eChapters

Introduction 

A toxin (Greek: ôïîéêüí, toxikon, lit. (poison) for use on arrows) is a poisonous substance produced by living cells or organisms that is active at very low concentrations. Toxins can be small molecules, peptides, or proteins and are capable of causing disease on contact or absorption with body tissues by interacting with biological macromolecules such as enzymes or cellular receptors. Toxins vary greatly in their severity, ranging from usually minor and acute (as in a bee sting) to almost immediately deadly (as in botulinum toxin)

A toxin is simply a poison that can affect the body by internal or external means. A toxin can be a chemical which occurs naturally or in synthetic form. More than 120,000 human-made chemicals have been introduced into the environment, in one form or another, and this number continues to grow each year at a phenomenal rate. At the same time, microbial toxins, being influenced by the vast numbers of chemicals, are mutating beyond belief.

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms they are in.  
Pollution can take the form of chemical substances, or energy, such as noise, heat, or light energy.

Pollutants, the elements of pollution, can be foreign substances or energies, or naturally occurring; when naturally occurring, they are considered contaminants when they exceed natural levels. Sometimes the term pollution is extended to include any substance when it occurs at such unnaturally high concentration within a system that it endangers the stability of that system. For example, water is innocuous and essential for life, and yet at very high concentration, it could be considered a pollutant.

Definition 

Radiation poisoning, also called “radiation sickness” or a “creeping dose” is a form of damage to organ tissue due to excessive exposure to  radiation. The term is generally used to refer to acute problems caused by a large dosage of radiation in a short period, though this also has occurred with long term exposure to low level radiation. Many of the symptoms of radiation poisoning occur as ionizing radiation interferes with cell division.

The clinical name for “radiation sickness” is acute radiation syndrome . A short exposure can result in acute radiation syndrome; chronic radiation syndrome requires a prolonged high level of exposure. A chronic radiation syndrome does exist but is very uncommon; 

Chemical warfare involves using the toxic properties of chemical substances to kill, injure or incapacitate an enemy.

Chemical warfare is different from the use of conventional weapons or nuclear weapons because the destructive effects of chemical weapons are not primarily due to any explosive force. The offensive use of living organisms (such as anthrax) is considered to be biological warfare rather than chemical warfare; the use of nonliving toxic products produced by living organisms (e.g., toxins such as botulinum toxin, ricin, or saxitoxin) is considered chemical warfare under the provisions of the Chemical Weapons Convention. Under this Convention, any toxic chemical, regardless of its origin, is considered as a chemical weapon unless it is used for purposes that are not prohibited (an important legal definition, known as the General Purpose Criterion)

Appendix - 1

Differential Diagnosis of Poisons based on Clinical Signs

Extension

Extension is that type of education which is stretched out to people in rural areas far and near, beyond the limits of education institutions to which the formal type of education is usually confined.

Education

Education is a process of bringing about desirable changes in the behaviour of human being.

Formal education: The hierarchically structured, chronologically graded ‘education system’, running from primary school through the university and including, in addition to general academic studies, a variety of specialised programmes and institutions for full-time technical and professional training.

Informal education: The truly lifelong process whereby every individual acquires attitudes, values, skills and knowledge from daily experience and the educative influences and resources in his or her environment - from family and neighbours, from work and play, from the market place, the library and the mass media.

Non-formal education: Any organised educational activity outside the established formal system - whether operating separately or as an important feature of some broader activity - that is intended to serve identifiable learning clientele and learning objectives.

OBJECTIVE OF EXTENSION EDUCATION

Objective

Objectives are expression of the ends towards which our efforts are directed.

The objective of extension is to develop the rural people economically, socially and culturaly by means of education. Overall, these objectives are divided into 4 types they are :

a)   Material objective

b)   Educational objective

c)   Social and cultural objective

d)   Developing leadership objective

a) Material objective

According to National Commission on Agriculture (1976). Agriculture extension aims at improving the efficiency of human capital, an effort to rapidly increase the rate of agricultural production. It also seeks to import necessary skill to farmer to understand the improved agricultural operation and improve the their own income, own resource and also the money value.

b) Educational objective

Extension education also aims at development of individual to change in behaviour by identifying their knowledge, skill, attitude and action. It aims at increasing the knowledge of people to analyse their past, present and expected future situation, to become aware of problem identification, solution and also realising their felt and unfelt need.

RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Meaning

The word “Rural” comes from the word “Rurale” which means close to nature and environment, and “Development” means growth or maturation.

