eBook Chapters

18.1. Buffer stock

Refers to stock of food grains maintained by government to be used as a buffer to cushion shocks of fluctuating supply and price, to meet the emergency needs and to meet the situations arising out of serious unexpected shortages resulting from transport bottlenecks, natural calamities like war, flood, famine, earthquakes, and from the influx of refugees.

Introduction

This section of the manual contains instructions for preparing stock solutions that are commonly used in laboratory protocols for the analysis of DNA, RNA and proteins and visualization of gene or protein expression. Each of these stock solutions is provided as either the most convenient concentration or the most frequently used stock concentrations to be used in the protocols of an individual laboratory.

All chemicals must be reagent grade or molecular biology grade, and the water used in the preparation of all solutions must be the highest quality available. Use sterile-glass distilled deionised water whenever possible. Unless otherwise stated, most solutions required sterilization either by filtration or autoclaving.

16.1 Introduction

16.1.1 Definition of Sustainable Ecosystems

A sustainable ecosystem is a complex network of living organisms and their non-living environment that can maintain itself and its processes indefinitely. This includes the interaction of plant and animal life, water, air, soil, and other physical and chemical components. These interactions ensure a delicate balance that allows the ecosystem to thrive and provide essential resources for all living beings, including humans. 

How can we develop a sustainable water security system in an era of climate change and global warming ?  In my view, every country should develop a sustainable water security system with the following four major components.

Supply augmentation

The major sources of irrigation water are from rainfall, rivers, tanks, reservoirs and other surface water resources, groundwater, industrial and domestic effluents, and seawater.  Seawater comprises almost 97 per cent of the global water resource and is an important social asset.  With the melting of Arctic and Antarctic ice, sea level will go up with disastrous consequences. The tsunami of December 2004 gave a glimpse of what could happen in the future.  To augment supplies, we must harvest rainwater and store it carefully, both above and below ground.  Also, we should ensure that all waste water which emerges from industry and domestic use is purified and recycled.  Rainwater harvesting should become a way of life, so that it becomes everybody’s business.

Onion

Genetic Resources

In onion, much variation exists in bulb characteristics for size, shape, colour of skin and flesh, number of hearts, skin retention, firmness, pungency, TSS, yield etc. Bulbs may be white, red, brown or yellow, round, globe, flat or spindle shaped. Diversity is also found in field tolerance to Stemphyllium blight, purple blotch, basal rot and thrips. Various workers have also reported tolerance to soil salinity, reduced bolting, keeping quality and high dry matter content. In India, NBPGR, New Delhi, is a nodal agency engaged in collection, evaluation and maintenance of onion germplasms both from indigenous and exotic collections. Accessions numbering more than 1,000 onion germplasm lines are being maintained at NBPGR, New Delhi. Other centres maintaining sizeable number of germplasms are IIHR, Bangalore, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, NHRDF also NRC on Onion and Garlic, Nasik; IARI, New Delhi, PAU, Ludhiana and IIVR, Varanasi. Indigenous collections account for more than 95% of the germplasm lines maintained in onion, which indicates the existence of large amount of variability within the country for short-day onions. However, it also indicates the necessity to enrich the existing germplasm pool by importing more exotic collections. Promising germplasms for different attributes are given in Table1.

Introduction Onion is a cool season bulb vegetable of high economic importance. According to Vavilov, Central Asia is the primary centre of origin; maximum species were found in the Mediterranean region in the West to Central Asia in the East. In India, onion was introduced around 600BC and from here it was introduced to the rest of the world. The largest onion-producing states in India include Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Bihar, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, West Bengal, and Uttar Pradesh, which together account for approximately 90% of the nation’s total onion output. The expected share of Maharashtra in 2019-2020 is about 42.53% in onion production with 11363.00 tonnes. Onion has highest export value among vegetables, the total value earned in the year 2019 was ? 2660.79 crores (NHB, 2020). Onion contains about 89% water, 4% sugar, 1% protein, 2% fat. It also contains vitamin C, vitamin B6, folic acid and many other nutrients in trace amounts. Onion bulbs and onion greens are used in various dishes all over the world in cooked, as well as raw form. Red and yellow onions are used in soups because of their sweet taste. White onions are traditionally used in classic Mexican cuisine and also for dehydration purpose. India, Mexico, U.S., Turkey, Pakistan, etc are the major exporters of onion while the major importers of onion are Malaysia, UAE, Canada, Japan, etc.

Bulb crops include onion, garlic, leek, shallot, welsh onion and chive all belonging to the genus Allium.  This genus was earlier included in the family Liliaceae due to its superior ovary.  It was later shifted to Amaryllidaceae as flowers are born in a bracted umbel on top of a scape.  Being the typical genus in the family Amaryllidaceae, a new separate family status was given to all the specious under Allium as Alliaceae.

Improved Varieties of Bulb Crops

A. ONION

Bulb crops include onion, garlic, leek, shallot, welsh onion and chive- all belonging to the genus Allium. This genus was earlier included in the family Liliaceae due to its superior ovary. It was later shifted to Amaryllidaceae as flowers are bom in a bracted umbel on top of a scape. Being the typical genus in the family Amaryllidaceae, a new separate family status was given to all the specious under Allium as Alliaceae.

The common features of bulb crops are:

1. The stem is under ground and rudimentary. The edible portion, bulb is formed by fleshy leaf bases in onion, fleshy axillary buds within thin foliage in garlic, blanched stem and leaves in leek etc.
2. All the bulb crops have a characteristic order due to presence of allyl - propyl - disulphide.
3. All are cool season vegetables and are grown during winter months in plains.

