eChapters

Introduction

Leafhoppers belong to the family Cicadellidae and constitute one of the largest families in the exopterygotan Hexapoda. Recent estimates of species for the world range between 35,000-45,000 species though little over 22,600 species are now described (Dietrich, 2004a). The leafhoppers belong to the order Hemiptera and suborder Auchenorrhyncha.
 
Leafhoppers can readily be recognized from other members of the Auchenorrhyncha by the presence of two or more rows of spines on hind tibiae and by the pronotum not extending back over abdomen. Their close relative, the Membracidae, have pronotum extending back over the abdomen. From planthoppers (Delphacidae) with which they are often confused, they can be recognized by the position and structure of antennae. The leafhopper antennae are placed between eyes compared to beneath the eyes in planthoppers; the second segment of the antenna (pedicel) is small without externally visible sensillae in leafhoppers compared to enlarged pedicel with prominent sensillae in the planthoppers. The movable large spur at the apex of hind tibia in plant hoppers is absent in the leafhoppers.

Introduction

India is the largest developing economy of the world and about 70 per cent of its population is dependent directly or indirectly on this profession.  To meet the food requirement of the ever-multiplying population of this country, agriculture production has to be maximized by using genetically improved varieties, fertilizers improved implements, seed, and other agronomical technologies. Beside these improvements the agriculture production has remained static for the last decade. For further improvements in agricultural production we have to adopt comprehensive strategies. One of such strategies is the pollination management that is a very vital process of agriculture crop production. Pollination is a process involving reproductive parts of a flower and an external agent in the form of a vector. According to Prof. E.C. Martin, the value of bee pollination of fruits, vegetables and seeds in the United States of America totaled very close to $8 billion in the 1960s; the figure 20 years later is probably close to $20 billion.

Introduction

Many insets inhabit the soil and participate in different activities which will result in changes in soil physico-chemical properties. Thus soil is a very good habitat for some insects. Several insects spend either complete or few stages of their life cycle in soil. Soil provides protection from predators for many soil dwelling insects especially in immature stages. Few insects also undergo diapauses in soil. Soil insects include phytophagous, scavengers, predators and parasites. Among these, soil macro fauna especially termites and white grubs are very important pests of many crops and their activity also brings many changes in soil ecosystem.

Termites

Termites (Order: Isoptera) are eusocial, polymorphic and live in small to large colonies. The colony consists of different castes viz., functional reproductive (queen and king), sterile workers and soldiers, which are morphologically distinct.  The tasks of the latter two castes include foraging, nest building and care of eggs and young ones and defense. All species maintain symbiotic relationships with microorganisms, which aid in digestion. Few species build the often-spectacular mounds or arboreal nests and others build subterranean nests. They constitute important group of soil fauna and play a major role in the arid and semiarid tropics. Worker castes are dominant and are responsible for major functions in the colony. During the process of food collection, the workers generally attack the plants that are weakened due to some internal growth factors or environmental causes such as drought or poor soil conditions (Roonwal, 1978).

    1.    Nutrients : Chemical substances obtained from food and used in the body to provide energy, structural materials, and regulating agents to support growth, maintenance, and repair of the body’s tissues. Nutrients may also reduce the risks of some diseases.
    2.    Carbohydrate, fat, and protein are sometimes called macronutrients because the body requires them in relatively large amounts (many grams daily). In contrast, vitamins and minerals are micronutrients, required only in small amounts (milligrams or micrograms daily).
    3.    The international unit for measuring food energy is the joule, a measure of work energy. To convert kcalories to kilojoules, multiply by 4.2; to convert kilojoules to kcalories, multiply by 0.24.
    4.    Essential nutrients : Nutrients a person must obtain from food because the body cannot make them for itself in sufficient quantity to meet physiological needs; also called indispensable nutrients. About 40 nutrients are currently known to be essential for human beings. Energy-yielding nutrients: the nutrients that break down to yield energy the body can use:

    1.    Absorbance (A) - Defined as –log (1-a) = log (1/t), where ‘a’ is the absorbance and‘t’ the transmittance of a medium through which a light beam passes.

    2.    Absorption coefficient (a) - The relative decrease in the intensity of a collimated beam of electromagnetic radiation, as a result of absorption by a medium, during traversal of an infinitesimal layer of the medium, divided by the length traversed.

    3.    Acceleration due to gravity (g) - The standard value (9.80665 m/s2) of the acceleration experienced by a body in the earth’s gravitational field.

    4.    Acid - Historically, a substance that yields an H+ ion when it dissociates in solution, resulting in a pH< 7. In the Brönsted definition, an acid is a substance that donates a proton in any type of reaction. The most general definition, due to G.N. Lewis, classifies any chemical species capable of accepting an electron pair as an acid.

    5.    Acid dissociation constant (Ka) - The equilibrium constant for the dissociation of an acid HA through the reaction HA + H2O1 A- + H3O+. The quantity pKa = -log Ka is often used to express the acid dissociation constant

    6.    Acyl groups - Groups formed by removing the hydroxy groups from oxoacids that have the general structure RC (=O) (OH) and replacement analogues of such acyl groups.