Rural development is utilization, protection and enhancement of the natural, physical and human resources to make long-term improvements in rural living conditions. It involves provision of jobs and income opportunities while maintaining and protecting the environment of rural areas.

General Definition

1)     It is based on an operational approach with practicalities with the people covering maximum end users for maximum economic return.

2) Definition by Axinn

R.D. is a process of change among the rural people through change in environment, technology institutions and attitude to eliminate the poverty and improve the way of life.

3) Definition by Miller

R.D. is based on the following components

a)     Development of human resource - It includes the development of rural people by providing education to the rural children and employment to rural youth, socio-economic condition of village can be improved.

b)     Expansion of physical resources - Construction of infrastructures like roads, schools, colleges, post office, bank etc will improve the rural condition.

c)     Extension of communit’s control over the resources.

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT (CD)

Meaning of Community Development

Community development is an exclusive term. It is used frequently to encompash every efforts towards the advance of community interest.

Community

A community is a group of people who live in a particular geographical area and have an interest on each other and have a purpose of making a living.

Development

It means growth or maturation. It is gradual and sequencial phases of changes. Example: Life from child to death

Definition of Community Development

1. It is bringing forth the potential abilities and qualities of a group of people who live together in a common territory or region and who have an interdependent relationship with each other.

2. Community Development is a continuous process of social action by which the people of community do the following things.

(a)   Define their common and group needs.

(b)   Organize themselves formally and informally for democratic planning and action.

(c)   Make group and individual plans to meet their need and solve their problems.

(d)   Execute their plans with maximum reliance upon their own resources.

(e)   Supplement their resources from outside community when necessary with services and materials.

3. Carl Taylor’s Definition

Community Development is a method by which people in villages are involved in helping to improve their own economy through their own effort. Thereby, they are effective working groups in the programme or national development.

DEVELOPMENT OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN IN RURAL AREAS (DWCRA)

Objectives

  1.    To raise the income level of women poor households.

  2.    Formation of groups of 10-15 women in rural poor for developing of services.

Salient features

  1.    Each group is given one time grant of Rs.25,000/-as revolving fund for infrastructure, purchase of raw materials, marketing, child care etc.

  2.    Fund is in ratio of 50:50 between Central and State government.

  3.    Provision of setting up of District Supply and Marketing Society for women producers.

DISTRICT RURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCY (DRDA)

Objective

To professionalise the DRDA so that they are able to effectively manage the antipoverty programmes of the Ministry of Rural Development and interact effectively with other agencies.

Salient Features

•   The DRDA is visualized as a specialized agency capable of managing the anti-poverty programmes and to effectively relate these to the overall efforts of poverty eradication in the district.

•   The DRDA role will be to facilitate the implementation of the programmes, to supervise, oversee and monitor the progress, to receive and send progress reports and maintaining accounts of funds received for various rural development programmes.

•   DRDAs also need to develop synergies among different agencies for the most effective results.

•   The Chairman Zilla Parishad would be the chairman of the governing body of the DRDA.

  1.    Gender Sensitization: Change of Attitude of people towards gender equality, gender roles etc.

  2.    Public-Private Partnership: Involvement of private stakeholders with public entreprises

  3.    Information and Communication Technology (ICT): Use of computer. fax, video, telephones in information sharing & transfer of technology.

  4.    Cyber Extension: Use of computers in extension management.

  5.    Broad Based Extension: Farming system use for maximum use of all available resource to maximize profit

  6.    Bottom-up Approach: Planning from lowest level of society.

  7.    ITK (Indegenous Technological Knowledge): Use of farm community knowledge for development

  8.    Market Led Extension: Transfer of technology basing on assured & confirmed market of the product.

Introduction
Remote sensing is the art and science of recording, measuring, and analyzing information about a phenomenon from a distance. Humans with the aid of their eyes, noses, and ears are constantly seeing, smelling, and hearing things from a distance as they move through an environment. Thus, humans are naturally designed to be remote sensors. In order to study large areas of the Earth’s surface geographers use devices known as remote sensors. These sensors are mounted on platforms such as helicopters, planes, and satellites that make it possible for the sensors to observe the Earth from above.

Definition
Remote sensing can be defined as any process whereby information is gathered about an object, area or phenomenon without being in contact with it. Our eyes are an excellent example of a remote sensing device. We are able to gather information about our surroundings by gauging the amount and nature of the reflectance of visible light energy from some external source (such as the sun or a light bulb) as it reflects off objects in our field of view. Contrast this with a thermometer, which must be in contact with the phenomenon it measures, and thus is not a remote sensing device.

