eChapters

The young seedling stock and rooted cuttings as well as nursery plants require proper care and nourishment. The operations to be performed regularly in nurseries are as follows.

1. Shifting of plants: The nursery plants grown in the pots or polybags are to be shifted once in 2-3 months to avoid root penetration into the soil. If the taproot penetrates deep into the soil, the chances of mortality increases. Hence shifting of grafts and potted plants has to be done at the said intervals
2. Removal of rootstock sprouts: Once has to keep a constant watch on the sprouts arising on the rootstock, which are to be nipped off as and when, observed, to encourage rapid growth of scion shoots.
3. Irrigation: The young tender seedlings are exacting in their water requirement. Proper and judicious irrigation is an important indicator of a healthy nursery, which solves many problems in the nursery. There are many methods adopted in nurseries. However, it depends upon water availability, kind of nursery plants and its growth stage, etc. These methods are flow or flood irrigation, furrow irrigation, overhead irrigation through rose cans, automizers or sprinkler systems, etc.

The importance of green manuring in crop production has been known since ancient times. However, awareness towards soil enrichment is increasing in recent years, mainly due to comparatively high cost of inorganic fertilizers, increased risk of environmental pollution and need of sustainable cropping systems. Green manuring helps to improve physical, chemical and biological properties of soil and consequently crop yields. Green manuring lowers the nitrogenous fertilizer requirements for succeeding crops. However, it’s influence may vary with soil, crop environmental variables, type of green manure crop used and its management.

Green manuring is a practice of ploughing or turning into the soil un-decomposed green plant tissues for the purpose of improving physical structure as well as fertility of the soil. It is obtained in two ways; by growing green manure crops or by collecting green leaf (along with twigs) from plants grown in wastelands, field bunds and forest. Green manuring by growing the field plants usually belonging to the leguminous family and incorporated into the soil after sufficient growth. The most important green manure crops are sunnhemp, dhaincha, Pillipesara, cluster beans and Sesbania rostrata. The advantages of green manuring are as follows.

Vermicompost is the product of the decomposition process using various species of earthworms, to create a mixture of decomposing bedding materials and vermicast.

This process is called vermicomposting, while the rearing of worms for this purpose is called vermiculture. Vermicast is also called worm casting, worm humus, worm manure or worm faeces and are the end product of the breakdown of organic matter by earthworms. It is a mesophilic process and certain species of earthworms are used to enhance the process of organic waste conversion and produce a better end product. Vermicompost is an excellent organic fertilizer having water soluble macro as well as micronutrients, growth promoters, enzymes and soil conditioner, helpful for growth and development of plants. It helps to improve biological, chemical and physical properties of the soil.

Among many factors influencing fruit bud formation, the relative proportion of carbohydrate and nitrogen in a tree appears to be the only factor that could be controlled by an orchardist. When under normal course tree does not flower; special practices such as ringing, girdling, stripping, notching, bending, water stress (with holding irrigation), root pruning and root exposure etc. are performed with the aim to control the translocation of food like carbohydrates, starch and sugars. Accumulation of food in the branches leads to fruit bud formation resulting into fruitfulness. Before performing the special horticultural practices, the orchardist should know natural growth habit of the plant, time of new vegetative growth and flowering, when it ceases to grow vegetative and mature its woods and when it takes rest

In general, plants show two distinctive phases; i.e. vegetative growth and reproductive growth. The primary objective of plant species is to reproduce themselves through the reproductive phase. However, some of the plant species do not produce viable seeds, but reproduce themselves in nature by other means. Flowering and fruiting habits vary with plant species and are governed by the kind of plant species and its growth habit, environment etc. In general, flowering and fruiting habits are known as bearing habits and it can be described by the location and type of buds, which produce flowers and fruit. The relative position of fruit with reference to its potential bud-giving rise to flower or inflorescence on the shoot is known as bearing habit. Each plant has its own bearing habit and are either terminally, laterally or adventiously Terminally means the fruit buds are formed on long or short growth, while laterally means the fruit buds are formed in the axils of present or past season’s growth. Adventiously, the fruit buds are formed at any point on the trunk. On the basis of bearing habits, fruit crops are categorised into the following eight groups

