eChapters

INTRODUCTION

Management of several of the important insect-pests of crops is becoming increasingly difficult owing to a number of factors by which pests have been able to offset the effect of control interventions. Several of the present day pest management problems may be ascribed to the excessive and indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides during the last about three decades. Routine application of insecticides for controlling insect-pests, without taking into consideration whether economic damage to the crops is being inflicted by the pest or not, has resulted into several problems like pest resistance, pest resurgence, pest replacement, killing of natural enemies of pests, presence of toxic residues in food, and soil and environmental pollution, etc., apart from increase in the cost of plant protection. Entomologists have been trying to find solution to these problems through integrated pest management of which monitoring of insect activity through regular surveys is an important component. In fact, knowledge of insect activity is indispensable since pest management system can not operate without accurate estimates of pests and natural enemies population or without reliable assessment of plant damage and its effect on yield.

Introduction

India ranks second in the production of vegetables after China. The existing area under vegetable cultivation in India is around 4.5 million ha. There is a need of around 5-6 million tons of food to feed 1.3 billion India’s population by 2020 AD. The major constraint in vegetable production, include the extensive crop losses due to increased pest infestations directly or due to viral diseases vectored by insects. The extent of crop losses in vegetables varies with the plant type, location, damage potential of the pest involved and cropping season. Vegetables are more prone to insect pests and diseases mainly due to their succulence as compared to other crops. The crop losses to the tune of 40 per cent have been observed in vegetable crops. The increased demand and limited productivity of local cultivars, led to introduction of high yielding varieties and hybrids. As a result, dramatic changes in pest scenario occurred like minor pests assuming major status (eg., Serpentine leaf miner, Liriomyza trifolii a serious problem in tomato hybrids). Chemical pesticides are the sole panacea to mange the pest by vegetable farmers even today. Indiscriminate use of pesticides has led to severe ecological consequences like destruction of natural enemy fauna, effect on non-target organisms, pesticide residues in vegetables and resistance of the pest to pesticides. The modern pest management is aimed at educating the farmers on various issues of pest management like identification of the pests, natural enemies, judicious use of pesticides with alternate methods of pest control like cultural, mechanical, biological and behavioral (pheromones) management.

Limitation of Weende Method

The partition of carbohydrate into fiber (CF) and nitrogen free extract (NFE) is presumed to represent a separation of less digestible starch and sugars. However, in 20 to 30 percent feeds listed by Morrison, the NFE is less digestible than the CF. This comes about for several reasons, the most important of which is the CF method (successive boiling with dilute sulphuric acid and sodium hydroxide) does not recover all the fiber and large portions of fibrous constituents  are extracted into the NFE. The most  important of these fractions are lignin and hemicellulose are dissolved by both acid and alkali. The basic error of the NFE concept is the assumption that if constituents are soluble they are digestible. Lignin, the rigid component of wood, not only is indigestible but lowers the digestibility of substances with which it is associated.

Another portion of the indigestible part of NFE arises from an artifact in the calculation of faecal NFE, where it is presumed that faecal nitrogen is protein (N x 6.25). Actually, 80-90 percent faecal nitrogen is NPN and is composed of bacterial residue in which the ratio of organic matter to nitrogen is about 1:4. Thus, part of the faecal NFE arises by an underestimation of the organic matter associated with faecal nitrogen.

Introduction

The first application of atomic absorption spectra to chemical analysis was made just over 100 years ago by Kirchoff (1860), who demonstrated the presence of various elements in the solar atmosphere. He and Bunsen, demonstrated shortly afterwards that atomic spectra, whether in emission or absorpiton, could be the basis of a powerful method of chemical analysis. Walsh (1955) recognized the potential advantages of the absorption method over emission method and devised simple and versatile apparatus applicable to the routine analysis of solutions of a wide range of elements. Alkemade and Milatz (1955) published papers describing the application of atomic absorption  techniques to chemical analysis.

Adulteration in animal and human foods has become common feature in the country, therefore we should be cautious while selecting animal/human feed ingredients.

The author of this compendium has developed. “Animal Feed Testing Kit” based on novel cud liquor enzyme complex (innovation certified by ISA, International Search Authority - Patent office, Vienna), registered with WIPO (Geneva). This method is described in detail in this chapter and Patent application is field at Indian Patent Office Delhi.

Now-a-days, animal feed is being adulterated with extraneous materials viz, Saw dust, Ric hulls, sand and Silica, Castor husk, oat hulls and urea (higher than 01 percent limit on dry matter basis).

The highly specialized organs that receive physical and chemical stimuli from the environment and various body parts, and transform them into stimuli are called sense organs or sensory receptors. These organs are closely associated with nervous system. The physical stimuli such as change of heat, light intensity and quality, acoustical stimuli and chemical stimuli like hear, taste, smell, touch, lateral line etc are received by the sense organs such as ear, eye, nose and others. These are more prominent sense organs. Less obvious ones in fishes are sensory crypts and papillae, ampullae of Lorenzini and Savi.

The crustaceans have various sense organs whose action are mediated through the nervous system. Crustacean antennae are important sites for the reception of environmental information, mainly chemical, and aesthetases, the olfactory hairs on the first pair, are usually well developed. The aesthetases help not only in locating food but also in recognizing other individuals and their sexual state.  The frequent grooming of the antennae by many decapods prevents fouling of the receptor sites (Bauer, 1971).