    7.    Adiabatic process - A thermodynamic process in which no heat enters or leaves the system.

Percent Solutions

There are three types of percent solutions. All are parts of solute per 100 total parts of solution. Based on the following definitions you may calculate the concentration of a solution or calculate how to make up a specific concentration

    1.    % W/W - Percent of weight of solute in the total weight of the solution. Percent here is the number of grams of solute in 100 grams of solution. 
        Example: 
        A 100% (W/W) NaCl solution is made by weighing 100 g NaCl and dissolving in 100 g of solution

    2.    % W/V - Percent of weight of solution in the total volume of solution. Percent here is the number of grams of solute in 100 ml of solution. This is probably the least significant way of naming a solution, but the most common way of doing it. In fact, any percent solution not stipulated as W/W, W/V, or V/V is assumed to be % W/V. 
        Example : A 4% (W/V) NaCl solution is 4 g of NaCl in 100 ml of solution.

    3.    % V/V - Percent of volume of solute in the total volume of solution %V/V. Percent here is the number of milliliters of solute in 100 ml of solution. 
        Example: A 10% (V/V) ethanol solution is 10 ml of ethanol in 100 ml of solution; unless otherwise stated, water is the solvent. 

Physical Chemistry of Foods

    1.    Thermodynamics is primarily concerned with energy and entropy. Energy, also called internal energy (U), comprises heat and work; it is measured in joules (J).

    2.    Energy may be recalled that work generally equals force times distance (in N_·m = J) and that force equals mass times acceleration (in kg ·m· s^-2 = N).

    3.    According to the first law of thermodynamics, the quantity of energy, i.e., heat (q) work (p) potential energy, is always preserved.

    4.    Entropy (S)  is a measure of disorder; it is given by   
        S = K_B ln Ω
        Where K_B is the Boltzmann constant (1.38 ×10^-23 J × K^-1) and W is the number of  ways in which the system can be arranged, also called the number of degrees of freedom.

    5.    Colligative solution properties : The lowering of the chemical potential of a solvent by the presence of a solute causes changes in a number of physical properties: vapor pressure, boiling point, freezing point, osmotic pressure, etc. (the magnitudes of these changes all are proportional to the mole fraction of solute).

1. Guidelines on Analytical Terminology

    1.    Accuracy : The closeness of agreement between a test result or measurement result and a reference value.

    2.    Analyte : The chemical substance sought or determined in a sample. This definition does not apply to molecular biological analytical methods.

    3.    Applicability : The analytes, matrices, and concentrations for which a method of analysis may be used satisfactorily.

    4.    Bias : The difference between the expectation of the test result or measurement result and the true value. In practice conventional quantity value can be substituted for true value.

    5.    The bias of a measuring instrument is normally estimated by averaging the error of indication over the appropriate number of repeated measurements. The error of indication is the: “indication of a measuring instrument minus a true value of the corresponding input quantity”.

    6.    Calibration : Operation that, under specified conditions, in a first step, establishes a relation between the values with measurement uncertainties provided by measurement standards and corresponding indications with associated measurement uncertainties and in a second step uses this information to establish a relation for obtaining a measurement result from an indication.

    7.    Certified reference material (CRM) : Reference material accompanied by documentation issued by an authoritative body and providing one or more specified property values with associated uncertainties and traceability, using valid procedures.

Instrumentation and Advanced Analytical Techniques

    1.    Chromatography is defined as an analytical technique where by a mixture of chemicals may be separated by virtue of their differential affinities for two immiscible phases. One of these, the stationary phase, consists of a fixed bed of small particles with a large surface area, while the other, the mobile phase or “eluant”, is a fluid that moves constantly through, or over the surface of, the fixed phase.

    2.    The chromatogram evaluated qualitatively by determining the Rf or retention factor, for each of the eluted substances.

    3.    The Rf is a measure of that fraction of its total elution time that any compound spends in the mobile phase.

    4.    If the liquid phase is a polar substance (e.g. polyethylene glycol) and the mobile phase is non polar, the process is termed normal-phase chromatography

    5.    When the stationary phase is non polar (e.g. octadecylsilane) and the mobile phase is polar, the process is reversed-phase chromatography

    6.    The chromatographic separation of mixtures of large molecules such as proteins may be accomplished by a mechanism called size exclusion chromatography or gel permeation chromatography.

    7.    Separation of certain molecules is accomplished by a mechanism called affinity Chromatography in which specific binding between an antibody (stationary phase) and antigen (analyte) occur.

Introduction

    1.    Food Science is the application of the physical, biological and behavioral science to the processing and marketing of foods (Margaret, 1968).

    2.    Technology can be defined as the science dealing with knowledge of doing things efficiently and effectively.

    3.    Food science helps us understand the theory example: what methods can best be used to store and preserve food to maintain quality and prevent spoilage.

    4.    Food technology demonstrates how the food is stored, preserved, processed and transported and has been responsible for development of new techniques for processing and preservation of food on a commercial scale and for packaging it in such a way that it can be sold conveniently.

    5.    Food science deals with the study of facts of the physical, chemical and biological sciences as they influence the processing and preservation of food.

    6.    Food technology deals with engineering and other scientific and technical problems involved in transforming edible raw materials and other ingredients into safe, nutritious and appetizing food products (Desrosier, 1977).