Alternate bearing or biennial bearing is a term used in fruit crops to refers to trees that have an irregular crop load from year to year. It is a major problem in some of the fruit crops. Long term studies of flower and fruit production in some of the fruit crops demonstrated that the majority of shoots on a tree bear flowers and then fruits in one year, i.e. a greater than average crop and the next year most of the shoots will produce only leaves resulting in a smaller than average crop.Thus, it is characterized by heavy crop load in trees i.e. on year, followed by a light or no subsequent crop load i.e. off year. When on and off year sequence does not follow a systematic pattern it is called periodicity of cropping or irregular bearing. Phenomenon of alternation is more prominent in the perennial fruit crops particularly Anacardiaceae (mango, Pistachionut), Carylaceae (hazelnut), Oleaceae (Olives), Rosaceae (apple, Pear, Plum, Apricot, etc.), Rutaceae (orange, tangor, satsuma, etc.) and also in tamarind, Jamun etc.

Fruit drop is a natural phenomenon, which occurs in most of the fruit crops. Fruit trees usually bear a large number of flowers and only a very small percentage leads to harvesting of fruits. Fruit drop occurs at various stages of maturity of fruit development. It is an adjustment of tree to its resources. Such drop is natural and beneficial to the trees and it will prevent exhaustion of the resources and breaking of branches by overbearing. The fruit drop usually takes place in definite waves or at a definite stage and those are presetting, post setting, jar drop and pre harvest drop.

The first drop i.e. presetting occurs immediately after flower opening. Usually male flowers as well as female/ hermaphrodite flowers with aborted pistil drop off at this stage.

Second drop i.e. post setting occurs a fortnight later than the first drop. This drop includes unfertilized flowers as well as some fertilized flowers drop as a result of adjustment in the trees between nutritional factors arid fruit set.

When fruit trees grow naturally; canopy varies greatly from species to species and cultivar to cultivar. It is mainly due to climate, planting density, rootstock, method of propagation, training, pruning, regularity of bearing, soil type, nutrition, irrigation, intercrop, growth regulators used, diseases, pests, environmental pollution etc. Plant canopy means the spread of branches and foliage of a plant.

Canopy management of the fruit tree deals with the development and maintenance of their structure in relation to the size and shape for the maximum productivity and quality. The basic concept in canopy management of a perennial tree is to make the best use of the land and climatic factors for an increased productivity in a three dimensional approach. Ideal canopy means fruit trees should have adequate number of fruiting units, it allows sufficient light and ventilation in to canopy and it should support adequate foliage and protect the fruits from sunburn. It should avoid overlapping of foliage to minimize parasitic leaves. It offers scope for effective coverage of sprays. It should avoid the buildup of microclimate, congenial for pest and diseases development. Tree vigour, light, temperature and humidity play a vital role in the production and quality of the fruits.

Plastic has now become an integral part of horticultural production at various stages from nursery to marketing at consumers’ door during the last two decades. It is used at each and every stage of horticultural life cycle right from seeds packaging, nursery seedling raising, planting, propagation, mulching, irrigation, harvesting, fruit packing, preservation and marketing. The application of plastics in the agriculture sector is popularly known as Plasticulture.In 1948 Professor E.M. Emmert built the first plastic greenhouse, a wooden structure covered with cellulose acetate film. He later switched this to a more effective polyethylene film. After the introduction of plastic film to agriculture, it began being used at a larger scale around the world by the early 1950s to replace paper for mulching vegetables. By 1999 almost 30 million acres worldwide were covered in plastic mulch.

Air pollution is the major environmental problem due to rapid urbanization and industrialization. It has led to continuous deterioration of air quality in both developed and developing countries.

Air pollution is characterized by high concentrations of suspended particulate matter, oxides of sulphur and nitrogen. Air pollution has long term effects on fruit trees; when exposed to higher orabnormal levels of various air pollutants. The injury symptoms range from visible marks on foliage, reduced growth and yield to premature death of the plant. The development and severity of injury depends not only on the concentration of the particular pollutant, but also on a number of other supporting factors. These include the duration of exposure to the pollutant, the plant species and development stage as well as conducive environmental factors.

Air pollution problems: Air pollutants are injurious to vegetation can generally be classified as either local or widespread.