Plants yielding oilseeds are economically important in India next only to food crops and play an important role for sustainability of  cropping systems and soil health. Oilseeds scenario in the country underwent a sea change in  last fifteen years. India changed from net importer in  1980s to a net exporter  during  early 1990s. Again, it is back to net importer importing more than 40 % of its annual edible oil needs. Country’s demand for edible oils is  rising to double  the current level of 4% (as against productivity growth of 2% in 1986-2001) in  next 12 years (Hegde 2004). To meet  challenges of oilseeds production, there is  need to adopt multi-pronged strategy which involves enhancing production through area expansion and productivity improvement through improved technologies and value addition . As a progressive step in this direction of self sufficiency, there is  need to identify alternative oilseed trees/plants which can be grown in wastelands. There are more than 300 different kinds of tree species which bear seeds  rich in oil and  introduction of simarouba is an important step in this direction. National Oilseeds and Vegetable Oil Development (NOVOD) Board under Ministry of Agriculture  identified simarouba as a potential Tree Bearing Oilseed (TBO) for popularization in India and placed it in  first place in their list of importance.

The Cucurbitaceae family is characterized by long training viny stems. There is variation for flower size and colour among the species but all of them have similar general morphology. The species are open pollinated and self compatible. Most of them are either monoecious (eg. Cucurbita spp.) Or andromonoecious (e.g. common in melon). Other species show gynomonoecy, androgynomonoecy, androecy, gynoecy, hermaphrodite or dioecy. Chow-chow is the only member of the Cucurbitaceae that is viviparous, contains single seed and propagated by planting whole fruit. The Indian gene centre has rich diversity in genetic resources of ridgegourd (Luffa acutangula), bottlegourd (Lagenaria siceraria), bittergourd (Momordica charantia), ashgourd (Benincasa hispida), snakegourd (Trichosanthes anguina), pointed gourd- parval (Trichosanthes dioica), pumpkin (Cucurbita spp.) and roundgourd (Praecitrullus vulgaris). Cucurbits are of tremendous economic importance and are cultivated throughout the world from tropical to sub-temperate zones. China, Turkey, India and Iran are important cucurbit growing countries. In India, this diversity is concentrated in Indo-Gangatic plains, north eastern region, north western Himalayas, the Western and Eastern Ghats and sporadically in the tribal dominant belts of central India.  More diversity occurs in Cucurbita spp. in the north east as also for ashgourd, bottlegourd while for Luffa, it is more concentrated in the eastern peninsular tract.

Bael is one of the oldest and useful trees of India. The bael fruit, (Aegle marmelos Correa) is also called Bengal quince (John and Stevenson, 1979), Indian quince, golden apple, holy fruit, stone apple, bel, belwa, sriphal and maredoo in India. Among the indigenous fruits of India, Bael occupies an important place. All the parts of bael tree have their own importance. It is a medicinally and economically important fruit crop with immense potential for extending its cultivation in semi-arid degraded land. Mention of bael cultivation in Indian literature dates back to 800 B.C.  Bael fruit is available in almost all states of India but most abundantly available in Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.

The Bael fruit is one of the most nutritious fruits. It contains 61.5 g water, 1.8 g protein, 0.39 g fat, 1.7 g mineral, 31.8 g carbohydrate, 55 mg carotene, 0.13 mg thiamin, 1.19 mg riboflavin, 1.1 mg niacin and 8 mg vitamin C / 100 gm of edible portion (Gopalan et al., 1971). It contains the highest riboflavin content among fruits. Marmelosin is, most probably, the therapeutically active principle of bael fruit. It is isolated as a colorless crystaline compound (Dixit and Dutt., 1932).The astringent taste of bael fruit is due to phenolic compounds. The medicinal properties of bael have been dealt with in Charaka Samhita (Aiyar, 1956). Bael fruit has curative, pesticidal and nutritive properties. The leaves of bael are used for worship of Lord Shiva. Green bael fruits are used for preparing Murabba (preserve) generally taken for stomach ailments. Bael fruits have an immense potential for processing into products like squash, jam, toffee, candy and syrups for internal and foreign market.

The circumstances concerning the diffusion of  main cultivated citrus from their places of origin in Asia are studied here, showing that the citron (Citrus medica L.) was the only one known in Ancient times in Europe, while the lemon (C. limon [L.] Osbeck), lime (C. aurantiifolia [Christm.] Swingle), pomelo (C. maxima [Burm.] Merr.) and sour orange (C. × aurantium L.) were introduced to Europe by the Muslims via the Iberian Peninsula and Sicily, and that the grapefruit (C. × aurantium L. [C. paradisi Macfad.]), mandarin (C. reticulata Blanco) and sweet orange (C. × aurantium L.) arrived to the West between the fifteenth and nineteenth centuries as a result of the trade with the British and Portuguese colonies.

Use of medicinal plants is as old as human civilization. India has a glorious tradition of health care system based on plants, which dates back to vedic era. Rig Veda , the oldest known repository of human knowledge and wisdom (4500-2500 B.C.) mentions about several medicinal plants used by the Aryans while in Atharva veda (2500-2000 B.C.) elaborates description of medicinal plants is given. Later, in Samhita period, the science of medicine systematically organized with clear concept and theories based on the treatises like Charak Samhita – 2000 B.C. and Sushruta Samhita – 1000-800 B.C (Maiti, 2008). Traditionally medicinal plant communities depended on plants to meet their basic needs over centuries. The pharmaceutical industry views plant wealth as a source of income. The modern medicine world perceives plants as a panacea for many ills. Despite this, there is no consolidated strategy to conserve medicinal plants for their use (Purohit and Vyas, 2005).

Grafting is a horticultural technique. It is used commercially for many woody plants and some herbaceous plants. The purposes of grafting include asexual propagation, obtaining resistance to soil borne diseases, nematodes and unfavorable conditions, and improving fruit quality. Although there are advantages to grafting, graft incompatibility often prevents its practical use. Graft incompatibility occurs when the combination of scion and rootstock is inappropriate. The enormous range of genotype varieties used in grafting results in a wide range of physiological, biochemical and anatomical interactions between graft partners. Therefore, the causes and mechanisms of graft incompatibility vary according to graft combinations. Garner (1979) defined graft incompatibility as the failure to unite into a strong union, the failure to grow in a healthy manner, or premature death, when such failures could be attributed to differences between rootstock and scion.
 