Bulb Crops

Bulb crops are cool season vegetables that are grown during the winter months in plains. They are mainly growing for its fleshy leaf bases or fleshy axillary buds or blanched stem and leaves. Major bulb crops that are widely cultivating in our country comprises of onion, garlic and leek. They possess a characteristic odour due to the presence of volatile oil, allyl propyl disulphide (onion) and diallyl disulphide (garlic). They are either seed propagated as in onion and leek or through cloves as in garlic or through bulblets in multiplier onion. Seed propagated bulb crops are annual for bulb production and biennial for seed production. Seed production of bulb crops can be undertaken in plains especially in the central part of the country and southern plains whereas, northern plains hold the problems of Stemphylium and purple blotch during the seed crop and subsequent lower seed yield makes northern plains unfit for seed production. But these areas can be utilized for seed production by following the delayed planting of seed crop and avoiding the climate favouring the diseases.

Onion (Allium cepa)

Onion is a popular vegetable grown for its pungent bulbs. Bulbs are consumed as raw vegetable, as cooked vegetable or in preserved forms. Onion is reported to be originated in Central Asia and Mediterranean region is considered as the secondary centre of origin. It is adapted to a wide range of climate and it is being cultivated in India in three seasons viz., kharif, late kharif and rabi. India is having the largest area under onion cultivation in the world. It is also contributing substantially towards the export of the value-added products from our country. White or yellow onions are commonly using for producing dehydrated products whereas, the red ones are more preferred for direct consumption.

Bulbous and rhizomatous plants refer a large group which include both flowering and foliage types. Plants having underground modified stems in the form of bulb, corm, rhizome and tuber generally come under this category. This group effectively contributes beautification of the gardens by their flowers and is very popular. BuIbous and rhizomatus plants are perennial in nature, hardy and require less maintenance. In summer when there are few flowers in the garden, these plants help to keep the gardens in a presentable form by their magnificent flowers. Large number of bulbous and rhizomatous plants are in use for this purpose. The common flowering genera include - Amaryllis, Anthurium, Canna, Cooperia, Crinum, Eucharis, Gladiolus, Haemanthus, Hedychium, Hemerocallis, Lilium, Narcissus, Ornithogalum, Pancratium, Polianthes and Zephyranthus. Some of the popular genera of foliage type are - Alocasia, Asparagus, Caladium, Calathea, Kaempferia.

Classification

According to the climatic requirement for growth and flowering, these are grouped into following two main classes.

Warm Climate - These bulbous plants produce flowers during summer-rainy season. The important ones are - Amaryllis, Crinum, Canna, Haemanthus, Hedychium, Hemerocallis, Ornithogalum, Pancratium, Polianthes, Zephyranthus etc.

9.1. Onion (Allium cepa L.)

The onion (Allium cepa), which is also known as the bulb onion, or common onion is the most widely cultivated species of the genus Allium. It has been used as food since time immemorial and is an important vegetable all over the world. The genus Allium also contains a number of other species variously referred to as onions and cultivated for food, such as the Japanese bunching onion (A. fistulosum), Egyptian onion (A. proliferum), and Canada onion (A. canadense). The vast majority of cultivars of A. cepa belong to the “common onion group” (A. cepa var. cepa) and are usually referred to simply as “onions”. The Aggregatum Group of cultivars (A. cepa var. aggregatum) includes both shallots and potato onions. Onion is suggested to have been originated in Asia, particularly Pakistan and Iran.

China is the largest onion producer in the world followed by India. Largest area under onion is in India followed by China. The major onion producing state are Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Orissa.

Cultivars/Varieites: Onion varieties differ in size, colour of skin, pungency and maturation. The most popular varieties under cultivation are Agrifound Dark Red, Agrifound Light Red, Agrifound Red, Agrifound Rose, Arka Bindu, Arka Kalyan, Arka Niketan, Arka Pragati, Baswant 780, Brown Spanish, Co-1, Co-2 Co- 3, Co-4, Early Grano, Hisar II, Kalyanpur Red Round, MDU 1 N-2-4-1, N-53, N-257-9-1, Punjab 48 (S 48), Pusa Madhavi, Punjab Red Round, Punjab Selection, Pusa Ratnar, Pusa Red, Pusa White Flat, Pusa White Round, Udaipur 101, 102 & 103.

I. General information

1. Plants propagated through modified underground stems are grouped into tubers, bulbs, rhizomes
2. An example of a bulbous plant propagated through tuber is dahlia
3. Bulbous plants which are propagated through corms are Gladiolus, Freesia, Tetonia and Tigrida
4. Bulbous plants propagated through bulbs are Amaryllis, Tuberose, Zephyranthes and Crinum
5. Bulbous plants propagated through rhizome are Alstroemeria, Bamboo, Canna, Convallaris, Hydechium, Iris and Zantedeschia
6. Bulbous plant propagated through tubercle is Bowiea volubilis
7. Bulbous plants propagated through tuberous roots are Dahlia, Eranthis, Ipomoea, Mirabilis, Ranunculus and Tapioca
8. Bulbous plants propagated through tuberous stem are Begonia and Cyclamen
9. Bulbous plant propagated through offsets are daffodil, tulip and iris

Among garden plants, herbaceous perennials that produce perennating structures like bulbs, corms, tubers, rhizomes or fascicled tuberous roots are called bulbous plants. They belong to various plant families such as Amaryllidaceae, Cannaceae, Heliconiaceae, Iridaceae, Liliaeceae, Musaceae, Ranunculaeceae and Zingiberaceae. The possession of perennating structures that are modifications of plant parts- mostly stems- is common to these plants. These modifications aid in their vegetative propagation as the dormant buds associated with them regenerate when conditions are favourable to result in new plants. In both tropical and temperate climate zones, bulbous plants have evolved and naturalized in several ecological ‘niches’. Many of these have been domesticated centuries ago and are familiar garden plants. Generally, bulbous plats are adapted to grow vegetatively putting forth shoots carrying a limited number of leaves. When further vegetative growth has ceased these shoots produce terminal or basal inflorescences. Bulbous plants are grown and displayed in clumps.