Intellectual property (IP) means a brand, invention, design or other kind of creation.Intellectual property contains an author’s copyright on a book or article, a distinctive logo design of any product or web site, patent regarding the process of manufacturing.However, Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) can be defined as legal rights given to people over the creation of their minds or intellectual activity in industrial, scientific, literary and artistic fields. Creator gets an exclusive right for a certain period of time to use his/her creations.Creations of the mind means inventions, literary and artistic works and symbols, names, images, and designs used in commerce. Intellectual property laws vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, such that the acquisition, registration or enforcement of IP rights must be pursued or obtained separately in each territory of interest.

After independence, the Government of India realized the need of diversification in agriculture during the mid-eighties with an objective to make it more profitable through efficient land use. Due to diverse agro-climatic conditions, rich diversity in genetic resources of horticultural crops, sincere efforts through education and research, implementation of standardized technology by horticulturist in the field has achieved not only the production, productivity and export of horticultural produce but also the food and nutritional security. Such horticulture development in India is proudly said as “Golden Revolution”. Horticulture is also said to be a sunrise industry as it has potential to raise farm income, provide livelihood security and earn foreign exchange through export.

The horticulture industry is now expanding in many commercial sectors such as cultivation, production, post-harvest handling, processing, marketing, etc. Horticulture crops are grown on an area of 10% of India’s gross cropped area, as compared to over 50% of the area under food grains production. 

Introduction to Hi-Tech Horticulture Greenhouse area in different countries

1. Japan - 42,000 (ha)
2. Holland - 10,000 (ha) 3) Italy - 20,000 (ha)
3. USA - 4,000 (ha)
4. India - 700 (ha)
   • Crops are grown in the greenhouse Strawberry, grapes, citrus, banana, papaya, melons.
   • Salt affected soils in different states: UP - 2,375 °
     • Gujarat - 1,334
     • W.B. - 1,150
     • RJ - 458
     • Punjab - 749 Haryana - 636

• Gender change due to bud mutation in the mature male vine.
• Actinidia arguata is acold tolerant species.
• Commercial propagation - Stem cutting, Softwood cutting
• Flowering time is from the last week of April to 3rd week of May.
• Storage rot, a major disease during storage is caused by Botrytis cinerea
• Hayward is one of the a most popular cultivars in the world.
• It is a deciduous wine.
• It was planted for the first time in the Lal Bagh garden at Bangalore around 1960.
• T-bar or Pergola is adopted for training the vines.
• It is a rich source of Vitamin-C.
• The skin of the fruit is a good source of flavoured antioxidant.

• Drought resistant, Salt tolerant and hardy temperate fruit crop
• Highly perishable fruit
• Vitamin A 2600IU
• Thiamine : 217mg/100g
• Wild apricot or Zardalu has originated from India.
• Popular training system – Open vase system
• Apricot bears on spurs and laterally on 1year-old shoots.
• Apricot spur life – 3-4 years
• Ideal thinning agent – NAA @25-50ppm, 20 days after fruit set
• Ideal stage for freezing, canning and drying fully ripe fruits
• Chaubattia Alankar – Kaishu × Charmagz – Low chilling and early ripening
• Chaubattia Madhu – Turkey × Charmagz – Early ripening
• Chaubattia Kesri – St. Amrbois × Charmagz – mid season variety
• Low chilling subtropical varieties – New Castle, Early Shipley, St. Ambroise, Kaisha.

• Native to temperate regions of Northern Hemisphere.
• Chilling requirement – 2000-2700 hr, highest among temperate fruits.
• Heavy rainfall during flowering causes – Blossom wilt.
• Heavy rainfall during ripening causes fruit cracking.
• In Europe, a wine – ‘Kirschwasser’ is distilled from the pulp of cherries.
• Most of the commercial varieties of cherry are self-sterile.
• Seedling rootstock – Pazza, Mahaleb, Mazzard
• Clonal rootstock – Colt, Mazzard, F-12/1
• Cherry fruits are the first to appear in the market among temperate fruits.
• Cherry has more calorific value them apple.
• Donar vars: Stella, Vista, Vic, Seneca, Vega.