The purpose of this review is to understand graft incompatibility as an aid to solving graft incompatibility problems. The symptoms and types of graft incompatibility are described, the causes and mechanisms of graft incompatibility are explored, and directions for future research are identified.

Introduction 

A toxin (Greek: ôïîéêüí, toxikon, lit. (poison) for use on arrows) is a poisonous substance produced by living cells or organisms that is active at very low concentrations. Toxins can be small molecules, peptides, or proteins and are capable of causing disease on contact or absorption with body tissues by interacting with biological macromolecules such as enzymes or cellular receptors. Toxins vary greatly in their severity, ranging from usually minor and acute (as in a bee sting) to almost immediately deadly (as in botulinum toxin)

A toxin is simply a poison that can affect the body by internal or external means. A toxin can be a chemical which occurs naturally or in synthetic form. More than 120,000 human-made chemicals have been introduced into the environment, in one form or another, and this number continues to grow each year at a phenomenal rate. At the same time, microbial toxins, being influenced by the vast numbers of chemicals, are mutating beyond belief.

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms they are in.  
Pollution can take the form of chemical substances, or energy, such as noise, heat, or light energy.

Pollutants, the elements of pollution, can be foreign substances or energies, or naturally occurring; when naturally occurring, they are considered contaminants when they exceed natural levels. Sometimes the term pollution is extended to include any substance when it occurs at such unnaturally high concentration within a system that it endangers the stability of that system. For example, water is innocuous and essential for life, and yet at very high concentration, it could be considered a pollutant.

OBJECTIVE OF EXTENSION EDUCATION

Objective

Objectives are expression of the ends towards which our efforts are directed.

The objective of extension is to develop the rural people economically, socially and culturaly by means of education. Overall, these objectives are divided into 4 types they are :

a)   Material objective

b)   Educational objective

c)   Social and cultural objective

d)   Developing leadership objective

a) Material objective

According to National Commission on Agriculture (1976). Agriculture extension aims at improving the efficiency of human capital, an effort to rapidly increase the rate of agricultural production. It also seeks to import necessary skill to farmer to understand the improved agricultural operation and improve the their own income, own resource and also the money value.

b) Educational objective

Extension education also aims at development of individual to change in behaviour by identifying their knowledge, skill, attitude and action. It aims at increasing the knowledge of people to analyse their past, present and expected future situation, to become aware of problem identification, solution and also realising their felt and unfelt need.

CARBOHYDRATES AND SUGARS

Carbohydrates which include sugars and starches are among the most important of the food stuffs as well as the simplest of organic foods. They may be divided into three groups.

Group – I

Monosaccharides  : These are simple sugars that cannot be split into any simpler forms. The principal ones are glucose or dextrose, fructose and galactose. Glucose sometimes known as dextrose or grape sugar is found widely distributed in nature, especially in fruits and vegetables, and is one of the main constuents of honey.

It is in the form of glucose that sugar appears in the blood and is being burned continuously to produce energy. A certain amount of surplus glucose is absorbed from the digestive tract and stored in the liver as glycogen, which can be converted back into glucose when the need for more fuel arises. In the presence of yeasts, glucose undergoes fermentation and changes into alcohol.

Milk is the one food for which there seems to be no adequate substitute. It constitutes almost the entire diet for the young of all mammals. Each species produces milk that is especially adapted to the growth of its own young, but milk from one species may be used as food for others. Since animals were domesticated centuries ago, the milk from various species such as cow, buffalo, goat and camel, has been used in the diets of people throughout the world. Only cows milk is of commercial importance in the United States, although small amounts of goat’s milk are sold.

Whole cow’s milk is approximately 88 percent water, 5 percent carbohydrate, 3.5 percent protein and 3.3 percent fat. Its nutrient content varies from species to species, from breed to breed, seasonally and even from the beginning of the milking to the end of the process. In the United States it is cow’s milk that is used commonly as a beverage and in food preparation. Therefore the milk discussed throughout this chapter is cow’s milk.

SUMMARY

Organic farming is not new to Indian farming community. Several forms of organic farming are being successfully practiced in diverse climate, particularly in rainfed, tribal, mountains and hill areas of the country. Among all farming systems, organic farming is gaining wide attention among farmers, entrepreneurs, policy makers and agricultural scientists for varied reasons such as it minimizes the dependence on chemical inputs (fertilizers; pesticides; herbicides and other agro-chemicals) thus safeguards/improves quality of resources, and it is labour intensive and provides an opportunity to increase rural employment and achieve long term improvements in the quality of resource base. The popularity of organic farming is gradually increasing and now organic agriculture is practiced in almost all countries of the world, and its share of agricultural land and farms is growing.

INTRODUCTION

Burgeoning human population and its elevated living standard have greatly demanded more agricultural production. But unfortunately agricultural crops suffer deadly due to many biotic and abiotic stresses. Of biotic stresses, phytonematodes, the hidden enemies of crops are real threat to successful and profitable cultivation of agricultural crops (Plate. 11.1). These, endoparasitic nematodes, Meloidogyne spp. and Heterodera spp., are mainly dreadful causing wrecking havoc to agricultural scenario. Chemical control of these, tiny parasites created residue, resistance, resurgence, hazardous and pollution problems to the growers as well as soil and atmospheric environment. To overcome these hazards, efforts are being made to go for non-chemicals means of nematodes management strategies in crops. Hence, a research work carried out on management of these endoparasitic nemas particularly Meloidogyne spp. and Heterodera spp., through non-chemical methods is reviewed in subsequent status.