Based on the requirement of relatively low or high temperatures for sprouting and flowering they are classified into warm- season bulbous plants and cool-season bulbous plants. These groupings are not exclusive and many plants have evolved varieties that thrive in both seasonal conditions.

The wide range of climatic conditions in India provides a choice of various bulbous crops to grow them in different parts of country. The term bulbous includes a wide array of perennial plants that are grown from underground organs, including bulbs, corms, tubers and rhizomes. Any plant described as bulbous will normally have a swollen root or stem or even leaves underground. A large number of these plants producing attractive flowers are commercially grown now days. Normally bulbous plant has a three phases during a year growth, flowering and dormancy. Bulbous plants are grown commonly in beds, shrubbery, herbaceous border, grassy land and in pots and bowl. A brief description of some common bulbous crops is given below.

1. Amaryllis: Common name (CN): Belladonna lily, King or Star lily, Botanical name (BN): Amaryllis spp., Family (F): Amaryllidaceae, Origin (O): South Africa.

Amaryllis is an excellent bulbous plant with deciduous foliage. Leaves are produced after cessation of flowering. It is suitable for bedding, pot, window boxes, greenhouses, borders, etc. Flowers are sold in the market as cut flowers. The flowers are large, trumpet shaped and are borne in umbels having 3-7 florets in small flowered varieties whereas 2-4 florets of giant size in Dutch hybrids. Amaryllis is propagated by vegetative means. They are mostly propagated through bulbs. They are also commercially propagated through tissue culture. Important species are Amaryllis belladonna, A. angustifolia, A. leopolidii, A. moreliana, A. papilio, A. striata, A. miniata and A. traubii.

Bulk population breeding developed by the Swede H. Nilsson Ehle in 1908 and later on supported and practiced by H. V. Harlan in barley breeding in 1940s is a breeding strategy in crop improvement in which natural selection is allowed to play its full role where the F2 generation is planted in a plot large enough to accommodate several hundreds of plants. Planting density and cultural practices are usually the normal ones followed for commercial crop planting. At maturity, the plot is harvested in bulk and the seeds are used to plant a similar plot in the next season. This process is repeated till at least F5 where the plants are space planted to allow individual plant evaluation for effective selection. During period of bulk propagation natural selection plays a key role in shifting gene frequencies in the bulk population. This role is of crucial importance as bulk handling is continued over a number of generations. Bulk population handling can be aided by artificial selection at any time during the period of bulk propagation. Aggressive and highly competitive but undesirable plants may be physically rogued out of the population to avoid increasing the frequency of undesirable genes. For example, determinate bush types of beans do not compete well against indeterminate, vine types. And if the breeder is interested only in determinate types, artificial selection against the indeterminate types is certainly called for. There is also good reason to apply artificial selection against seed colour, pubescence, awns or other characters that are undesirable in the variety to be developed but may be more or less neutral in survival. Bulk population handling often provides opportunities to make use of artificial aids to selection. For example, bulk harvesting when only part of plants are mature is an effective and inexpensive way to select for earliness. If particular sizes of seeds are required, screens or mechanical devices provide a rapid way of eliminating inferior types. Naturally occurring or artificially induced disease or insect infestation, of course, provide opportunities to rogue susceptible individuals from the bulk plot. In F6, the plants selected in F5 are progeny rowed and superior progenies are selected from where again few plants can be selected and seed bulked within a selected row. Depending upon seed requirement for yield trial in the following years, even the seed from selected entire row can be bulked. The follow up yield evaluation trials are as given in case of pedigree selection. This method is operationally best suited for seed crops such as small grains, beans and soybean and is almost totally unsuited for fruit crops and for most vegetable crops.

Bulk population method of breeding is defined as the growing of genetically diverse populations of self-pollinated crops in a bulk plot with or without mass selection, followed by single plant selection. It is applicable to self-pollinated crops and not applied to cross-pollinated crops. Bulk population breeding is a strategy of crop improvement in which natural selection effect is solicited more directly in the early generations of the procedure by delaying stringent artificial selection until later generations. The Swede, H. Nilsson-Ehle, developed the procedure. H.V Harlan and colleagues provided additional theoretical foundation for this method through their work in barley breeding in 1940s. As proposed by Harlan and colleagues, the bulk method entails yield testing of the F2 bulk progenies from crosses and discarding whole crosses based on yield performance. In other words, the primary objective is to stratify crosses for selection of parents based on yield values. The current application of the bulk method has a different objective.

Pododermatitis or bumble foot has many causes including excess weight bearing from obesity or unequal weight bearing between the two feet as a result of lameness of one foot, causing less weight to be placed on that foot and more on the contralateral foot, or from abnormal abrasions of the plantar surface from inappropriate substrate (too sharp or rough, wire, etc.), decreased blood supply to the foot (sometimes from lack of exercise), trauma, or standing for prolonged periods of time, especially in ducks that are not provided with adequate swimming opportunities.