• Avocado is a dense and evergreen tree can grow about 80 feet height
  • Single seeded berry - Fat – 24-26%
  • Recalibrate seeds - Sugar – 1% Rich in K, Fe, Vitamins – B
• Its energy value is twice as much as Banana fruit.
• Most leading avocado cultivar in the world – Fuertes.
• Avocado is classified into 3 distinct horticultural races.
  1. Mexican – Coli fried Duke Pernod
  2. West Indian – Pollock, Simmonds, Black Prince Fuchsia, Peterson, Waldin.
  3. Guatemalan – Taylor, Linda, Queen, Benit
• Duke seedlings are resistant to root rot and cold hardiness.
• Important to salad fruit

• Fragaria chiloensis × Fragaria virginiana (Diploid species) is the artificial man – made hybrid.
• Monoecious is a quick growing fruit plant and takes short span of the day to grow.
• It is a low growing perennial herb.
• It is one of the best fruit crops for the kitchen garden.
• Strawberry is a complete fruit with 98% of edible portions.
• It is rich in vitamin-C and iron.
• Ethyl ester i.e., ethyl butanoate and ethyl hexanoate are responsible for the flavour of strawberry fruit:
• Indian wild strawberry Fragaria vasca.
• Hermaphroditism is much more common in Fragaria chiloensis
• Micro propagation was first started in this fruit.
• The flowers, generally white, are borne in small clusters.
• Both self and cross - pollination occur in this fruit crop.
• Honeybees are the major pollinators.
• Mulching is an important cultural operation in strawberry cultivation.

To identify parasitic infections, it is essential to examine excretory- secretory products (ESPs), viz., faeces, urine, sputum and nasal discharges as examination of such material is essential for clinical diagnosis. It is extremely rare to get an animal completely free from parasites and at the same time all animals may not show signs of disease. Most of the important helminths and coccidia inhabit intestinal tract. Therefore, clinical diagnosis of gut dwelling helminths and coccidian depends mostly on identification of ova/oocyst in faecal samples

Puberty • It is the age at which sexual organs are functionally developed and gonads start responding to GnRH to start steroidogenesis and spermatogenesis. Animal at puberty develops secondary sexual characters with proper libido. • At puberty, the bull is able to produce 50 million spermatozoa with 10% progressive motility in 1st seminal ejaculates. It should be 100 million spermatozoa with 10% progressive motility in 1st seminal ejaculate in case of stallion. • At puberty, gonadotrophic cells are functionally developed in the mature pituitary tends to gonadal maturation. The steroidogenesis starts properly which leads to the development of genital organs and secondary sexual characters.

Libido • It is the willingness & eagerness of male animal to mount and perform complete service. It is sexual desire or drive which is an innate character of male animals. • Libido and mating ability have no direct relation with fertility. Libido is not related directly to sperm production and semen quality. • The libido of an animal depends on androgenic steroid hormone. Vasectomy or cryptorchidism does not affect libido in male animals. • Animals have no or reduced libido that are castrated before puberty. If the animals, that know the copulation, are castrated after puberty, they display the copulation behaviour for longer period. • Reaction time – It is the time between the contact of a male animal with female animal to 1st false mount with erected penis. Reaction time is the good predictor of libido.

• These are the injuries occurred to male animal at the time of natural mating. These injuries do not occur only to genital organs but also to other organs or muscles. • Most coital injuries occur to male animal with good libido (high testosterone level) but having aggressiveness and poor experience of mating. Such animals tend to quick response in the presence of estrous female. Some of the coital injuries are: 1. Balanitis and Posthitis • Trauma to the penis and prepuce which later on leads to infection and inflammation. • This occurs especially in young inexperienced bulls with great sexual desire • Adhesion may lead to phimosis or paraphimosis condition • IBR-IPV infection from cow genitalia after mating results in pus formation and necrosis of the penis and prepuce. • Prepucial eversion leads to laceration and bleeding.