1. Introduction

Bamboo has historically been an integral part of human culture. Bamboo is a mystical plant representing symbol of strength, flexibility, tenacity, endurance and compromise. Throughout Asia, bamboo has for centuries been integral to religions, ceremonies, art, music and daily life. Bamboo provides numerous environmental benefits such as playing a critical role in the balance of oxygen/carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Bamboo is the fastest growing canopy for the regreening of degraded areas and generates more oxygen than equivalent ultraviolet rays. It is an atmospheric and soil purifier. Its soil conservation properties create an effective watershed, stitching the soil together along fragile river banks, deforested areas, and in places prone to earthquakes and land slides. Its fast growing and high yield nature makes it a highly valued renewable resource. Its low cost and abundance call for its utilization to a full extent. 

Pomegranate is one of the popular fruit crops of tropical and sub tropical in India and enjoys high reputation for its dietetic and medicinal properties. The fruit is native of Iran and is extensively cultivated in Mediterranean countries like Spain, Morocco, Egypt, Iran, Afghanistan. It is also grown to a lesser extent in Myanmar, China, Japan, India and U.S.A.

The area under pomegranate cultivation has increased several folds in the recent past after the introduction of soft seeded varieties. Out of 30,000 hectares under this crop in India, Maharashtra state alone grows over eighty per cent of area with an average production of 8000 kg ha^-1 (Mote et al.,1992). The export of pomegranate fruits was 1790.3 tonnes in 1991-92 valued at rupees 215.3 lakhs which was more than two fold over the previous year’s export earnings (Chadha, 1994). The utility of the crop is gaining importance and at present new orchards of pomegranate are being planted on large acreage. Because of its versatile adaptability, hard nature, low maintenance cost, steady and high yields, fine table and therapeutic values, better keeping quality and very good export potential, there is greater scope for extending its area and increasing the production especially in the hot and semi arid regions of India.

In pomegranate, market preference is for the attractiveness of the fruit which are exhibited through better size, colour with bold and deep coloured arils besides possessing high juice-content. However consumers prefers the softness of the arils with low acidity. While, there are number of cultivated types available with these desirable characters, there are hardly cultivar having a combination of all or atleast a majority of them. Pomegranate improvement work, therefore has to be oriented towards the production of soft seeded type with other desirable characters (Phadnis, 1974).

In developing countries, the most important challenges is to increase food productivity for the continuously growing population from limited land area. To great extent, this challenges has been met with good amount of success in cereals but not in case of pulses. Pulses from an indispensable component of Indian agricultural too. Further, it is an excellent source of protein to the growing population who are mostly vegetarians. The high level of lysine in the protein makes them ideal supplement to cereals. Moreover, they are endowed with nitrogen fixation, and thus improve the soil fertility.

India is one of the major pulse growing countries in the world with a total area of 23.31 million hectares, with a total production of 14.50 million tones (Source: FAO, 2011). The area, under pulses has decreased particularly during the last decades as a consequence of intensive diffusion of techniques in green revolution on the high yielding varieties of cereals. This is mainly due to the low yield potential of legumes even under high input conditions.

Among the various pulses, blackgram/urd bean known scientifically as Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper, former known as Phaseolus mungo (L.) belonging to the tribe Paseolea of family Papilionaceae is of immense importance. It is the most widely grown and highly esteemed grain legume. In India it occupies 2.9 million hectares with an annual production of 1.24 million tones (Source: FAO, 2011).

In Asia this crop is widely cultivated in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh both in kharif and rabi seasons. In India, it is mainly grown in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Karnataka and Bihar. Tamilnadu is placed eleventh and tenth in area and production respectively (FAO, 2011).

Alstroemeria belongs to the family Alstromeriaceae. Alstroemeria flowers third in terms of popularity and foreign exchange earnings in Kenya after roses and statice. Alstroemeria is named after a Swedish botanist “Baron Klas von Alstroemer”. The popularity of this flower is still growing in the global perspective. It is one of the quickest growing flowers with varying colours like purple, lavender, salmon, red, pink, white, orange, yellow and bicolour. It is grown for cut flowers but is also popular as a potted plant. It is grown in the higher ranges of the Western Ghats, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir and Karnataka in India.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The alstroemeria, sometimes called the Peruvian Lily, is native to Tropical America particularly Chile. There are some 30 species of alstroemeria that occurs in grasslands and Pampas of South America, Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay, Peru and Venezuela. In America, it flourishes in different climates from high in the Andes mountains to the deserts of Pacific coastline. Even deep into the tropics of Brazil, the plants flourish abundantly. It was introduced to Europe in 1753 when seeds were sent to Europe by Claus Alstroemeria of Sweden during his travels in South America. It was widely cultivated in England during the early 1800’s and it was John Hedgewood, the founder of the Horticultural Society who first introduced the white variety in 1832. Since then, the Alstroemeria has been hybridized extensively. It is named after a Swedish botanist, Baron Klas von Alstroemer, who brought the first seeds of A. oelegrina from South America to Europe. Columbia is the number one in the world as far as growing area of alstroemeria is concerned. The second and third positions are taken by the Netherlands and Japan respectively. Other producing countries are United Kingdom and Italy. Alstroemeria is a new introduction into the world floriculture scene.