Bumble foot is commonly seen in waterfowl under one or more of the following conditions; obesity, hard substrate, lack of access to water to swim in, malnutrition and underlying disease.

This is localized infection of the feet. It is seen as bulbous swelling of the footpad and surrounding tissues. It appears usually after an injury to the foot pad and causes lameness in one or both feet. Pododermatitis is divided into varying grades depending on the literature source used, but generally includes mild, moderate, and severe grades with the severe grades including osteomyelitis. Infection by various bacteria commonly occurs and superficial wounds may not be present. Sometimes ulcers are formed on the planter surface of the foot. The layers become lame and production lowers, sometimes completely stops. On opening the swelling a foul smelling thick pus is found. The condition is more common in heavy breeds. Early surgery and antibiotic therapy may control the condition. Removal of high roosts reduces the incidence.

ABSTRACT

Bunium persicum (Boiss.) Fedtsch., (Family: Apiaceae) is an important plant of temperate regions and its seeds are used as carminative substance in various food recipes. The seeds of the species act as a good source of economy to the hilly and mountain people. As the species is restricted in its habitat, therefore, it requires mass cultivation practices. Many attempts are already made to cultivate species near to its natural habitat. In recent years some efforts have been done to domesticate this plant in certain areas of India like Shong area in Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh, India, but the cultivation remained very limited. Therefore, in addition to its collection from the wild sources the species needs more scientific intervention in agriculture sector. This species has typical Palaeo-Mediterranean distribution. In India the species is distributed in wild only in North West Himalaya (J&K, HP and UK) which makes its ocurrence rarity in the country. The species restricted its distribution between 1850-3100 meters above mean sea level. Phylogenetically the species is near to Carum carvi L., therefore, C. carvi is the potential adulterant of B. persicum.

Burn : Tissue changes due to excessive absorption of heat is known as burns.
Scald : A scald is a burn caused by moist heat and is usually partial thickness.

Etiology
       Dry heat
       Actinic rays (sunburn)
       Irradiation
       Moist heat
       Electricity
       Friction
       Dry heat causes desiccation and charring.

Key Points

• Burns are injuries caused by hot solids or flames.

• Scalds are injuries caused by liquids or steam.

Introduction

In simple terms, business refers to buying and selling of products. Business would define itself as an organized effort through companies aimed at supplying consumers with products and services in a return for monetary compensation. However, this simplistic definition is insufficient to assess the impact of the environment on modern international business operations. For easy understanding, modern business can be explained as a complex field of industry and commerce involving activities associated with both production and distribution. These activities cater to the wants and desires of society at one extreme and provide profit for business firms at the other.

Indian leaders, particularly the first Prime Minister Dr. Jawaharlal Nehru, who had conceived the theory of five year plans, had regarded high economic growth and higher income among poor population as the foremost objectives before the newly independent nation. To achieve these objectives, government was made to play a very important role, and since 1951, a series of five year plans have been the driving forces behind the economic prosperity of the country. Despite of experiencing growth in 1950s, it was still lower than that of many Asian countries. Between 1951-79, the Indian economy had grown at an average rate of 3.1 percent a year at constant prices. Growth in the industrial sector had been about 4.5 percent a year, while for the agriculture sector, growth was 3.0 percent over that period. Many of the political leaders associated with the movement were also in support of a socialistic development pattern. They favored state interference in the economy. They encouraged state ownership of core industries.

Introduction

The establishment and nurturing of Small and Medium Enterprises (SME’s) is a vital input in creating dynamic market economies in the economic and social development of transition countries. Globalization has created a new world order in which entrepreneurship and systematic innovation play important roles by offering competitive advantage for much needed sustainability of SME’s. To keep up the momentum, the development process of innovative ideas into products require alignment with the changing business paradigms, market dynamics and prevailing economic scenario.

The concept of business incubation dates back to 1950s and was more of providing a real estate facility to the small scale units to tide over the early years’ resource deficiencies. These are called the first generation incubators, which were first established in United States. Later on, the idea of business incubation diffused over different countries, and by the mid of 80s the incubators started providing services like business supports, accelerating the learning curve, including knowledge based services. These are termed as second generation incubators. The third generation of incubators provides the additional facility of networking also to the incubated companies. The importance of networking led to the establishment of virtual incubators or networked incubators, where physical infrastructure has less sanctity. Business accelerators appeared in the mid 2000s, and by now the concept of business incubation is spread all over the world. There exist almost 9000 business incubators in the world.

Introduction

The business models, in general are based on traditional ways of strategy formulation and implementation, leading to incremental and non- disruptive change in the nature of business and agri-industry practices. In today’s knowledge environment, we know that agri-businesses cannot survive by just running harder, but rather by running differently and “smarter” than competitors. (Seven et.al, 2005). This article suggests a sense-testing tool for the extensionists and administrators to enable disruptive innovation of extension-led business models through examples and case evidence.

Business is fundamentally concerned with creating value and capturing returns from that value. The term creating and capturing value reflects two fundamental functions that all extension organizations must perform to remain viable over an extended period of time. Successful extension organizations (SEOs) create substantial value by doing things in ways that differentiate them from the competition. The SEOs might develop core competencies, capabilities, and positional advantages that are different from those of competitors.