    7.    Food science is concerned with basic scientific facts about food, where as food technology concerned with the processing of raw materials into foods that meet human needs and wants.

    8.    Indian agriculture has undergone a sea change during the past half a century. Starting with the campaign for “grow more foods” in the forties, India reached self sufficiency during the eighties.

Moisture Content
 
Two maximum moisture levels are provided to meet different climatic conditions and marketing practices. Lower values in the first column are suggested for countries with tropical climates or when long-term (more than one crop year) storage is a normal commercial practice. The values in the second column are suggested for more moderate climates or when other short term storage is the normal commercial practice.

Cereal Processing

    1.    The protein content of wheat grain varies widely, but for bread making a value of at least 11% is required.

    2.    Low grain sulphur will result in low concentrations of the sulphur-containing amino acids, cystine and methionine, and may result in poor loaf volume.

    3.    During seed germination endosperm starch is converted into soluble glucose and maltose to support the developing embryo. This is brought about by enzymatic activity, especially the enzyme a-amylase.

    4.    Excessive a-amylase levels result in the formation of a darkened loaf crust as a result of sugar caramelization and a sticky crumb structure which can cause problems during slicing.

    5.    Wheat with a protein level below 10% is preferred to reduce gluten elasticity.

    6.    There is a very good correlation between grain nitrogen and the amount of malt extract achieved, low grain nitrogen giving more fermentable extract

    7.    The term ‘coarse grains milling’ is a very broad one that refers to the comminution of the berries of the wheat, barley and other coarse grain crops.

Meat and Meat Products

    1.    Meat can be defined as “the muscle tissue of slaughter animals”.
    2.    meat is composed of water, fat, protein, minerals and a small proportion of carbohydrate

    1.    The heifer is bred (naturally or by insemination) before the age of two years.

    2.    The gestation period is nine months and one week.

    3.    After calving, the cow gives milk for 10 months.

    4.    1 – 2 months after calving the cow will again be bred.

    5.    The cow then continues to give milk for about 300 days. This period is known as lactation.

    6.    Milk should preferably be handled in a closed system, to minimise the risk of contamination. It must be cooled to 4 °C as soon as it is produced.

    7.    The content of protein, lactose and ash is somewhat higher in buffalo milk than in cow milk. Buffalo milk contains vitamin A, but lacks b-carotene, which is present in cow’s milk.

    8.    When milk and cream turn to butter, there is a phase inversion from an oil-in-water emulsion to a water-in-oil emulsion.

    9.    In milk, the whey proteins are in colloidal solution and the casein in colloidal suspension.

Nutraceuticals and Health Foods

    1.    According to the International Food Information Council (IFIC), functional foods are “foods or dietary components that may provide a health benefit beyond basic nutrition.”

    2.    Nutraceuticals : A product isolated and purified from foods that is generally- sold in medicinal forms are usually associated with food. A nutraceutical is demonstrated to have a physiological benefit or provide protection against chronic disease (Coined originally by Stephen DeFelice in 1989, founder and chairman of the Foundation for Innovation in Medicine, USA).

    3.    The International Life Sciences Institute of North America (ILSI) has defined functional foods as “foods that by virtue of physiologically active food components provide health benefits beyond basic nutrition

    4.    Health Canada defines functional foods as “similar in appearance to a conventional food, consumed as part of the usual diet, with demonstrated physiological benefits, and/or to reduce the risk of chronic disease beyond basic nutritional functions.”

1. Herbs and Spices
       
    1.    International Standards Organization (ISO) defines spices and condiments as: Vegetable products or mixtures thereof, free from extraneous matter, used for flavouring, seasoning and imparting aroma in foods.

    2.    Rosengarten describes a spice as a product which enriches or alters the quality of a thing, for example altering the taste of a food to give it zest or pungency; a piquant or lasting flavouring; or a relish. The term ‘spice’ is thus used to cover the use of spices, herbs and certain aromatic vegetables to impart odour and flavour to foods.

    3.    Herbs may be defined as the dried leaves of aromatic plants used to impart flavour and odour to foods with, sometimes, the addition of colour. The leaves are commonly traded separately from the plant stems and leaf stalks.

    1.    Vegetables are less acidic than fruits and food poisoning bacteria are able to grow in many vegetable products

    2.    Different levels of acidity in fruits

    3.    Water for cleaning of fruits and vegetables should contain about 200 ppm of chlorine (by mixing 1 litre of bleach into 250 litres of water)

    4.    Water that is used as an ingredient in fruits and vegetable product should not contain more than 0.5 ppm chlorine (by adding 2.5 ml of bleach to 250 litres of water), to avoid contaminating products with a chlorine smell

Food Processing Technology

    1.    The transition from solid to fluid and back is known as a phase transition and this is important in many types of food processing (e.g. water to water vapour in evaporation and distillation and dehydration; water to ice in freezing and freeze drying or freeze concentration or crystallisation of fats.
 
    2.    Phase transition takes place isothermally at the phase transition temperature by release or absorption of latent heat, and can be represented by a phase diagram.

    3.    A second type of transition, known as glass transition, takes place without the release or absorption of latent heat and involves the transition of a food to an amorphous glass state at its glass transition temperature.