Introduction

Although both maps and aerial photos present a “bird’s-eye” view of the earth, aerial photographs are NOT maps. Maps are orthogonal representations of the earth’s surface, meaning that they are directionally and geometrically accurate (at least within the limitations imposed by projecting a 3-dimensional object onto 2 dimensions). Aerial photos, on the other hand, display a high degree of radial distortion. That is, the topography is distorted, and until corrections are made for the distortion, measurements made from a photograph are not accurate. Nevertheless, aerial photographs are a powerful tool for studying the earth’s environment. 

Because most GISs can correct for radial distortion, aerial photographs are an excellent data source for many types of projects, especially those that require spatial data from the same location at periodic intervals over a length of time. Typical applications include land use surveys and habitat analysis. 

This unit discusses benefits of aerial photography, applications, the different types of photography, and the integration of aerial photographs into GISs.

Digital image processing is the use of computer algorithms to perform image processing on digital images. As a subcategory or field of digital signal processing, digital image processing has many advantages over analog image processing. It allows a much wider range of algorithms to be applied to the input data and can avoid problems such as the buildup of noise and signal distortion during processing. Since images are defined over two dimensions (perhaps more) digital image processing may be modeled in the form of multidimensional systems. Introduction to image processing 
Image processing is a method to convert an image into digital form and perform some operations on it, in order to get an enhanced image or to extract some useful information from it. It is a type of signal dispensation in which input is image, like video frame or photograph and output may be image or characteristics associated with that image. Usually image processing system includes treating images as two dimensional signals while applying already set signal processing methods to them.
Image processing is a method to perform some operations on an image, in order to get an enhanced image or to extract some useful information from it. It is a type of signal processing in which input is an image and output may be image or characteristics/features associated with that image. Now-a-days, image processing is among rapidly growing technologies. It forms core research area within engineering and computer science disciplines too.

Introduction

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based navigation system that provides location and time information in all weather conditions, anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. The system provides critical capabilities to military, civil, and commercial users around the world. The United States government created the system, maintains it, and makes it freely accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver. The US began the GPS project in 1973 to overcome the limitations of previous navigation systems, integrating ideas from several predecessors, including a number of classified engineering design studies from the 1960s. The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) developed the system, which originally used 24 satellites. It became fully operational in 1995. Roger L. Easton, Ivan A. Getting and Bradford Parkinson of the Applied Physics Laboratory are credited with inventing it.
 
Advances in technology and new demands on the existing system have now led to efforts to modernize the GPS and implement the next generation of GPS Block IIIA satellites and Next Generation Operational Control System (OCX). Announcements from Vice President Al Gore and the White House in 1998 initiated these changes. In 2000, the U.S. Congress authorized the modernization effort, GPS III. In addition to GPS, other systems are in use or under development. The Russian Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) was developed contem-poraneously with GPS, but suffered from incomplete coverage of the globe until the mid-2000s. There are also the planned European Union Galileo positioning system, China’s BeiDou Navigation Satellite System, the Japanese Quasi-Zenith Satellite System, and India’s Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System.

Introduction

A geographic information system or geographical information system (GIS) is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present all types of spatial or geographical data. The acronym GIS is sometimes used for geographic information science (GIScience) to refer to the academic discipline that studies geographic information systems and is a large domain within the broader academic discipline of geoinformatics. What goes beyond a GIS is a spatial data infrastructure, a concept that has no such restrictive boundaries. In a general sense, the term describes any information system that integrates stores, edits, analyzes, shares, and displays geographic information. GIS applications are tools that allow users to create interactive queries (user-created searches), analyze spatial information, edit data in maps, and present the results of all these operations. Geographic information science is the science underlying geographic concepts, applications, and systems.

GIS is a broad term that can refer to a number of different technologies, processes, and methods. It is attached to many operations and has many applications related to engineering, planning, management, transport/logistics, insurance, telecommunications, and business. For that reason, GIS and location intelligence applications can be the foundation for many location-enabled services that rely on analysis and visualization. GIS can relate unrelated information by using location as the key index variable. Locations or extents in the Earth space–time may be recorded as dates/times of occurrence, and x, y, and z coordinates representing, longitude, latitude, and elevation, respectively. All Earth-based spatial–temporal location and extent references should, ideally, be relatable to one another and ultimately to a “real” physical location or extent. This key characteristic of GIS has begun to open new avenues of scientific inquiry.