Most commercial cultivars of alstroemeria are patented and protected through plant breeder’s rights. Because of the fact that quite a large number of new varieties and hybrids of alstroemeria are planted in various countries in each year, royalty is paid based upon their square footage under production or number of plants leased. The new Inca Collection bred by Konst Alstroemeria B.V. is a breakthrough in the presently dwarf alstroemeria assortment. The new extended range of alstroemeria cultivar offers the opportunity to grow these top quality perennials in the garden, pots and for cut flower. These dwarf type plants reaching a height from 20-50 cm, combine with the quality and colours of the long lasting flowers. New varieties have gained popularity in California (USA), New South Wales (Australia) and Spanish south east coastline, Sicily (Italy). However, for a very long time already alstroemeria has been cherished worldwide for its exotic flowers.

In India cultivation of alstroemeria has been started around Bengaluru, Pune and Hyderabad. It has been introduced in Palampur, Solan, Srinagar and hills of Uttrakhand and Ooty, to popularize this crop among growers for domestic and export markets (Singh, 2006).

Rhododendron belongs to family Ericaceae. The word “Rhododendron” is derived from the ancient Greek word “rhódon” which means rose and “déndron” which means tree. This genus is characterized by shrubs and small to (rarely) large trees. The smallest species grow up to 10–100 cm tall and the largest Rhododendron giganteum is reported to grow over 30 m tall. They are noted for their clusters of large flowers. The alpine species have small flowers and small leaves and tropical species grow as epiphytes. The colour of the rhododendron flower is available in nearly every colour of the rainbow including various shades of blue, yellow, pink white, red, orange and purple. Rhododendron flower from January through August, depending on the location and the climate.

Rhododendron tomentosum Harmaja has been used in ethnomedicine for the treatment of various ailments such as cough and cold, insect bites, rheumatism as well as a repellent. The essential oil of wild rosemary with rich polyphenolic fraction which possesses analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiviral, antifungal, insecticidal, antidiabetic, antioxidant and anticancer properties (Dampc et al., 2013).

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Majority of Rhododendron species are native to the eastern Himalaya and southeast Tibet, Asia, North America, Europe and Australia along with the islands of Java, Sumatra, Borneo, New Guinea and the Philippines. The highest species diversity is found in the Himalayas from Uttarakhand, Nepal and Sikkim to Yunnan and Sichuan with other significant areas of diversity in the mountains of Korea, Japan and Taiwan. The rest are broadly spread throughout the northern hemisphere in relatively small isolated populations in Japan, northwestern North America, the Appalachian and the Caucasus Mountains. The tropical Rhododendron species range from south-east Asia to northern Australia with 55 known species in Borneo and 164 in New Guinea. Interestingly, the species in New Guinea are native to subalpine moist grasslands at around 3000 metres above sea level in the Central Highlands. Relatively fewer species occur in North America and Europe. The genus Rhododendron of Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) has been enumerated a total of 87 species, 12 subspecies and 8 varieties and have been recorded in IIHR. Among these 6 species and one subspecies are reported from Western Himalaya. The maximum concentration of 86% was observed in Arunachal Pradesh (75 species). The species of Rhododendron exhibit significant diversity in habit and broad range of distribution from the altitude of 800-6000 m and the best range is observed in 3001-3500 m altitudes. An analysis revealed that 20 taxa are endemic, 30 are rare, 24 are endangered, 3 are vulnerable and 47 taxa have to be assessed (Sekar and Srivastava, 2010). More than 50 hardy species of Rhododendron have been introduced from the wilds of China, Tibet, Bhutan and Vietnam since 1981 (Cox, 2012). George Forrest collected more than 400 Rhododendrons in China in between 1904 to 1932 for introduction to the western world (Geng, 2010).

Begonia is a perennial flowering plant belongs to family Begoniaceae. Begonia has rich colour and beautiful form of flowers. It is free flowering and striking foliage with free growth. The name Begonia is given by Franciscan monk Charles Plumier a plant which he found during his journey from Haiti to island Martinique. He dedicated this plant to “Michel Begon” the man who had the direct manmade over the expeditions. Begonia is easy to propagate and grown from seeds and vegetative means particularly cuttings. It is a popular flowering potted plant grown in containers and hanging baskets including tuberous, semperflorens, Rex, Elatior, Loraine and gracilis. Modern commercially cultivated begonias are mostly hybrids between wild types from all over the world.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Begonias are native to South America and second centre of diversity is Asia from Himalayas to Southern China and Malaysia (a floristic region that encompasses Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunes, Philippines and Paera New Guinea).

The distribution of Begonia diversity is uneven throughout tropical regions, with the greatest diversity in America and Asia (>600 species each), whilst being relatively species poor in Africa (160 species) and absent in Australia (Goodall-Copestake et al., 2010). The genus is thought to have originated in Africa, while South American and South East Asian species are the results of parallel radiations over the last 20-50 million years (Plana et al., 2004, Goodall Copestake et al., 2010 and Thomas et al., 2011). Long distance dispersal is rare, for example Begonia species have failed to cross the Torres Strait from Papua New Guinea to Australia.

4.1    Functions of Plant Nutrient and Deficiency Symptoms Function of Plant Nutrient
    
    1. Nitrogen
    2. Phosphorus
    3. Potassium
    4. Calcium
    5. Magnesium
    6. Sulphur
    7. Manganese
    8. Molybdenum
    9. Copper
    10. Boron
    11. Zinc
    12. Iron
    13. Chlorine
    14. Nickel
    15. Sodium
    16. Cobalt
    17. Silicon

Twenty first century is the century of entrepreneurship and every individual can be an agent for innovation and change. Entrepreneurship is regarded as one of the most crucial factors in the economic development of every region of the country. It widens the horizons of economic development even in the socially and industrially backward regions. Dynamic entrepreneurs are considered to be the agent of change in a society. Entrepreneurs play a very important role in generating new employment and setting up new business. The problem of poverty, inequality and regional imbalances can be tackled with the development of entrepreneurship. However, in all economic development activities more and more focus is being centered on entrepreneurship of the people. Entrepreneur has been now recognized as a concept, not only for starting industries but also in the development of dairy enterprise. In India, it is believed that tremendous latent entrepreneurial talent exists which, if properly harnessed, could help in solving many of the serious problems facing the country.