Introduction

Business planning is required to meet the expectations of the future of any business and to meet the expected or unexpected obstacles that the future may hold. In the absence of a proper business plan, any business tends to fail. Not many are aware of the importance of preparing a good business plan. A good plan not only helps in planning as per the expected outcomes, but it also aids in seeking the right funds and bringing favourable investment into the business. However, the question remains: how to prepare an effective business plan. To aid in business planning, many use a Business Model Canvas. A Business Model Canvas or BMC (Figure 1), is a tool that represents different organisational components briefly in a very creative way. These components create the value of any organisation. The BMC is a strategy tool that also analyses the business situation of an existing business. There are nine components of a BMC, which are also referred to as the building blocks of an organisation. These are customer segments, Proposition, Channels, Customer Relationships, Key Resources, Key Activities, Key Partners, Cost Structure, and Revenue Structure. If BMC is prepared well, there are good chances that the Business plan will be developed well, which reduces the chances of failure in business. At the same time, it helps the business sail through the competitive environment smoothly and stay sustainable in the long run (Johnson, 2020).

STARTUP India is an innovative initiative started to help people who want to start their own business. These individuals are reflective and resilient. Therefore, the government provides assistance for them to realize their concepts and expand. The Government of India introduced the ‘Startup India’ initiative on January 16, 2016, in New Delhi.

What is a Start Up?

According to the government notification, the journal number will replace the G.S.R. 364(E) dated 11 April 2018 as amended by Notification No. G.S.R. 34 (E) on 16 January 2019 by DPIIT.

Definitions

In this announcement: An entity shall be measured as a Startup

• Any entity for a period of ten years from the date of incorporation/registration, if registered as a private limited company (as defined in the Companies Act, 2013) or listed as a partnership (registered under Section 59 of the Partnership Act, 1932) or a limited liability partnership (under the Limited Liability Partnership Act, 2008) in India.

• The revenue of the entity has not exceeded one hundred crore rupees for any of the financial years since registration/registration.

• The business unit works to innovate, develop or improve products, processes or services, if there is a scalable business model with high potential for performance or value creation. But the enterprise created by revolution, by revitalization of the existing business, is not called a “start-up”.

The 20^th century had seen unprecedented increase in fishing capacity; in terms of the vessel number, increase in size of the vessels and advances in the electronic and navigational equipment coupled with easily manufactured and durable fishing nets. The effect of these innovations sequentially, was the burgeoning in the fish production, plateauing of catches and the myth of inexhaustibility of fishery resources in the sea was proven wrong. A large number of stocks world over have declined and the stock status of many are now alarming, but still the trend towards larger, more powerful and faster vessels continues.

Global fisheries production has reached a plateau and is now hovering around 80 million tonnes during the last decade. It is also noted that the status of world’s marine fish stocks have not improved overall. About 31.4% of assessed fish stocks are fished at a biologically unsustainable level and therefore overfished. Fully fished stocks accounted for 58.1% and underfished stocks 10.5%. It is evident that most of the stocks are fully fished with no further potential for increase in production.

The importance of reducing bycatch and minimizing ecological impacts of fishing operations has been emphasized by scientists and fishery managers and recognized by fishermen. Trawl fisheries in different parts of the world are now being required to use bycatch reduction devices as result of pressure from conservation groups and legal regimes introduced by the governments. The Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (FAO, 1995), which gives guidelines for sustainable development of fisheries, stresses the need for developing selective fishing gears in order to conserve resources, protect non-targeted resources and endangered species. Although the problems of using non-legal gears and designs often with smaller mesh sizes are reported. Most of the problems due to generation of bycatch and damage to the ecosystem function, has been implicated due to trawling.

Introduction

The economic choice of any process is the criterion for efficient utilization of the by-product that is produced along side of main product. During manufacture of major dairy products, the dairy industry also ends up in producing different by-products. Various by-products of dairy industry are skim milk, butter milk , whey and ghee residue. Dairy industry is particularly confronted with the problem of economic utilization of whey and ghee residue. The techno-economical problems associated with utilization of these by-products, is now receiving considerable attention. More efficient, cost effective and sophisticated technologies have opened up new vistas for manufacture of number of derived by-products. Further more the market for dairy by-products, as an ingredients in other consumer food products like snacks, ready meals and microwavable food products, has been growing.

Q.1 We can apply the change of origin or change of scale or change of origin and scale both to the original data in case of applying ANOVA technique to make the analysis easy and speedy.

Q.2 The conclusions drawn from ANOVA based on transformed data or original data are different.

C₃ cycle or Calvin cycle: It is a process of dark reaction of photosynthesis. It is also called as photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle which results in the production of sugars. It occurs not only in C₃ plants but also in C₄ and CAM pathway also. It occurs in the mesophyll cells. It is described in three stages: (1) Carboxylation, (2) Reduction, (3) Regeneration.

C₃ plants: Group of plants with calvin cycle wherein the first stable product is 3-phosphoglyceric acid, a three carbon compound. e.g., rice, wheat, barley.

C₄ cycle: C₄ cycle may also referred to as the dicarboxylic acid cycle or Hatch and Slack Cycle. The first stable product is a C₄ compounds like oxaloacetic acid. Here CO₂ molecule is accepted by phosphoenol pyruvate in the carboxylation reaction. The main purpose of this cycle is carbondioxide enrichment.

C₄ plants: Plants with Hatch-slack pathway and kranz anatomy of leaves in which the first stable product is four carbon compound, oxaloacetic acid. These plants posses high photosynthetic efficiency and low photorespiration rate. e.g., sugarcane, maize, sorghum.

Cajanus cajan ( L ) Millsp. (Fabaceae): Eng.- Pigeon Pea / Cajan Pea; Hindi – Arhar; Kash.- Lokut Chana [RC]. An annual erect herb, stem woody, leaves trifoliate. Flowers yellowish diffuse red, borne in axillary racemes. Pods flattish with fawn brown coloured seeds having light yellow cotyledons. The pulse has been lately introduced and is under marginal cultivation.