Applications of Remote Sensing

The era of satellite remote sensing was open in the 1960s when cameras and electronic sensors were mounted on spacecraft. Nowadays there is a big assortment of satellite systems actively recording information about the Earth. A wide variety of imagery is available from satellites. Both active and passive sensors, operating from the microwave to the ultraviolet regions of the electromagnetic spectrum collect a large amount of information about the earth’s surface every day. Each of the systems vary in terms of their spatial, spectral, radiometic and temporal resolution. Those characteristics play an important role in defining which applications the sensor is best suited for. The main benefits of satellite remote sensing are the following:

SENSORY EVALUATION OF FOOD

When the quality of a food is judged or evaluated by the senses (taste, smell, sight, touch and hearing), it is said to be a sensory evaluation. Since food is prepared for the primary purpose of being eaten and enjoyed through the senses, sensory evaluation is most appropriate. No machine has yet been devised that can totally substitute for the human senses in evaluating the quality of human food. However, the human instrument used in sensory evaluation is very complex and many problems need to be managed as data are collected and analysed. Computers are generally used to analyse data from sensory evaluations and may also be used to collect information firsthand.

Flavour perceptions are difficult to characterise verbally, for example, think about how a strawberry tastes, then try to describe it some one else. In food research small groups of trained individuals called juding panels or sensory panels are commonly used to determine differences among food samples. These panels often consist of from 5 to 15 individuals who have had training and experience in testing the particular food products being evaluated.

INTRODUCTION

COLLOIDS :  The word colloids has actually been derived from Greek language where it means glue like. The science of colloids was founded about 1861 when Thomas Graham published a summary of his work on the diffusion of substances in solution. He classified substances into two groups, viz: crystalloids and colloids, depending on their ability to diffuse through parchment membrane. According to Graham, crystalloids readily passed through parchment membranes while colloids did not. According to modern concept, colloidal solution contain substances whose molecular aggregates possess a diameter greater than 1 mu  and less than 100 mu. If the particle size is greater than 100 mu, a suspension is obtained (Table 1).

CARBOHYDRATES AND SUGARS

Carbohydrates which include sugars and starches are among the most important of the food stuffs as well as the simplest of organic foods. They may be divided into three groups.

Group – I

Monosaccharides  : These are simple sugars that cannot be split into any simpler forms. The principal ones are glucose or dextrose, fructose and galactose. Glucose sometimes known as dextrose or grape sugar is found widely distributed in nature, especially in fruits and vegetables, and is one of the main constuents of honey.

It is in the form of glucose that sugar appears in the blood and is being burned continuously to produce energy. A certain amount of surplus glucose is absorbed from the digestive tract and stored in the liver as glycogen, which can be converted back into glucose when the need for more fuel arises. In the presence of yeasts, glucose undergoes fermentation and changes into alcohol.

STARCH : Starch is a complex carbohydrate that has been cursed by dieters in years past, but that now is praised by nutritionists as a particularly healthful source of energy. In food preparation at home starch is a very important as a thickening agent. However starch is but one of several polysaccharides that are used as thickners in the food industry.

STRUCTURE : Although starch is the name used by nutritionists this complex carbohydrate actually consists of two fractions amylose and amylopectin. The two fractions occur together in starch from most sources so the overall behaviour of starch is determined in large measure by the relative amounts of amylose and amylopectin. Each of the fraction has unique properties that contribute to the functionality of starch from various plant sources.

Milk is the one food for which there seems to be no adequate substitute. It constitutes almost the entire diet for the young of all mammals. Each species produces milk that is especially adapted to the growth of its own young, but milk from one species may be used as food for others. Since animals were domesticated centuries ago, the milk from various species such as cow, buffalo, goat and camel, has been used in the diets of people throughout the world. Only cows milk is of commercial importance in the United States, although small amounts of goat’s milk are sold.

Whole cow’s milk is approximately 88 percent water, 5 percent carbohydrate, 3.5 percent protein and 3.3 percent fat. Its nutrient content varies from species to species, from breed to breed, seasonally and even from the beginning of the milking to the end of the process. In the United States it is cow’s milk that is used commonly as a beverage and in food preparation. Therefore the milk discussed throughout this chapter is cow’s milk.

INTRODUCTION

EGGS : Eggs and egg products constitute an important part of family meals. The economic importance of the egg to agriculture and industry, its multiple uses in the preparation of many food products, and its excellent nutritive value have stimulated scientific scrutiny into the nature of the egg.