• These are the bad habits of the male animal due to which ultimately their maximum reproductive potential cannot be utilized. • There are so many vices seen in male animals like stall walking, weaving, cribbing, wind sucking, crib biting, viciousness etc. These behavioural disorders are mostly due to improper managemental practices like abusive handling, poor exercise, irregular semen collection and poor exposure to female etc. These may be also due to hormonal imbalance or nervous disorders. - Some important vices which are more related to reproductive behaviour are: 1. Masturbation (Onanism) • Bulls masturbate by rubbing their prepuce and penis against any object. • Boar masturbate and ejaculate by inserting the penis into the preputial diverticulum called Balling up • Boar may show rectal copulation and leads to ejaculate : Pederasty

There are some methods to control male reproductive behaviour for better breeding and managemental practices i.e. Vasectomy and Caudal epididymectomy, Penile surgeries, and castration etc. • Surgical and non surgical interventions in the male reproductive system are carried out for: • To make teaser bull • To make bull sterile • To prevent the transmission of venereal diseases • Population control or Breeding management • To rectify any ailment or deformity Teaser Bull • A male animal whose capability of spermatogenesis as well as libido is maintained but it is not able to impregnate a female. • For the preparation of teaser bull or Gomer bull, Male animal should be selected well before the start of breeding season. Bull should be young vigorous and fertile. It should be of moderate adult size with mild temperament. Heavy and large sized bull is tough to handle, needs more time for surgery, has chances of more hemorrhage, and may have more post surgical complications.

Soil is a natural resource that exists on the planet much before the existence of mankind on it. The human relationship with soil throughout the history of mankind has marked its ability of crop production and influenced the success of civilisation. Such relationships also affirm soil as the foundation of agriculture and food security, supplying all the essential ingredients to plants, as fundamentals to life on planet, and support various biogeochemical cycles on earth’ s terrestrial ecosystem. Prosperity of human society depends on the utilisation of planet’ s resources in creative and productive ways. Of these resources, soil has gained much importance as it provides human to sustain themselves with their capacity to food production, to make significant contribution towards biodiversity and other ecosystem services that are vital for the functioning and resilience of earth’ s environment. Soil occupies a pivotal position in the environment to maintain its quality.

1. Calibration of Milk Butyrometer

Introduction

Butyrometer is used for determination of fat for milk and milk products by Gerber method. The milk butyrometer is a graduated vessel, which are designed in such a way that the internal volume of each unit is 0.125 ml which is corresponding to 1 percent fat. Sometimes due to manufacturer’s error, the volume of one unit of milk butyrometer is not exactly equal to 0.125 which leads to subsequent error in results in milk fat. So before starting to use a new butyrometer, it is essential to calibrate for its efficiency in the laboratory. Mercury is used to calibrate milk butyrometer.

Apparatus

Milk butyrometer (0 – 10% graduation), analytical balance

Etiology

 Acral lick dermatitis is usually observed on extremities of dogs and the probable etiology is persistent licking. It is also caused due to self-trauma or mutilation.

Etiology

The condition is usually caused by implantation of low virulent saprophytic bacteria due to traumatic injury. These organisms stimulate cell mediated immune response by persistence of antigen in the tissue.

Etiology

Pemphigus foliaceous is a bullous autoimmune skin disease of canines affect ing epidermis and hair follicles. The recorded targeted auto-antigen in canine pemphigus foliaceous is desmoglein 1 (Dsg 1). This auto-antibody binds to Dsg 1 which is a prominent component of desmosome in the superficial layer of epidermis and hair follicle. It may be due to loss of intercellular cohesion leading to acantholysis followed by formation of superficial vesicles and bul lae. The common sites for the development of pemphigus in dogs are dorsal lateral muzzle, temporal, planum nasale, pinnae, periorbital skin and paw pads.

Etiology

Demodecosis is caused by Demodex species follicular mite with increased numbers. But, it is generally caused by Demodex canis. It is divided into two forms – juvenile and adult forms. The juvenile form is more common. This condition may be localized or generalized in nature.

Etiology

It is a pruritic transmissible dermatological condition caused by Cheyletiella yasguri, one of the surface living mite.

Basal cell carcinoma is a locally malignant epithelial tumor of skin which is mainly composed of basal cells. This may occur due to mutation in the tumor suppressor gene p53 and chronic exposure to UV radiation.

Cytologically, neoplastic cylindrical columnar cells, are moderate to high in number. The neoplastic cells are small to medium sized with round to spherical nuclei with basophilic cytoplasm (Figure 42 & 43).