    4.    The transition is dependent on the temperature of the food, time, and the moisture content of the food.

    5.    The density of a material is equal to its mass divided by its volume and has units of kgm^-3

    1.    Food : defined as something which is eaten / drunk by human beings or something we eat and which can be utilized by our body.

    2.    Milk and milk products like Dahi, yoghurt, paneer, cheese, Khoa etc these foods are rich sources of Vitamin A, Riboflavin and Calcium.

    3.    Meat, fish, poultry etc besides proteins these foods also provide Iron and B- complex Vitamins.

    4.    Eggs and egg products are also rich in Iron, Vitamin A and Riboflavin (B1).

    5.    Pulses, nuts and oil seeds are also a good source of thiamin, niacin, and Iron.

    6.    Strategies and measures for alleviating the world food problem require.

Storage Systems

    1.    Low cost storage technology

        ·    In situ : Means delaying the harvest until the crop is required and employed 
    for the root crops.
        ·    Sand and Coir : Used for the Potatoes
        ·    Pits used for the Potatoes
        ·    Clamps used for the Potatoes
             Wind breaks used for the Onions – 6 months 1m height wooden stakes
        ·    Cellars : under ground / partly under ground. Ex: Apples, cabbage, 
    onions and potatoes during winter.
        ·    Barns : In Sudan onions are stored in palm leaf barns called “Rakubas”.
        ·    Evaporative Coolers
        ·    Zero energy cooling chambers
        ·    Night ventilation.

    2.    As a general rule, air circulation of storage room is designed to provide about 25m² / min / 3000 K cal of refrigeration predicated on a 5.5ºC

    3.    Frozen storage refers to storage at temperature where food is maintained in frozen conditions.

    4.    Good frozen storage generally means - 18ºC / below.

    5.    Below – 9.4ºC, there is no significant growth of microorganisms in food.

    1.    Microbial Risk Assessment (MRA) can be considered a tool for use in the management of the risks posed by food borne pathogens and in the elaboration of standards for food in international trade.

    2.    MRA comprises risk assessments of particular pathogen - commodity combinations

    3.    According to codex alimentarious commission (CAC) microbial risk assessment is defined as a scientifically based process consisting of 4 components.

        ·    Hazard identification
        ·    Exposure assessment
        ·    Hazard characterization
        ·    Risk characterization

1. Fundamental Concepts of Unit Operations

    1.    Process is the set of activities or industrial operations that modify the properties of raw materials with the purpose of obtaining products to satisfy the needs of a society.

    2.    Food process engineering includes the part of human activity in which the knowledge of physical, natural, and economic sciences is applied to agricultural products as related to their composition, energetic content, or physical state.

    3.    Food process engineering can also be defined as “the science of conceiving, calculating, designing, building, and running the facilities where the transformation processes of agricultural products, at the industrial level and as economically as possible, are carried out.

    4.    In a discontinuous operation the raw material is loaded in the equipment; after performing the required transformation, the obtained products are unloaded. These operations, also called “batch” or “intermittent,” are carried out in steps:

Instructions for establishment registration and processing, filing for acidified and low-acid canned foods

Acid Food
 
A food that has a natural pH of 4.6 or below.
 
Acidified Food
 
A low-acid food to which acid(s) or acid food(s) are added and which has a finished equilibrium pH of 4.6 or below and a water activity (aw) greater than 0.85.
 
Authorized Company Representative
 
The person authorized by the company to sign the registration and process filing forms on its behalf. That person should possess the knowledge necessary to answer technical questions concerning filed processes.

Food Packaging

    1.    Food packaging : A wrap, pouch, bag, box, cup, tray, can, tube, bottle and jar are some of the many forms of packaging that contain food products. It must contain a food product as well as protect and preserve it for a specific length of time. Each package must, by law, display product information for the consumer.

    2.    Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) is an economical material with low WVTR; however, it has high permeabilities to flavours/volatiles, poor grease resistance and are limp.
 
    3.    High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) is stiffer, more translucent and has better barrier properties but needs higher temperature for sealing.

    4.    A copolymer of polyethylene and poly vinyl alcohol, and EVOH has outstanding gas barrier properties especially when dry.

    5.    High-density polyethylene is stiff, strong, tough, resistant to chemicals and moisture, permeable to gas, easy to process, and easy to form. It is used to make bottles for milk, juice, and water; cereal box liners; margarine tubs; and grocery, trash, and retail bags.

    6.    Low-density polyethylene is flexible, strong, tough, easy to seal, and resistant to moisture. Because low-density polyethylene is relatively transparent, it is predominately used in film applications and in applications where heat sealing is necessary. Bread and frozen food bags, flexible lids, and squeezable food bottles are examples of low-density polyethylene.

Food and Industrial Microbiology

    1.    Microbiology often has been defined as the study of organisms and agents too small to be seen clearly by the unaided eye—that is, the study of microorganisms

    2.    Two bacteria that are visible without a microscope, Thiomargarita and Epulopiscium.

    3.    Procaryotic cells [Greek pro, before, and karyon, nut or kernel; organism with a primordial nucleus] have a much simpler morphology than eucaryotic cells and lack a true membrane-delimited nucleus. All bacteria are procaryotic.

