough food or diverse food. This indicates that these children are also incapable of fulfilling their protein, minerals and vitamins requirements. Diets that lack diversity can be deficient in certain nutrients. Due to the micronutrient composition of the soil of a region, or because of the intrinsic insufficiency of the normal diet the staple foods of some region can lack particular nutrients. The individual plant foods are often deficient in certain nutrient components due to the varying level and composition of food nutrients in different food crops. Some crops are rich in one component but low in other. For example; legumes are usually high in protein, but deficient in essential amino acids like methionine whereas, wheat and rice are rich in carbohydrates but contain little essential amino acid such as lysine, iron, and lack provitamin A. Relying on a single food crop as major staple source of nutrients thus will not attain a nutritionally complete diet and result in malnutrition and deficiency diseases, which often occur in populations of developing countries, mainly due to poverty. Globally, over one billion people are undernourished and food security is a major issue with the world's population forecast reaching to nine billion by 2050.

1. Introduction According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, 780 million of the estimated 792.5 million malnourished people globally are in countries that are developing. Despite expanded agricultural production, “hidden hunger,” which is often caused by a shortage of vital micronutrients in daily meals, affects around 2 billion people worldwide. Majority of the population is relying on plant-based diets which are critical for sustaining nutritional security and are the primary source of nutrients required for optimal growth and development. Most of these diets are found deficit in major nutrients such as proteins, iron, calcium and Vitamin B12.However, a considerable number of Asian and African populations suffer from nutritional inadequacies as a result of consuming plant-based diets (Tripathi et al., 2019). Earlier, the main concern of farming systems was crop productivity and yield. However, there has been a shift in emphasis toward human health and well-being.

At this moment, the majority of energy is obtained from fossil fuels and requires switching over to alternative energy sources is the need of the hour. Fossil fuels are nonrenewable energy source and also have seriously negative impacts on the environment. The use of fossil fuels cause excessive global climate change because emissions of greenhouse pollutants and the formation of compounds CO_x, NO_x, SO_x, C_xH_y, ash and other organic compounds that are released into the atmosphere. The increase in greenhouse gas emission will result in global warming, climate change, environmental degradation and health problems.

Biofuel, any fuel that is derived from biomass - that is, plant or algae material or animal waste. Since such feedstock material can be replenished readily, biofuel is considered to be a source of renewable energy, unlike fossil fuels such as petroleum, coal, and natural gas.

12.1 Introduction

Nature has a provision for destroying and disposing off wastes and dead plants and animals. This decay or decomposition is carried out by tiny micro-organisms called bacteria. Making of farm-yard manure (FYM) and compost is also through decomposition of organic matter (OM). When a heap of vegetable or animal waste and weeds etc., die or decompose at the bottom of backwater or shallow lagoons, bubbles can be noticed rising to the surface of water. Sometimes these bubbles burn with dancing flame at dusk. This phenomenon has puzzled man for a long time. It was only during the past hundred years that Scientists unlocked this secret as the decomposition process. The gas thus produced was and is still called “Marsh Gas.” The technology of harnessing this gas under artificially created conditions is known as Biogas Technology.

3.1 Introduction

Nature has a provision for destroying and disposing off wastes and dead plants and animals. This decay or decomposition is carried out by tiny micro-organisms called bacteria. Making of farm-yard manure (FYM) and compost is also through decomposition of organic matter (OM). When a heap of vegetable or animal waste and weeds etc., die or decompose at the bottom of backwater or shallow lagoons, bubbles can be noticed rising to the surface of water. Sometimes these bubbles burn with dancing flame at dusk. This phenomenon has puzzled man for a long time. It was only during the past hundred years that Scientists unlocked this secret as the decomposition process. The gas thus produced was and is still called “Marsh Gas.” The technology of harnessing this gas under artificially created conditions is known as Biogas Technology.

11.1 General

Biogas is generated through a process of anaerobic digestion of organic materials. The materials normally used are human and animal waste, crop residues, agro-industrial waste and other biomass in a combination with water. Biogas production technology contributes in following ways:

(a)It provides a better and cheaper fuel for cooking, lighting and for power generation.

(b)It produces good quality, enriched manure to improve soil fertility.

(c)It provides and effective and convenient ways for sanitary disposal of human excreta, improving the hygienic conditions.