Canonical analysis: The canonical analysis can be used in the case when both measurable and non-measurable variables for the purpose of simultaneously predicting a set of dependent variables from their joint covariance with a set of independent variables.

C - enamel can: The sulphur resistant lacquer is golden coloured and the can coated with it are called C-enamel can or sulphure resistant can, used for packing non acid products (Plate 143).

CA storage: Storage of commodities under gaseous atmosphere like gas storage, where the composition of atmosphere is controlled accurately. MA and CA differ only in degree of control and CA is more exact. These storage methods in combination with refrigeration markedly enhance storage life of fruit and vegetables (Plate 144).

CAC: It stands for Codex Alimentarious commission (1962). It is a joint commission of FAO and WHO, comprising of 146 member countries. It ensures consumer food safety, establish fair practices in food trade and promote the development of international food standards. CAC make standards for food additives, veterinary drugs, pesticide residue and other miscellaneous substances that affect consumer safety. These are published in Codex Alimentarius.

Botany :The cabbage plant, Brassica oleracea, is an herbaceous annual or biennial vegetable in the family Cruciferae grown for its edible head. The head of the cabbage is round and forms on a short thick stem. The leaves are thick and alternating with wavy or lobed edges and the roots are are fibrous and shallow. The plant produces large yellow flowers. The densely leaved heads can range in size from 0.5 to 3.6 kg (1-8 lb) depending on variety. The plant is usually grown as an annual.

Cabbage (Brassica oleracea, ssp. capitata, 2n = 2x = 18, family Brassicaceae = Cruciferae, cross-pollinated due to sporophytic incompatibility) comes under generic name cole crops. It is a rich source of calcium, and vitamins A and C. It is generally consumed as cooked vegetable, boiled or stewed, raw salad, soup and sauerkraut which is cabbage cut into fine slices that undergo lactic acid fermentation in a brine made of its own juice with salt. Sauerkraut was traditionally made at home in Germany and other European countries, but nowadays it is mainly an industrial product.

According to Indian Horticulture Database-2014 (NHB, 2015), global production of cabbage spread over more than 125 countries has been 70.64 million tons from 2.42 million ha area with a productivity of 29.2 tons/ha. Of this total global cabbage production, top ranking China (32.80 million tons from 0.98 million ha) and second ranking India (9.04 million tons from 0.40 million ha) jointly contributed about 59% of the production. Other countries in the descending order of the production were Russian Federation, Japan, South Korea, Ukraine, Indonesia, Poland, Romania and USA. In terms of productivity (tons/ha), South Korea (71.2 t/ha) and Japan (67.6 t/ha) were far ahead than the rest of the countries which were in the range of 20.1 to 42.9 tons/ha.

During 2017-18, also Indian cabbage production was 9.04 million tons from 0.40 million ha (4 lakh ha) area giving a productivity of 22.6 t/ha. Thus in India, cabbage area seems to be stabilized at 4 lakh ha. The top ten cabbage producing states in India are West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, Assam, MP, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Karnataka and UP (Horticulture Statistics at a Glance-2018, MAFW, 2018).

Cacao Mealy Bug : Planococcus lilacinus : Pseudococcidae

The adult female mealy bug is 3.9 mm in length and 2.25 mm in width. Eggs are laid on the plant parts within a mass of tangled waxy strands, a female laying 50 to 300 eggs. The eggs hatch in less than 6 hours and the nymphs feeding on the plant juice become full-grown in 20-25 days with a mean of 23 days in the case of females and 17 to 20 days for the males. The male nymph assumes a pupal period which lasts for 4 to 6 days and the adult male is winged. They live for 2-3 days while the adult female has longevity of 12 -16 days. The females dominate the population, 67.6 per cent of the crawlers developing into female mealy bugs.

I. General information

1. All cacti are succulents
2. All succulents are not cacti
3. All the genus belonging to the family Cactaceae are native of America
4. A genus in Cactaceae family which is not native of America is Rhipsalis
5. Sedum and Sempervivum are native to temperate Europe
6. Aporocactus, Rhipsalis and Schlumbergera are native of Mexico
7. Dischidia and Hoya are native of South-East Asia

Cacti and succulents are two important groups of ornamentals both for indoor plantscape and outdoor gardening. Unlike other ornamental plants, these have not been fully exploited for landscaping purpose. Careful selection and proper maintenance are the key factors for successful culture of cacti and succulents. There is lot of variation in growth habit, flowering and hardiness which make them enable for outdoor landscape as well as pot plant.

Being little uncommon in shape, size, growth habit in comparison to other ornamentals, cacti and succulents are good addition to create curiosity in the gardens. Every kind of garden has got some spots difficult to develop properly by other common ornamental plants. Selected cacti and succulents in combination with stones / boulders can make such corners presentable and attractive. Moreover, flowers of cacti and succulents are very colourful and attractive deserving to find place in all types of garden. Foliage of some of the succulents like Agave, Kalanchoe, Dudleya, Furcraea, Sanseveria are remarkable and added attraction in potted form for interior decoration. Landscape designers and horticulturists should make use of these potential groups in extensive way.

Cactus: A succulent plant with a thick fleshy stem which typically bears spines, lacks leaves and has brilliantly coloured flowers.

Succulents: Plants that have some parts that are more than normally thickened and fleshy, usually to retain water in arid climates or soil conditions.

Together cactus and succulents are important group of ornamental plants which have the ability to store water and survive in hot and dry conditions.