    4.    Eukaryotic cells [Greek eu, true, and karyon, nut or kernel] have a membrane- enclosed nucleus; they are more complex morphologically and are usually larger than procaryotes. Algae, fungi, protozoa, higher plants, and animals are eucaryotic.

    5.    The ordinary microscope is called a bright-field microscope because it forms a dark image against a brighter background

    1.    Water activity (a_w) affects food chemistry and can be controlled by removal (dehydration or drying) or by chemically binding the water, reducing its activity. Water activity in foods ranges from 0.95 to 1.00 in fresh meats and vegetables to 0.20 in dried milk.

    2.    Water activity (a_w) may be defined in a number of ways, qualitatively, aw is a measure of unbound, free water in a system available to support biological and chemical reactions.

    3.    Water activity, not absolute water content, is what bacteria, enzymes, and chemical reactants encounter and is affected by at the micro environmental level in food materials.

    4.    Two foods with the same water content can have very different aw values depending upon the degree to which the water is free or otherwise bound to food constituents.

    5.    The term “water activity” is related to relative humidity. Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapour in the air to the vapour pressure of pure water at the same temperature.

    6.    Water activity or aw is a property of solutions and is the ratio of vapour pressure of the solution compared with the vapour pressure of pure water at the same temperature. Under equilibrium conditions water activity equals:

1. The Stability and Shelf-Life of Food

    1.    In the UK, the date coding to be used is determined by the total life of the product: for microbiologically highly perishable foods, a ‘use by’ date is needed, while for other foods, including foods with more than 18 months’ shelf-life, a ‘best before’ or a ‘best before end’ date is needed.

    2.    IFT (1974) definition of shelf-life, is : The period between manufacture and retail purchase of a food product during which the product is of satisfactory quality.

    3.    Shelf-life is defined as the time during which the food product will :

        i.    remain safe;
        ii.    be certain to retain desired sensory, chemical, physical and 
    microbiological characteristics;
        iii.    comply with any label declaration of nutritional data,

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) System

1. Identify hazards
 
 It is important to be able to identify the possible microbiological, chemical and physical hazards that can occur at every stage of the food business – from growth, processing, manufacture, storage and distribution, until the point where it is sold to the customer and eaten.

    ·    Microbiological Hazards : Any bacterium, virus, or protozoan that is capable of causing illness and that grows or may be carried on food. Well-known examples of bacteria are Campylobacter, Listeria and Salmonella. The most likely food-borne viruses are the Norwalk type viruses. Giardia is an example of a protozoan that may be food borne. It is important to have some understanding of the risks associated with different types of microbiological hazards.

    ·    Chemical Hazards : Examples include excessive or toxic amounts of heavy metals, chemicals, pesticides, herbicides, insecticides, vitamins, minerals, preservatives, disinfectants, detergents and cleaning compounds. Some hazards may be naturally present such as in green potatoes or taro and rhubarb leaves.

    ·    Physical Hazards : Objects that get into food, or are already present in food, may cause illness, injury or distress to the person eating it. Some examples are glass, metal fragments etc. Other contaminants such as hair or insects may be offensive but not necessarily a danger to health. They should nonetheless be considered and controlled

1. Food Labelling

Food labelling is the primary means of communication between the producer and seller of food on one hand, and the purchaser and consumer on the other.

Basic Terminology in Food labelling

‘‘Food” means any substance, whether processed, semi-processed or raw, which is intended for human consumption, and includes drinks, chewing gum and any substance which has been used in the manufacture, preparation or treatment of “food” but does not include cosmetics or tobacco or substances used only as drugs.

‘‘Ingredient” means any substance, including a food additive, used in the manufacture or preparation of a food and present in the final product although possibly in a modified form.

Food Safety and Standards Rules and Regulations-2009

    1.    The Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 has been passed by the Parliament with the intention to integrate all present food laws into one and to have a single regulatory body.

    2.    Accordingly the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) has been established under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 (FSS Act, 2006) with the mandate to lay down science based standards for articles of food and to regulate their manufacture, storage, distribution, sale and import, to ensure availability of safe and wholesome food for human consumption.

    3.    In exercise of the powers conferred by section 91 of the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 (34 of 2006), the Central Government hereby makes the rules and regulations.

    4.    ‘‘Anti-oxidant’’ means a substance which when added to food retards or prevents oxidative deterioration of food and does not include sugar, cereal, oils, flours, herbs and spices.

    1.    Control points are the points in the food processing chain where it is possible to control or remove hazards.

    2.    Critical control points are the control points in the processing chain where it is essential to a hazard, usually because there is no later step at which to establish control.

    3.    Preventative measures are the actions and activities needed to remove hazards or control them by reducing them to acceptable levels.

    4.    Critical limits for critical control points are measurements such as temperature and time, that must be met, or characteristics such as appearance and texture. Critical limits need to be validated.

    5.    Monitoring is the regular measurement or observation of a critical control point to ensure it is not beyond its critical limits.

    6.    Take corrective action to bring the process back under control before the problem (‘deviation’) leads to a safety hazard. Consider proper management (disposition) of any adversely affected product.