(d)It generates social benefits such as reducing burden on forest for meeting cooking fuel by cutting of tree for fuelwood, reduction in the drudgery of women and children etc.

(e)As a smokeless domestic fuel, it reduces the incidence of eye and lung disease.

(f)It also helps in generation of productive employment.

The biogas technology is primarily based on fermentation of cellulosic rich organic matter under anaerobic conditions. The methane producing bacteria become more active after the creation of anaerobic conditions, thus, the gas produced become rich in methane & carbon dioxide, beside traces of hydrogen sulphide, ammonia, oxygen, water vapour etc. depending on the feed material and other conditions. For burning of gas, it is necessary that methane contents should be more than 50 per cent. The complete knowledge of process of methane production including its chemistry, physiology, bio-chemistry, micro-biology and bacteriology has been studied over years in many parts of the world. The culture and isolation of microbes under various environmental conditions have been successfully experimented to improve rate of reaction. The conditions, under which cattle dung, organic wastes, bushes, weeds etc. will produce methane, can be understood through chemistry of fermentation.

8.1 Introduction

Biogas is produced by the anaerobic digestion of biodegradable materials with the help of microorganisms. Biogas is also considered as renewable energy source because of is environment friendly nature. Conversion of cattle dung, kitchen wastes and agricultural wastes into biogas have the potential to minimize the burden on the fossil fuel and reduce the environmental pollution. Majority of developing countries specially their rural and suburban areas faces lack of access to the electricity and cooking gas. Biogas technology is emerging as a sustainable technology for waste treatment which could help to tackle the waste disposal issue in developing countries. 

According to Watson, bio-herbicides are living entities (natural enemies) used deliberately to suppress the growth or reduce the population of a weed species. This may include an insect; a microbe or a parasite nematode. These organisms operate directly or indirectly (by producing toxins) and their mode of action proves deleterious to the weed species. The latter toxins are termed bio rationals, phytotoxins or natural herbicides and are excluded in the definition.Bio-herbicides are formulations containing plant pathogens capable of mass production in vitro that are applied directly to target weeds uniformly to kill or suppress their growth. This method employs the annual release of a bio-agent into specific weed infested fields to infest and kill susceptible weeds. At present only the potential use of fungal pathogens as mycoherbicide has been studied in depth. Exploitation of bacteria seems promising where use of viruses as biocontrol agents are problematic since they are not host specific and require vector for their transmission.

Abstract

Hydrogen synthesis from bioprocesses a good approach for generation clean of fuel for world's development. Throughout the ancient and current periods, most of the developmental activities are completed by consumption of non-renewable fossil fuel energy that which has resulted in multiple environmental issues or challenges (Climate change and pollution by toxic gases or byproducts formation) at global level. Biohydrogen synthesis from anaerobic bacterial fermentation could be a good effort for sustainable energy production without any toxic byproduct formation. For production of hydrogen, lignocellulosic material can be utilized as cheap raw substrates. This would help the farmers in providing surplus benefits to farmer for their agriculture residues that normally burnt and cause the serious air pollution. Utilization of agro-waste residues can help in development of sustainable biofuels for world energy need. Burning of agrowaste residues by farmer's can be discouraged via utilization as raw carbon substrates thereby reducing air pollution.

Historical Aspect

The primitive man during his long history as a hunter and food gatherer, used ruminants as food till about 6000 B.C. Later, he developed the arts of aerable -agriculture and animal husbandry. The ruminants played a major role as sources ofbothfoodandmechanicalwork. In turn, the new techniquesof foodproduction greatlyincreased the amount of food available and enabledthe establishment of settled communities.Theradicalnatureof thesedevelopments was clearlyshown by the fact that within a couple of millennia, manhad evolved from primitive to urbanized, civilized communities. Throughout the historical epochs, animal food - meat, milk and milk products continued to form an important fraction of the diet in most of the civilized societies. The favoured nature of these foods was well shown in the observation that, with increasing affluence, human -beings tended to increase the fraction of the diet provided by animal foods, especiallyfromruminants.