Cactaceae family comprises of perennial shrubs or trees characterized with the presence of spines which arise from specialized axillary meristems (areoles), which in some taxa may also bear fine barbed hairs called glochids. A large family consisting of about 124 genera and 1,427 species. It is native to North and South America and widely distributed from Canada to Chile. Nowadays they are found growing in many countries like Australia, South Africa, and Mediterranean countries. They are highly adaptable to drier regions because of their characteristic leaflessness nature. Since cacti are succulent in nature that’s the reason that all cacti are succulents but all succulents are not cacti. Cacti conserve water by two means, first presence of cuticle which prevents water loss and second it is CAM (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism) plant where stomata opens at night and close during day time therefore prevents water loss.

Cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica), commonly known as prickly pear, belongs to the family Cactaceae. In local parlence, cactus is called nagphani or danda thohar. In Tamil Nadu, it is commonly known as chapathi balli. The word “cactus” derived through Latin from the ancient Greek kaktos, a name used by Theophrastus for a spiny plant (Johnson et al., 1972) which may have been the Cynara cardunculus (Sonnante et al., 2007). It is a storehouse of virtues that have been commercially unexploited so far in India. In addition, certain genera, such as Optuntia and Nopalea have economically useful plant parts. Different parts of the cactus can be used as fruit and vegetable for human consumption, fodder for cattle, and raw material for various industries to prepare plywood, soap, dyes, adhesives and glue, pharmaceutical products for treating blood sugar and various other disorders, and cosmetics such as shampoo, cream, and body lotions, etc. (Barbera et al., 1995 and  Pimienta, 1994). Similarly, the tender young pads of Optunia and Nopalea species, known as nopalitos, are extensively used as a fresh green vegetable in Mexico and Texas. Even its seeds can be used as flavouring agents. Use of cactus pear as a waterproof paint for homes is also reported.

Cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica), commonly known as prickly pear, belongs to the family Cactaceae. In local parlence, cactus is called nagphani or danda thohar. In Tamil Nadu, it is commonly known as chapathi balli. The word “cactus” derived through Latin from the ancient Greek kaktos, a name used by Theophrastus for a spiny plant (Johnson et al., 1972) which may have been the Cynara cardunculus (Sonnante et al., 2007). It is a storehouse of virtues that have been commercially unexploited so far in India. In addition, certain genera, such as Optuntia and Nopalea have economically useful plant parts. Different parts of the cactus can be used as fruit and vegetable for human consumption, fodder for cattle, and raw material for various industries to prepare plywood, soap, dyes, adhesives and glue, pharmaceutical products for treating blood sugar and various other disorders, and cosmetics such as shampoo, cream, and body lotions, etc. (Barbera et al., 1995 and Pimienta, 1994). Similarly, the tender young pads of Optunia and Nopalea species, known as nopalitos, are extensively used as a fresh green vegetable in Mexico and Texas. Even its seeds can be used as flavouring agents. Use of cactus pear as a waterproof paint for homes is also reported.

Cacti in pots may be placed outside in the summer to ornament gardens or patios, and then kept under cover during the winter (Anderson, 1999). Less drought-resistant epiphytes, such as epiphyllum hybrids, Schlumbergera also called Thanksgiving or Christmas cactus and Hatiora called the Easter cactus, are widely cultivated as houseplants. Cacti may also be planted outdoors in regions with suitable climates. Concern for water conservation in arid regions has led to the promotion of xeriscaping.

Introduction
 
Agricultural activity in the arid and semi-arid divided into two main components are plant production and animal production. Animal production is associated with a component of a large proportion of workers in the agricultural sector, either individually or as part of agricultural activity Integrative. The livestock are plays major role in the lives of the rural population to the availability of several important products such as meat and dairy products.

Farm animals in the arid and semi-arid depend on their feeding mainly on crop residues and natural pastures that do not meet their needs due to scarcity of resources in these regions. Such scarcity is caused by a number of factors; the most important factor is limited agricultural land devoted to cultivation of fodder crops, low rainfall and the deterioration of natural pastures. However, there are many studies in different countries suggesting the possibility of widespread exploitation of cactus as a strategic resource, especially in the areas of low rainfall and scarce feed resources (FAO 2007). Those studies recommend the use Cactus to feed cows, goats, sheep and rabbits without causing any problems to the animals’ health. In addition, it can be used as medicine and cosmetics for humans and for many other uses.

The name CACTUS was originally given by Theophrastus, to a spiny plant of Sicily in Italy.

Act on circular muscular fibres, hence constrictions. It is the heart and arteries especially that at once respond to the influence of Cactus, producing very characteristic constrictions as of an iron band. This sensation is found in various places, oesophagus, bladder, etc. The mental symptoms produced correspond to those found when there are heart affections, sadness and melancholy. Haemorrhage, constrictions, periodicity, and spasmodic pains. Whole body feels as if caged, each wire being twisted tighter. Atheromatous arteries and weak heart. Congestion; irregular distribution of blood. Favors formation of clots speedily. Great periodicity. Toxic goiter with cardiac symptoms. Cactus is pulseless, painting and prostrated.

We use Cactus for constriction of the heart. It feels as if an iron band were preventing the normal movement of the heart. The pain is worse when the patient is lying on the left side.

Cactus has four leading indications, viz. haemorrhage, constriction, periodicity and spasmodic pain. The whole body feels as if it is caged, with each wire being twisted tighter.