    7.    Verification procedures are tests and programmes that make sure the HACCP system working properly

    8.    Record keeping and documentation systems must meet the needs of the business and be adequate to show that the food safety programme is working.

    1.    Wohler (1828) synthesized the first organic compound, urea from inorganic components.

    2.    Emil Fischer (1894) demonstrated the specificity of enzymes and the lock and key relationship between enzyme and substrate.

    3.    Michaelis and Menten (1913) developed kinetic theory of enzyme action

    4.    Watson and Crick (1953) Proposed the double-helical model for DNA structure

    5.    Ingo potrykus (1999) Golden rice- rich in b-carotene.

    6.    Glyoxysomes : Glyoxysomes are temporary in that they occur during transient periods in the life cycle of a plant such as in certain beans and nuts which store fats in their seeds as energy reserves. Glyoxysomes appear in the first few days after seed germination in endosperm cells and associate closely with lipid bodies. They disappear after the storage fats are broken down and converted into carbohydrate.

    1.    Cereals are grown over 73% of the total world harvested area and contribute over 60% of the world food production providing dietary fibre, proteins, energy, minerals,  vitamins, b-glucans , Oligosaccharides, such as lactulose, fructo-oligosaccharides, transgalacto-oligosaccharides

    2.    Finger millet is a potent source of antioxidants and has potent radical-scavenging activity that is higher than that of wheat, rice, and other millets; these results corresponded to their phenolic content

    3.    The brown or red variety of finger millet, which is commonly available, had higher activity (94%) than the white variety (4%) using the DPPH method.

    4.    Most of the herbal plant polyphenols are known to have multi functional properties such as reducing agents, hydrogen donating antioxidants and singlet oxygen quenchers and flavonoids and their derivatives are the largest and most important group of polyphenols.

    5.    Phytosterols are found in plant foods and are structurally and functionally analogous to cholesterol in vertebrate animals. a-sitosterol, campesterol and stigmasterol are the most commonly occurring phytosterols and constitute 95% of total phytosterols in the diet.

1. Tyson Foods Inc. 
2210 W. Oaklawn Drive, Springdale, AR 72762-6999 
Phone  : 479-290-4000; Fax  : 479-290-4061; Web site  : www.tyson.com

Executives : Chairman : John Tyson; Pres./CEO : Richard Bond; SVP-Intl. Ops. : Mike Baker; SVP-Commodity Trading & Risk Management : Jean Mrha Beach; Group VP-Research & Development, Logistics & Tech Services : Hal Carper; SVP & CIO : Gary Cooper; Group VP & International Pres. : Rick Greubel Jr.; SVP, Controller & CAO : Craig Hart; VP, Assoc. General Counsel & Secretary : R. Read Hudson; Group VP-Ops : Donnie King; SVP-Human Resources : Ken Kimbro; EVP & CFO : Dennis Leatherby; Group VP-Food Service : Bernard Leonard; Sr. Group VP-Fresh Meats : James Lochner; SVP-External Relations : Archie Shaffer III; Group VP-Consumer Prods : Donnie Smith; EVP & General Counsel : David Van Bebber; SVP-Renewable Products : Jeff Webster; VP-Investor Relations & Asst. Secretary : Ruth Ann Wisener

Reproduction is one of the most serious biological problems that markedly influence the efficiency of livestock production. Immunology is a powerful tool for studying both normal fertility and infertility of farm animals. Reproductive immunology is in turn is an important tool for unlocking normal fertility problems and various forms of infertility or reproductive disorders. Although the immune and reproduction systems have been considered independent of each other, the cooperation of both the systems is crucial for initiation and maintenance of mammalian pregnancy. Therefore, reproductive immunology has now become a mature discipline and a major theme during advances in the field of reproductive immunology is to explain the successful gestation of the histcompatable mammalian embryos within the uterus of its immunologically competent mother.
 
Immune responses play an important role in various reproductive processes, including ovulation, menstruation and parturition. Clearly, during pregnancy, when the mother must accept a semi-allogeneic foetus, immune responses also play a very important role which  was first recognized by Medawar in 1953, when the concept of the foetal allograft was presented in order to explain the immunological relationship between mother and foetus. Since then, the immunology of pregnancy has been the leading subject within reproductive immunology research.

1. TYPES AND GRADES OF IMMUNITY

The immune response, which has inherited the character of memory, as evinced by rapidity and specificity of the responses on the second exposure to antigen, was cleared the minds of scientists especially bacteriologists who could find certain cells especially lymphocytes to play a major role in immune response.
 
The fact that the blood also contains soluble protective substances both heat stable which were later known as antibody and heat labile, later called as the complement system. These two were regarded as totally separate phenomenon in the beginning years. Eventually the distinctions between specific and non-specific responses were understood.
 
There are two types of immunity
    i)    Non-specific (Innate, natural or native) immunity
    ii)    Specific (Acquired) immunity.