Perianal gland tumors originate around the anus of the dog, upper and lower part of the tail and prepucial area. Retention of gonadal hormone receptors is one of the causes for perianal gland adenoma and adenocarcinoma.Cytology reveals the presence of hepatoid cells with centrally placed nuclei and prominent nucleoli. A small flattened reserve cells or resting cells are also noticed around the hepatoid cells. In malignant variety, the cells containing large vesicular nuclei, eosinophilic granular cytoplasm and binucleated cells, mitotic figures, reserve cells, moderate stroma and lymphoplasmacytic infiltration are seen (Figure 55 & 56).

Cutaneous lymphoma has two types viz. Epitheliotropic and non- epitheliotropic. Epitheliotropic lymphoma (mycosis fungoides) is mostly seen in the skin which is characterized by erythema, pruritus, alopecia, scaling, erosion and ulceration. It mostly occurs in plaques or nodules (Figure 80). Non-epitheliotropic lymphomas are observed as nodules. They are usually sheets of nodules seen in the deep dermal and subcutaneous tissue.

Site of incision: Make a straight dorso-ventral incision through skin from the summit of dorsal vertebral spine to the cranioventral aspect of shoulder joint. Extend it up to the cranial margin of shoulder joint, then caudo-ventrally up to caudal most part of elbow joint. Make another ventrodorsal straight incision from caudal most point of elbow joint to the summit of vertebral spine then reflect the skin flap from ventral to dorsal up to mid dorsal line of the body. Remove the facia to expose the various muscles of this region.

Site of incision

Remove the skin flap of pectoral region to expose the pectoral muscles.

Site of incision: Detach the limb from the trunk by cutting various muscles viz; pectoral muscles, serratus ventralis, latissimus dorsi, brachiocephalicus, omotransversarius, trapezius, rhomboideus and long head of triceps.

Site of incision

Make a mid-lateral and mid-medial longitudinal incision on forelimb from elbow joint to 3rd digit. Joins the above incisions transversally on cranial aspect of elbow joint and 3rd phalanx, respectively. Remove the skin on dorsolateral aspect of limb

Site of incision-Make a rostro-caudal incision along the ventral border of horizontal ramus of mandible then extend cranio-dorsally along caudal margin of nostrils up to middorsal line of face. From the caudal end of 1st incision make another incision dorsally up to base of the ear then passes cranially along the ventral aspect of eye up to mid dorsal line of face. Reflect the skin carefully from ventral to dorsal, carefully remove the muscle zygomaticus, malaris and nasolabialis as these are firmly attached to skin.

Site of incision: Make a midventral incision on the sternum from cranial to caudal than from both ends of this incision make cranial incisions along the caudal border of shoulder and arm region to mid dorsal aspect of back and along last rib to mid dorsal aspect of back, respectively. Reflect the skin flap from ventral aspect to mid dorsal region of back.

Site of incision: Cut the skin over the back and loin region by making cranio caudal straight incision along the proximal part of 1st rib and the lateral margin of transverse process of lumbar vertebrae up to wing of sacrum and reflect the skin to mid dorsal aspect of back and loin.

Site of incision: Make a transverse incision below the anus between lateral margins of tuber ischia. Then from each end of this incision make an oblique incision caudo-cranially so that these join midventrally each other between the thighs. Remove the triangular flap of skin to expose the region.

Site of incision: Make a mid-lateral and mid-medial longitudinal incision on hind-limb from stifle joint to 3rd digit. Joins, the above incisions transversally on cranial aspect at stifle joint and 3rd phalanx, respectively. Remove the skin on dorsolateral aspect of limb.

Site of incision: Make a mid-lateral and mid-medial longitudinal incision on hindlimb from stiffle joint to 3rd digit. Joins the above incisions transversally on caudal aspect at stiffle joint above and 3rd phalanx below, respectively. Remove the skin on plantero-medial aspect of limb.

Introduction

Protected cultivation or greenhouse cultivation is the most common technique to grow vegetable crops qualitatively and quantitatively, and has spread widely all over the world in recent decades. Greenhouse agriculture is also known as environmentally controlled planting. The technology involves the cultivation of vegetable crops in a regulated environment in which factors such as tem perature, soil, light, humidity, irrigation, fertilizers, etc. are controlled in order to achieve optimum production and ensure a steady supply even in off-season conditions. In India, the total area under protected cultivation or green house is currently approximately 25 000 ha whereas the protected vegetable area is approximately 2000 ha which has been challenged by land ownership limita tions, decreasing crop production, rapid urbanization, ever increasing popu lation and decreasing biodiversity. Food demand, especially vegetables, has increased growing of different crop varieties as protected crops, or greenhouse has opened up a new dimension to extra production within a limited crop area.