General Signs of Healthy and Ill Animals

Health

It is a state of freedom from disease. It may also be stated as a condition of an animal in which all the body organs are normal and are functioning to their optimum capacity in relation to animal’s age, sex, work, and production with optimum pulse, temperature and respiration rates appropriate to the species, sex and environment.

Disease

Disease may be any deterioration from normal health or normal functioning of any or all the tissues or organs of animal body. Thus, it shuns animal to perform its normal physiological functions though the nutritional and environmental parameters are maintained normal.

Plants are often exposed to various abiotic and biotic stresses and have developed specific mechanisms to adapt, survive and reproduce under these stresses (Pieterse et al., 2009). Abiotic stresses include drought, water logging, high temperature, cold(low temperature), salinity, chemical pollution (xenobiotics), uv radiation, heavy metal and oxidative and plants are also challenged by biotic stresses through microbial pathogens such as myco-plasma, nematodes, fungi bacteria (Tippmann et al., 2006). The biology of plant cell is more complicated with any foreign stimulus from the environment; multiple pathways of cellular signaling and their interactions are activated. These interactions mainly evolved as mechanism to enable the plant systems to respond to stress with minimum and appropriate physio- biochemical processes. Abiotic and biotic stress induces signals and theses signals are recognized by receptors, followed by generation of secondary messengers e.g. activation of ion channels, production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) Xiong et al., 2002, accumulation of hormones (Bari and Jones, 2009; Peleg and Blumwald, 2011) such as salicylic acid (SA), ethylene (ET), jasmonic acid (JA) and abscisic acid (ABA). Secondary messengers are responsible for modulating intracellular level of calcium, often initiating protein phosphorylation cascade, which may leads to the activation of various proteins directly involved in cellular protection (Tippmann et al., 2006) Fig.1.

Environmental constraints that include abiotic stress factors such as salt, drought, cold, extreme temperatures and heavy metalsalready a major limitingfactor for crop productivity and will soon become even more severe due to climate change conditions.Together, these stresses constitute the primary causes of crop losses worldwide, reducing average yields of most major crop plants by more than 50% (Boyer, 1982; Bray et al., 2000; Wang et al., 2003). Current climate change scenarios predict an increase in mean surface temperatures and drought that will drastically affect global agriculture in the near future (Le Treut et al., 2007).
 
Abiotic stresses trigger many biochemical, molecular and physiological changes and responses that influence various cellular and wholeplant processes (Wang et al., 2001, 2003). For example, drought, salinityand low temperature stress lead to reduced availability of water (alsoknown as dehydration/osmotic stress) characterized by a decreasedturgor pressure and water loss (Dhariwal et al., 1998; Boudsocq and Lauriere, 2005). Osmotic stress promotes the synthesis of the phytohormoneabscisic acid (ABA)which then triggers a major change in gene expressionand adaptive physiological responses (Seki et al., 2002; Yamaguchi and Shinozaki, 2006; Shinozaki andYamaguchi-Shinozaki, 2007).

• Agriculture Database Concepts and Importance
• The Orientation of Topic Selection for the Construction of the Agricultural Database
• The Principle of Specialization in the Construction of the Agricultural Database
• Top Quality Principle of Building Databases
• Agriculture Database Types
• Agriculture Libraries
• Agriculture Journals
• Technical Reports
• Conference Papers
• E-Books in Agriculture

Abstract: Economy of Bihar is solely dependent on agriculture. Only 7% area is under forest as against a minimum 33% required for ecological balance. To counter the environmental degradation and to provide fuel, fodder and timber, different tree-crop combinations were tried for accessing their compatibility. As a result some agroforestry systems have been recommended and are discussed in this paper. Economics of some of the successful system has also been discussed. A detailed account of prevalent agroforestry practices in Bihar is also given. Agri-horticulture system is most popular system adopted by large and medium farmers in the region. Finally, constraints in adopting and carrying out research in agroforestry along with future strategies to extend agroforestry in Bihar are also given in the paper.

Introduction

Agroforestry land use system is one of the most important means for improving productivity of rural resources. People’s perception about agroforestry varies with their use perspectives. Only 7 % area is under forest as against a minimum 33 % required for ecological balance. Per capita consumption of wood fuel in Bihar is 0.27 m3 per year and industrial wood is 0.054 m3. One of the studies, on demand and supply of wood in Bihar conducted by Division of Forestry

ABSTRACT
Methanogens are primarily anaerobic Archaebacteria representing the most primitive earthly creatures, alive since about 3.5 billion years. While oxygen inhibit their activity, they adapt well in a variety of ecological niche, viz., the intestinal tracts of insects and animals including ruminants, sewage digesters, groundwater and deep soil/water, etc. They are involved in biomethanation that converts organic polymers, including the complex recalcitrant lignocelluloses, to CH₄ and CO₂. Enhancing the process by optimising the physical, chemical and molecular parameters is an interesting biotechnology. Molecular research is rapidly progressing on the genomics, gene and its regulation, and methanogenesis as it expresses. Identifying novel species expressing methanogenesis and manipulating the genetic make-up including through cloning in recent years will set goals and leads for future investigations. The biomethanation enzyme Methyl-CoM-reductase (Mcr) constitutes about 10% of the methanogen protein. Due to its abundance and significance, elucidating its structure and its synthesis and regulation mechanism has received much attention recently. Mcr-coding genes from methanogens have been cloned and sequenced. An approach at the molecular level to enhance biomethanation seems to lie in metagenomics. The microbiology, biochemistry, the roles of the participating microbes, their molecular biology and applications in methanogenesis are discussed in this chapter.