I. IMMUNOLOGY OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

There are two basic functions of the immune surveillance of man and animals with respect to sperm immunity during spermatogenesis and fertilization process: support of the elimination of the vast majority of 'waste "spermatozoa that fail to fertilize and preservation of the tiny minority of surviving spermatozoa that are able to fertilize the oocytes. The primordial forms of spermatozoa arising in the seminiferous tubules of testes are preserved by the blood-testes barrier which is formed by sertoli cells ringing the semineferous tubules (Hunter, 1989). During maturation in the epidydimis, the spermatozoa acquire their antigenic properties. Simultaneously, the spermatozoa are coated with some proteins of seminal plasma having the immunosuppressive activity toward lymphocytes and macrophages involved in the immune reactions. The seminal plasma proteins accompany the migration of spermatozoa to the female genital tract (Matousek, 1985).

To an immunologist, the presence of embryo inside the mother’s uterus is perhaps one of the most surprising things. Pregnancy is a unique event in which a genetically and immunologically foreign foetus usually survives to full term without apparent rejection by the mother’s immune system. Thus, Pregnancy represents the unique physiological phenomenon of the symbiosis of two semi-allogeneic individuals: the mother and her fetus. Such symbiosis requires a sophisticated immunological regulation to avoid rejection-like reactions and to control the invasion of foreign foetal tissue into the maternal deciduas. A very fine tuning of cellular interactions at the interface of both individuals is indispensible for successful implantation and pregnancy.

Over the past decade, more information has been gathered to provide insight into the complex immunological mechanisms that allow the foetus to grow and survive in most cases.

Immunological Causes of Male Infertility

Immune mediated male infertility is an auto-immune disease.Spermatozoa are first produced at puberty and isolated from the systemic circulation by a structural barrier maintained by Sertoli cell tight junctions within the testis and the uninterrupted epithelial cell lining of the excurrent ductal system. Sperm production occurs well after the development of immunological tolerance to self antigens; therefore sperm specific components are viewed as foreign by the immune system. Whether spermatogonia, the primordial cell in spermatozoa differentiation, is also antigenically foreign is not established. What is known , is that immunization with sperm elicits a highly reproducible immune response that can impair fertility.

Antisperm antibodies are found in about 10-15% of infertile men. Immunity only to those antigens present on the surface of viable, motile sperm will impair fertility. Antibodies to internal sperm antigens, due to an immune response to sperm degraded in the genital tract or to cross reacting microbial antibodies present in the sera of many fertile individuals , are of questionable relevance to infertility. A number of spermatozoa antigens have been identified .

In animals with a long gestation period, such as domestic animals, the acquired immune system is fully developed at birth, but cannot function at full adult levels for several weeks. The complete development of the acquired immunity depends on antigenic stimulation. The proper development of B cells and B cell antigen receptor (BCR) diversity requires clonal selection and antigen driven cell multiplication. Thus, the newborn animals are vulnerable to infection for the first few weeks of life. Hence, the temporary assistance in defending themselves at this time is provided by the mother in the form of antibodies and possibly T cells.
 
Development of the Immune System

The thymus is first lymphoid organ to develop, followed closely by the secondary lymphoid organs. B cells appear soon after the development of spleen and  lymph nodes, but antibodies are not usually found until late in foetal life, if at all. The ability of fetus to respond to antigens develops very rapidly after the lymphoid organs appear, but all antigens are not equally capable of stimulating fetal lymphoid tissue. The immune system in a series of steps, each step permitting the foetus to respond to more antigens. These steps are driven by a gradual increase in the use of gene conversion or somatic mutation to antibody diversity. The ability to mount cell mediated immune (CMI) responses develops at the time as antibody production. Data from humans suggest that T cell receptor diversity is limited in the fetus and neonate and that cytokine production may be low. This may simply be due to their lack of to foreign antigens.

The history of the pregnancy test is a meaningful history embedded in magic, myth, politics, and science. From ancient Egyptian to modern times, the pregnancy test holds a cultural omnipresence that forces women to confront their fertility, femininity, and their future. Today we know that a pregnancy test that detects the human hormone known as human chorionic gonadatropin (hCG) offers the quickest and most accurate result for determining pregnancy. HCG is secreted by the placenta after the fertilized egg implants in the uterus and can be detected in both urine and blood. Urine pregnancy tests are convenient for home use, but a doctor may also opt to test blood as it provides a quantitative hCG number. Both methods are highly accurate and common. Pregnancy tests, however, were not always so accurate or so culturally accepted.
 
The diagnosis of pregnancy requires a multifaceted approach using three main diagnostic tools. These are (a) history and physical examination, (b)laboratory evaluation, and (c) ultrasonography. Currently, physicians may use all of these tools to diagnose pregnancy at early gestation and to help rule out other pathologies.

Overpopulation in humans and street dogs to some extent is a global problem of significant magnitude, with grave implications for the future. The overpopulation of dogs and cats is becoming an increasing concern in most countries of the world. As the global human population explodes so to do the staggering numbers of many best friends. Not only does this overpopulation cause millions of deaths each year and immeasurable levels of suffering in unwanted animals, these animals can cause significant risks to human health.

Stray animals particularly dogs are source of dreaded diseases like rabies and other zoonoses, resulting in thousands of deaths annually. The management of wild and domestic animal population is step towards controlling the situation and fertility control techniques play a role in this. However, such technology is still in its infancy is yet to be used on a large scale.

Advancements made in immunology and improved methods for the isolation of antigens specific reproductive system have paved the way for the development of antifertility vaccines in the past two decades. These vaccines are generally based on their ability block an indispensable step in the reproductive process.