In case of heart problems, there is a fluttering and palpitation of the heart, an irregularity in the action of the heart. The patient suffers from endocarditis, an inflammation of the layer of the epithelial cells which lines the cavities of the heart. There may be mitrial insufficiency with palpitation. There may be swelling of the left hand, of the left leg and foot. The left arm is numb. The circulation of the blood is spasmodic, irregular.

Introduction

Cactus pear belongs to Cactaceae family, is widely grown in Mexico and distributed in arid and semi arid tracts of several other parts of the world, such as Australia, Africa, USA and the Mediterranean basin and South East Asia. The future of arid and semi-arid areas of the World largely depends on the development of sustainable agricultural systems based on the use of appropriate crops. Suitable crops are those that successfully cope with water shortage, high temperature, variabilities, poor soils, and easy management to provide food and forage to poor farmers and herders. Opuntias fit most of the above described requirements. In addition, Opuntias play an important ecological role in combating desertification as well as producing fruits and vegetables for human consumption, forage or fodder for livestock, biomass for energy purposes, cochineal for carmine production, and numerous by-products (beverages, vegetarian cheese, drugs and cosmetics). They also provide shelter and food for various wildlife species in arid environments. The fruit known as tuna is a fleshy berry, varying in shape, size, and colour and has a consistent number of hard seeds. The fairly high sugar content and low acidity of the fruit makes it palatable and delicious. Cactus pear was largely treated as underutilized crop by the scientific world until the beginning of 1980, when there was a multiplication of research and symposia, resulting in a large number of publications, including books and book chapters. Recent research finding has, in fact, revealed the high content of some chemical constituents, which can give added value to this crop on a nutritional and bioactive profile. High levels of betalains, taurine, calcium, magnesium, and antioxidants are nutraceutically important. Moreover, some of the constituents show promising in terms of health beneficial quality. Cactus pear products could supplement to nutritional security and human health. The diverse genotypes of Cactus pear have different coloured fruit that show the presence of different antioxidants profiles.

Cactus pear (Opuntia ficus indica (L.) Mill.) commonly known as Prickly pear or Tuna, which have been identified and established as vegetable, fruit and fodder crop and considered as an important fruit crop for semi-arid and arid regions.  In Indian arid and semi- arid regions, it is called Nagphani and produces small size fruits in which number of seed is available. It is grown wildly and unexploited. It is thorny plant and generally used for bio –fencing to protect fields from wild animals (Singh, 2000;  Pareek et al., 2001) . However, exotic cactus pear produces edible fruits and its tender cladodes can be used to prepare vegetable, salad, pickle and as animal fodder (Singh and Felker, 1998). Owing to the presence of Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) pathway, cacti have about four to five times more efficiency of water to dry matter conversion than even C4 plants such as maize (Nobel, 1988). The species which produce edible fruits are Opuntia ficus indica (L.) Mill; O. megacantha Salm dyck; O. amyclaea Tenore; O.streptacantha Limaire; O. robusta Wandl; O. lindhaimeri Engelm . Fruits are rich source of sugar, vitamins and minerals, whereas its tender green cladodes are used as tasty and nutritious vegetable like lettuce and spinach (Rodriguez -Felix and Cantwell, 1988).

Computer-Aided Design (CAD) is the use of Computer Technology for the design of objects which are real or virtual. CAD involves more than just shapes. As in the manual drafting of technical and engineering drawings, the output of CAD must convey information such as materials, processes, dimensions, and tolerances according to application-specific conventions. CAD may be used to design curves and figures in two-dimensional (2D) space; or curves, surfaces, and solids in three-dimensional (3D) objects.

Model organisms are widely used in biological researches to describe basic biological processes. When selecting living organisms as models to work with, a wide range of characteristics are used which include: 1) rapid development with short life cycles, 2) small adult size, 3) ready availability and 4) tractability. Being small, growing rapidly and being readily available are crucial in terms of housing them, given the budget and space limitations of research and teaching laboratories. Tractability relates to the ease with which they can be manipulated. Many model organisms have been used including fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, the most obvious organism used for teaching Mendelian genetics and developmental biology; Escherichia coli, a favoured organism for molecular biological studies involving recombinant DNA technology. Research into the molecular and developmental biology of C. elegans was begun in 1974 by Sydney Brenner and it has since been used extensively as a model organism.

C. elegans is a popular research organism as it possesses all the characteristics mentioned, yet shares many essential biological properties with humans. For instance, researchers who study apoptosis (programmed cell death) use C. elegans as an experimental organism in the hope of finding treatments for certain types of human cancers, such as leukaemia.

C. elegans is easy and inexpensive to maintain in laboratory conditions with a diet of E. coli. Embryogenesis occurs in about 12 hours, development to the adult stage occurs in 2.5 days and the life span is 2-3 weeks. The short, hermaphroditic life cycle (~3 days) and large number (300+) of offspring of C. elegans allows large-scale production of animals within a short period of time. Since C. elegans has a small body size, in vivo assays can be conducted in a 96 well microplate. Laboratory stocks of C. elegans can even be stored in liquid nitrogen for 25 years without losing their viability. The transparent body allows clear observation of all cells in mature and developing animals. Furthermore, the intensively studied genome, complete cell lineage map, knockout (KO) mutant libraries and established genetic methodologies including mutagenesis, transgenesis and RNA interference (RNAi) provide a variety of options to manipulate and study C. elegans at the molecular level and for a more detailed presentation of genetic and genomic resources.

Model organisms are widely used in biological researches to describe basic biological processes. When selecting living organisms as models to work with, a wide range of characteristics are used which include: 1) rapid development with short life cycles, 2) small adult size, 3) ready availability and 4) tractability.