Introduction

Rice plays a unique role in providing food to the majority of the world population. Rice is the most widely consumed food for nearly three-fourths of the population in India. Now a days scented rice is getting higher market price than normal rice varieties. Black Scented rice is commonly considered as forbidden rice. Different researches proved that black Scented rice is one of the “super food” of the world. Black Scented rice is consumed in various ways like puddings, pulao, bread, etc in different festivals and during important ceremonies. Mostly this crop is prone to lodging but resistance to infestation by insect and pest. Works done in India and abroad indicates that the particular method of establishment, adequate level of nitrogen and a particular time of application of nitrogenous fertilizer can enhance productivity. Nitrogen is the main nutrient that determines rice yield, due to its role in the photosynthesis, biomass accumulation and, spikelet formation (Hasegawa et al., 1994; Yoshida et al., 2006).

Rice is the longest continuously grown cereal crop in the world and according to the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) it is “one of the most important developments in history” (Forssell, 2008). India has to produce 114 million tons of rice by the year 2030 to meet the food grain requirement of burgeoning population. In state Bihar, Kharif is the predominant season with rice cultivated in 3.2 m ha. On the other hand the rice is cultivated in about 1 lakh ha during Rabi season (Anonymous, 2014). The process-based dynamic simulation crop models based on soil, crop and weather factors could be effective research tools for planning alternative strategies for crop management, land use and water management and also a useful tool for planning and developing technological interventions in diverse areas like India (Aggarwal and Kalra, 1994).

Introduction

Soil is one of the elements required for farming and it provides nutrients to the plant. Healthy soil containing all the elements for growth and development of crop as well as heart of soil health is the integration of the soil physical, chemical, and biological process and its functions. But inorganic farming adopted over the recent years to maximize crop production has become Hazardous because in the long run deteriorating the soil health and the quality of the agricultural produces besides polluting the environment and natural resources of soil and water dangerously. Soil testing helps to recommend chemicals fertilizers more judiciously in combination with organic manures and bio fertilizers and hence balanced nutrition to crop. Soil health and fertility is the basis for sustainable profitability of the farmers. Soil testing is a science based and time-tested tool for assessment of soil fertility status and soil ailments and for nutrient amendment recommendations.

The current world population of 7.6 billion is expected to reach 8.6 billion in 2030, 9.8 billion in 2050 and 11.2 billion in 2100, according to United Nations (UN). With roughly 83 million people being added to the world’s population every year, the upward trend in population size is expected to continue, even assuming that fertility levels will continue to decline (UN, 2017). This means there will be an extra billion people to feed within the next decade. Continuing population and consumption growth will mean that the global demand for food will increase for at least another 50 years .The future’s food systems need to be resource efficient and sustainable. It is quite clear that the only way to grow more food is to increase the yield while saving the environment from further degradation. It is not just food, it is the four F’s – Food, Feed, Fiber and Fuel. Digitization has increased in importance for the agricultural sector and is described through concepts like Smart Farming (SF), Precision Farming (PF) and Precision Agriculture (PA).The only way to get higher yield from limited resources is by changing agriculture into what we call Precision Agriculture, Climate Smart Agriculture, or as I prefer to call it Water-Smart Agriculture”

Nutritional and food security is the problem of the day globally due to increase in population by many folds. It is therefore one of the important challenges of public and private sector to provide nutrient rich food with appropriate security for development of human kingdom. Advances in food production have largely kept pace with demand. More than 830 billion people are still hungry and more than 2 billion people are lack of sufficient nutrients. Paradoxically, more than 2 billion people are overweight or obese. Malnutrition means bad nutrition not only under nutrition. For some time the food debate centered on the food security drawing on wildly accepted thinking from 1966 i.e. world food summit which defined food security as a state or condition “when all people at all times are physical, economic and social access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet the dietary needs and food preference for active and healthy life”. Thus nutrients are necessary component to food security.