The concept of immunonutrition has been developed in humans and animals mainly in relation to its impact on reinforcement of the immune system and its ability to resist disease. However, in the case of immunology of reproduction, different (even opposite) mechanisms  of immune system modulation are likely to be involved since the main objective is a local inhibition or the attenuation of the immune system toward the protection of the embryos. Most of the studies investigating the role of feeding and /or specific nutrients have used nutrient deficiency models to identify the mechanisms involved. During recent years, an increasing number of substrates have been recognized for their immunomodulating function. Macro and micronutrients have been identified as so-called immunonutrients. Although informative, such an approach might not apply to a concept of immunonutrition for reproduction when the dietary levels of a given nutrient will have to cover both the metabolic and immunomodulation needs for optimal reproduction.

The term transgenic animal refers to an animal in which there has been a deliberate modification of the genome - the material responsible for inherited characteristics - in contrast to spontaneous mutation (FELASA September 1992, revised February 1995). Foreign DNA is introduced into the animal, using recombinant DNA technology, and then must be transmitted through the germ line so that every cell, including germ cells, of the animal contain the same modified genetic material.  By simple means a transgenic animal is an animal in which foreign DNA has been incorporated into its original DNA. Transgenic animals are altered so that their DNA produces chemicals that normally they would not produce.

Embryo Transfer (ET) refers to the technique by which embryos are collected from the reproductive tract of female (donor) and transferred to that of another female (recipient) which carries it to term. The donor and recipient female are in same stage of estrous cycle. The main objective of ET is the improvement of animal population through maximum utilization of superior females and males. It allows faster progeny testing of both male and females. By obtaining and transferring embryos from pre-pubertal females shorten the generation interval from birth to reproductive age. The superior buffaloes will be sent for slaughter after getting lactation yield in metropolitan cities. Utilizing oocytes for In-vitro maturation (IVM) and In-vitro fertilization (IVF) from such slaughtered superior buffaloes can prevent wastage of genetic material. ET allows preservation of rare and extinct species and breeds of animal. ET can be used as a basic tool for twinning, cloning, sexing and to test chromosomal aberrations.

A. Answer the following

Q.1.    What is the difference between apoptosis and necrosis?

Ans.    In apoptosis, there is pronounced decrease in cell volume, modification of cytoskeleton, condensation of chromatin and degradation of DNA into fragments. Due to these changes, an apoptotic cell sheds tiny membrane bound apoptotic bodies containing intact organelles. Macrophages phagocytose apoptotic bodies and cells in the advanced stages of apoptosis. But there is no release of proteolytic and the lytic enzyme, cationic proteins and oxidizing molecule in the surrounding tissue and no local inflammatory response. On the other hand, in necrosis cells swell and burst releasing their contents and possibly triggering a damaging inflammatory response.

A. Answer the following.

Q.1.     What are the different phagocytic cells ?
Ans.     The phagocytic cells of mammals belong to two complementary systems (1) The myeloid system consists of cells that are rapidly phagocytic but incapable of sustained effect. (2) Mononuclear phagocytic system act more slowly but capable of repeated phagocytosis.

Q.2.     How 3 types of granulocytes are differentiated ?
Ans.    Three types of granulocytes are distinguished by the staining property of their granules. Cells whose granules take up basic dyes such as haematoxylin (a blue dye) are called basophils, whose granules take up acidic dyes such as eosin (a red dye) are called eosinophils and those that take up neither basic nor acidic dyes are called neutrophils.

A. Answer the following.

Q.1.     What is the difference between cell wall of Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria ?
Ans.     The cell wall of Gram positive bacteria is largely composed of peptidoglycans. These are chains of alternating N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic acid cross linked by short peptide side chains. On the other hand, the cell wall in Gram negative bacteria has thinner peptidoglycan layer, an outer membrane composed of a polysaccharide-lipid-protein structure. The oligosaccharide attached to a lipid (lipidA) and a series of repeating trisaccharides. The polysaccharide antigens are called ‘O’ antigens. The cell wall lipopolysaccharides of Gram negative bacteria are also called endotoxins.

A. Answer the following.

Q.1.     What is the percentage of different subclasses of IgG in the serum ?
Ans.     IgG1 : 65 ; IgG2 : 24 ; IgG3 : 7 ; IgG4 : 4

Q.2.     How many inter heavy chain bonds are there in different subclasses of IgG ?
Ans.     IgG1 : 2 ; IgG2 : 4 ; IgG3 : 13 : IgG4 : 2.

Q.3.     What is the half life of different subclasses of IgG ?
Ans.     IgG1, IgG2 and IgG4 : 23 days ; IgG3: 8 days.

A. Answer the following.

Q.1.     Why the serum is inactivated at 56º C for 30 min before using it in CFT and VNT ?
Ans.     The complement and non-specific virus inhibitors are inactivated in this process.

Q.2.     What are the different enzyme and complement factors are secreted continuously by macrophages ?
Ans.     Lysozyme and Complement 2, 3, 4 and 5.

B. Write true or false about the followings.

Q.1.     The classical complement activation pathway is dependent on antigen-antibody complex.
Ans.    True.