Since middle of twentieth century, evidences had been accumulating to indicate that the high intake of saturated fats from meat and ‘dairy products might play a role in the etiology of atherosclerosis. This concern had provided a stimulus to produce husbandrytechniquesleadingto the modification of the composition of ruminant fats as well as possibility of protecting dietary poly - unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) from ruminal biohydrogenation in 1951. Scientists all the world round, started studying ruiminant fats and ruminal lipid metabolism in this perspective. Different research groups developed various techniques of protectingdietary- PUFA, so as to make themavailable in the meat, milk and its products, but lacked the availability of sensitive techniques for confirmation. With the discovery of Gas Chromatoaraphy (GC) in 1954, a new beginning of resolution and detection of PUFA started with gradual precision. Later on, the GC was further equipped with mass - spectroscopy and subsequently with infra -red detector. The scientists were very much successful in protecting the dietary essential fatty acids (E.F.A.s) or even by - passing them from biohydrogenation in vitro.

The Distributed Information Sub Center at Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur was set up in May 1995 as the 23^rd center of the BTISNet of DBT, Government of India. The area of specilisation of the Centre is Agricultural Biotech- nology. The Centre passed through several phases involving Internet connectivity through the ordinary C band connectivity, then the Ku band connectivity etc. Now the commu- nication facilities of the Centre have been strengthened by procuring an ISDN Internet connection and a connection through ASIANET. The Center caters to the needs of the students (UG, M Sc & Ph D) and faculty of all departments of the Colleges in the main campus as well as of the other nearby academic and research centers of the University. Over the years, DISC has come to occupy a position in the KAU in the area of Infor- mation Technology , information sources and services based on Internet, CD-ROMs etc. The Centre has procured databases in the field of Biotechnology and developed several databases in the field of Agriculture and related fields. The center regularly conducts training programmes in Bioinformatics. The research activities in the field of Bioinformatics have been enhanced. The Centre has now been upgraded to DIC to facilitate intensive research on Bioinformatics in an effective manner. During the year 2004, the Centre has also started offering a course on Bioinformatics for the M.Sc Biotechnology students of the College of Horticulture.

Biotechnology research in KAU spread over various research stations and cam- puses includes Plant Biotechnology, Animal Biotechnology and Fisheries Biotechnol- ogy. Thrust areas for Plant Biotechnology include developing in vitro protocols for mass multiplication of elite types of fruit plants, ornamentals, medicinal plants, spices, plantation crops and forest species. The other thrust areas include checking clonal stability and genetic fidelity of in vitro derived plants using molecular markers, DNA finger printing and characterisation of germplasm with molecular markers, imparting biotic and abiotic stress tolerance in otherwise accepted crop varieties, genetic trans- formation for imparting/ improving expression of desired traits, in vitro germplasm conservation, enhancement of secondary metabolites production etc.

The crops identified for biotechnology research at KAU include spice crops like black pepper, ginger, turmeric, vanilla, cardamom; plantation crops like cashew, coco- nut and medicinal & aromatic plants such as Kaempferia, Trichopus, Gymnema, Holostemma and Coscinium. For improvement of such crops through molecular breed- ing, it is highly essential to identify/design specific probes/primers, micro-satellites, etc. By combining the research results generated at the Biotechnology Centre and informa- tion retrieved from the Bioinformatics Centre, suitable probes, primers are being de- signed for characterization and improvement of these unique crops through molecular breeding.

Bioinformatics is a branch of biological science which deals with the study of methods for storing, retrieving and analyzing biological data, such as nucleic acid (DNA/RNA) and protein sequence, structure, function, pathways and genetic interactions. It generates new knowledge that is useful in such fields as drug design and development of new software tools to create that knowledge. Bioinformatics also deals with algorithms, databases and information systems, web technologies, artificial intelligence and soft computing, information and computation theory, structural biology, software engineering, data mining, image processing, modeling and simulation, discrete mathematics, control and system theory, circuit theory, and statistics.

Abstract

The completion of large number of genome sequencing projects has generated large volumes of raw sequence data. One of the fundamental tasks in bioinformatics is the creation of databases for data storage and development of tools for analysis. The first plant genome to be completed is that of Arabidopsis thaliana in 2000^[49]. This was followed by the rice genome and others. The availability of complete genomes has provided us with an opportunity to analyze them and understand plant biology in a holistic way. It has enhanced our understanding of factors affecting plant growth and development, abiotic and biotic stress, disease resistance, host pathogen interactions amongst others.