ABSTRACT
Rice straw is one of the most abundant lignocellulosic agricultural wastes in India and can be used as a major resource for biogas production. The structure of rice straw is complex and is made up mainly of cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin. The lignin physically shields the cellulose and hemicelluloses, the main components which can be converted to energy, and hinders the access of microbial enzymes to these carbohydrate moieties. To overcome this making the straw a potential resource of biogas production, effective pretreatment is necessary that can efficiently hydrolyse the straw and make it accessible to cellulolytic enzymes and methanogens. Various pretreatment methods which are employed currently in the market are discussed here. For a process to be economically feasible it is necessary that the pretreatment be efficient as well as cost effective. To gain some insights into this aspect, the techno-commercial feasibility of Biomethanation of rice straw has been discussed.

ABSTRACT
The global energy demand is increasing day by day. Now-a-days, the supply of global energy is highly dependent on fossil fuels (viz., crude oil, lignite, hard coal, natural gas). But, on one hand the source of fossil fuel is decreasing at a rapid rate, and on the other hand the burning of fossil fuel is also degrading the environment due to huge Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emission (FAO/CMS, 2011). Hence, there is an urgent need of an alternate clean energy source that can sustain the future development undeterred while still protecting the environment. Biomass is considered as a sustainable source of clean energy that is useful in steam, fuel and chemicals production. It can be digested in controlled environment to produce biogas. The biogas is a clean, non-polluting and smoke-free fuel (Weiland, 2010) which can be used for applications that include cooking, space cooling/refrigeration, heating, electricity generation and gaseous fuel (CNG) for vehicles (Weiland, 2003). This paper analyses possible alternatives to process and utilise biogas for energy at industrial scale as a petroleum fuels replacement.

Introduction

Saffron is a naturally derived plant product from the dried stigma of the Crocus sativus flower  (Gresta et al., 2009).The saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is an Iridaceae family member, herbal perennial, sterile (2n=3x=24) geophyte, traditionally propagated by vegetative corms. Its cultivation dates back to late Bronze Age in the Mediterranean region (Negbi, 1999) in Anatolia since the ancient times (Arslan et al., 2007) and for at least 3500 years in Egypt and Middle East. Saffron contains more than 150 volatile and aroma yielding compounds. The chemical components mainly include carotenoids, crocin, picrocrocin, safranal etc (Abdullaev, 1993, Tarantalis et al., 1995, Karaoglu 
et al., 2007). Saffron is mostly used as spice, food colorant, dye or perfume. The dried stigmas introduce unique color, taste and fragrance and thus making it the world’s most expensive spice (Baghlian et al., 2010). Saffron has been used in folklore herbal medicines for centuries (Basker and Negbi, 1983).

Chromosome number and nuclear DNA amount are important biodiversity characters together provide a very powerful method for determining evolutionary relationships. Furthermore provide an estimate of relatedness between species that in turn suggest reasons underlying the success or failure of crosses, even for interploidy hybridization. It is expected that species that are cytogenetically most similar will be easiest to hybridize and produce viable interspecific offspring (Thomas, 1993). Hence, it is important to study karyotypes and other characters of the genome of the species involved in a breeding programme.

According to Jackson (1971) and Stebbins (1950) the karyotype is the phenotypic appearance of the somatic chromosomes in contrast to their genic content.

Introduction

Microbes (bacteria, archea and eukarya) are single celled organisms that rule the planet. Microbes occupy every possible niche, from the high atmosphere to the deep ocean, from hot springs to artic ice, from hot deserts to deep forests including many regions that cannot yet be accessed for study. The biosphere contains between 1030 and 1031 microbial genomes, which is about 2-3 times more than the number of plant and animal cells combined (67). In fact, studies have shown that microbes associated with the human body are about ten times more than the number of human cells (5).  Microbes play a critical role in the life cycle of all living organism and environment in general.  Some microbes cause disease, but the most of them are either innocuous or play a role in physiology and cellular response including immune response, digestion and vitamin production of various organisms.

Since the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, mankind has been introducing numerous hazardous compounds into the environment at an exponential rate.  Environmental pollutants have become a major global concern. The modern growth of industrialization, urbanization, modern agricultural development, energy generation, have resulted in indiscriminate exploitation of natural resources for fulfilling the human desires and need, which have contributed in disturbing the ecological balance on which the quality of our environment depends.
 
Technological revolution has brought new changes in products and processes in industry. The waste generated from the development of products and processes are of concern to the environmental list. A variety of pollutants such as heavy metals, xenobiotics, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), chlorinated and nitro-aromatic compounds are found to be highly toxic, mutagenic and carcinogenic for living organisms (Zhang and Bennett. 2005; Samanta et al., 2002).

Introduction
DNA barcoding is a molecular technique that uses a short section of DNA (genetic marker) extracted from a standardized region of tissue to identify it as belonging to a particular species. A desirable locus for DNA barcoding should be standardized and that should present in most of the taxa of interest and sequencable without species-specific PCR primers. A large database of sequences for the desirable locus needs to be developed. The desirable locus should be short enough to be easily sequenced with current technology, and provide a large variation between species yet a relatively small amount of variation within a species. Although several loci have been suggested, but the mitochondrial Cox1 became a gene of choice for animals and many other eukaryotes. However, the DNA regions that are being used are chosen to optimize the resolution for their specific experimental purposes.

1.    Breeding Systems Utilized in Production of Vegetable Hybrids
    
2.    Male Sterility-Theory
    
3.    Hybrid Seed Production in Chilli Using GMS
    
4.    Hybrid Seed Production in Muskmelon Using GMS
    
5.    Cytoplasmic Genetic Male Sterility
    
6.    Hybrid Seed Production in Onion Using CMS
    
7.    Hybrid Seed Production in Hot Pepper Using CMS
    
8.    Self-Incompatibility Systems
    
9.    Types of Incompatibility
    
10.    Hybrid Cultivars in Cauliflower and Cabbage
    
11.    Male Sterility in Tomato and its Uses in Hybrid Seed Production
        
References

INTRODUCTION
 
Growth and development are often used interchangeably, however, these describe separate events during the life cycle of a plant. To understand these precisely, let us take the example of multicellular organisms like annuals, monocarpic or flowering plants (angiosperms) including fruits, vegetables, flowers etc. which begins their life from a single cell fertilized egg, the zygote. The zygote develops into embryo through the cell division and differentiation. When we sow the seed in garden or pots, in a few days a young seedling emerge. With the passage of time, the seedling grow in size, the number of leaves increases, in perennial plants branching occurs for few years, and after putting forth the requisite vegetative growth plant begins flowering, produces fruits, seeds and finally the plant senesce at certain period. Generally three terms “growth”, differentiation” and “development” are used to describe the different events during the life cycle of a plant.

INTRODUCTION

Papaya (Carica papaya L.) is known as wonder fruit of the tropics. It is unique plant, which produces fruits throughout the year. It owes its popularity due to various reasons, i.e., requires less area per tree, comes to bearing in a year, easy to cultivate and has high nutritive and medicinal value. Papaya is an ideal fruit for growing in kitchen gardens, backyard of homes as well as in orchards, especially those near the cities or big towns. India ranks first in production of Papaya in the world with share of 31% of the total production. Its productivity is highest (43.70 t/ha) among the fruits grown in. It is also  India. It is famous intercrop due to its small stature, short life cycle, precocious in bearing and grown extensively as a filler crop in orchards.
 
Papaya is quick growing, bearing fruits within 8-10 months of transplanting and giving yield in same year. Fast growth with high photosynthetic rate, reproductive precocity, low production cost and more output characterize the uniqueness of this fruit. Now a day, the area under this crop is growing rapidly due to its higher productivity. Indeed, papaya cultivation is very profitable if done on modern lines. Demand for its fruits is growing in domestic as well as export markets and require modern technological interventions for commercial exploitation of these fruits. A ready market for its fruits becomes a big bonus for growers. Immediate availability of a selling point and a good price from a buyer encourage the farmers to grow more papaya crop.

INTRODUCTION

Sapota [Manilkara zapota (L) P. Royen] commonly known as chiku in India, is an exotic fruit crop originated in Tropical America. The name sapodilla is derived from the Spanish word zapotilla, meaning “small sapote.” Tree have dark green beautiful radiating canopy with central flag having aesthetic values.It is a popular crop widely cultivated in most tropical countries. The cultivation of sapota is a profitable venture as it does not need much spraying, pruning and it is a long-life fruit tree. Moreover, the fruit fetches good price in market as it ripens in April and May in North India, when mango and litchi fruits are scarce. At international level in India crop attained an important place in fruit industry. In India this fruit species is cultivated only for its delicious fruit for table purpose but in South America, it is cultivated for chickle the “gutta parcha” which is used as base material for chewing gum.This is extracted from bark. Sapota fruit present a climacteric behavior. In India farmer from Bordi village near Gholwad, late Sri Gopal Rao Patil realized the commercial potential of this evergreen and ever fruiting tree and procured a few plants and began to propagate for distribution among poor farmers of this area and within short time it had spread from Palghar in Maharashtra to Amalsad in Gujarat. Subsequently commercial cultivation in his region was helped by lranis and Marwari settlers. The best sapota orchards in this area belong to lranis and Marwaris. It is from this area that this fruit went to various other parts of the country like Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka, Punjab and Haryana etc. In India crop become very popular among farmers as a cash crop. There is a possibility of extending cultivation of this crop into warm and humid climate of all tropical regions of the world. In India area under this crop increasing every year. Therefore, in recent years, it has attained the status of major fruit in peninsular India. Popularity of this fruit is on increase due to high production per unit area and continuous fruiting throught out the year.

INTRODUCTION

The pomegranate(Punica granatum L.) is one of the oldest known edible fruits, occupies the eighteenth place among the main world-fruit cultures.The fruit was naturalized throughout the Mediterranean region through ancient times and today the main areas of world production are Turkey, Spain and California. Around the world pomegranates are generally grown in Mediterranean climates, often with very warm dry summers (Wetzstein et al., 2011). During recent past, this ancient fruit has emerged as commercially important fruit, owing to its enormous medicinal and nutritional properties, built-in ability to tolerate heat and drought, low resource input demanding nature and high returns on investment (Singh et al.,2012). The fruit has growing consumer demand both for fresh use as well as processing into juice, syrup, squash and anardana (an acidulant product), owing to its attractive, juicy, and refreshing arils (Pruthi and Saxena, 1984).

INTRODUCTION
    
The date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) is considered to be oldest among the domesticated tree fruits. It considered a symbol of life in desert because it tolerate high temperature, drought and salinity more than many other fruits. Date palm fruits are eaten as raw dates (Khalal stage), Soft dates (Tamar stage) and dry dates (Chhuhara). Different processed products viz sugar, starch, vinegar, juice, toffies, wine, chutney, jam, pickels etc. are prepared from date fruits. Leaves of date palm trees are utilized for preparation of baskets, brooms, ropes, building materials, fuel and paper. The plantation is also useful for stabilization and maintenance of ecological balance in the desert regions