STRUCTURE : The chief parts of the egg are the yolk, the albumin (the white), and the shell and the shell membranes. The yolk is more complex structurally than may be thought at first glance. At the very center is a light coloured structure called the white yolk. The vitelline membrane serves as the enclosure or sac for the yolk. The strength of this membrane is important when yolks and whites needs to be separated in cookery. Two important rather twisted membraneous structures extend from opposite sides of the yolk into the white.

INTRODUCTION

Vegetables and fruits have many similarities with respect to their composition, methods of cultivation and harvesting, storage properties and processing. In fact many vegetables are considered fruits in the true botanical sense. But the difference between the two is that vegetables are derived from various parts of plants e.g. roots, leaves, stems, buds and so on whereas, fruits are the mature ovaries of plants with their seeds. The edible position of most fruits is the freshly part of the pericap or vessel surrounding the seeds. The other difference between the two is that those plant items that are generally eaten with the main course of a meal are often considered to be vegetables, whereas those that are eaten alone or as a dessert are considered as fruits. This is the distinction made by food processors, certain marketing laws, and the consuming publics.

Fats are obtained from both animal and vegetable sources. The principal animal fats are cream, butter, egg yolk, the fat of beef, mutton, pork, bone marrow, chicken fat, and codliver oil. Vegetable fats are those derived from fruits and seeds of plant, as olive oil, cottonsed oil, corn oil, peanut oil, soyabean oil and nut oils.

COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FATS

Fats and oils, the most concentrated of fuel foods, were the first of the organic compounds or foods to have their composition determined. They are made up of same three elements which go to produce the carbohydrates, but the oxygen is less in proportion to the carbon. This explains the fact that fat yields more energy per gram than carbohydrates do.

INTRODUCTION

Pulses are edible fruits or seeds of food bearing plants belonging to the family of the leguminosae. The major pulses which find important place in our diet are redgram dhal, bengal gram dhal, black gram dhal, green gram dhal and masoor dhal. Some are used as whole grams cow pea, rajmah and dry peas also belong to leguminous family.

Legumes not only have dietary values but also play an important role in maintaining or even improving soil fertility through their ability to fix atomospheric nitrogen.

INTRODUCTION

Many people confuse fortification with the term enrichment. There is a big difference in between these two terms. Fortification means the addition of those ingredients not normally found in a food and it is added to achieve a particular dietary purpose. Lysine may be added to corn products to increase the biological value of the protein. Salt may be iodised to prevent the occurrence of goiter. Breakfast cereals may be fortified with an array of vitamins and minerals to ensure a completely balanced nutritional meal.

In enrichment, the amounts added are designed to meet specific legal standards of minimum and maximum levels of nutrients. It is recognised that in the processing of cereal products that the removal of bran and germ causes a large portion of the vitamins and minerals naturally found in the product to be lost. During World War II an effort was made to correct this deficiency by government endorsement of the enrichment of bread, flour, and cornmeal. Wheat flour, cornmeal, corn grits, bread, ready to eat and uncooked cereals, and macroni products have been enriched with thiamine, ribo-flavin, niacin, iron and in some cases, calcium and vitamin D.

W.H.O. has defined food fortification as “a process where by nutrients are added to foods to maintain or improve the quality of the diet of a group, community or population”.

INTRODUCTION

Meat is the flesh of animals that is used for food and consists of muscle, fat and bone. If the muscle which is commonly known as the lean meat, is examined under the microscope, it is seen to be made up of bundles of fibers held together by a thin membrane called connective tissue. Further study reveals that these fibers are in readily hollow tubes that vary in length in different animals and in different muscles in the same animals that are filled with a fluid, sometimes called muscle juice, which is known to contain protein, minerals and extractives. The forms of protein in the muscles are myosin (a globulin) and myogen (an albumen) and in addition, on red meats, hemoglobin.

INTRODUCTION

Adulteration of food consists of substituting it wholly or in part by any cheaper or inferior substance or of removing any of its constituents, wholly or in part, which affects adversely the nature, substance or quality of the food. According to the Indian Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (PFA) 1954, any ingredient which, when present in food, is injurious to health is an adulterant. Thus, according to the PFA definition, many of the food contaminants discussed in the previous section are adulterants and come under the purview of food adulteration.

Adulteration of foods was practised even in ancient times. It was not a serious problem then because business was on a small scale and the transactions involved a large measure of personal accountability. Later, with the increased centralization of food processing and distribution, and corresponding decline in personal accountability, intentional adulteration of food increased. Even in the early nineteenth century, many adulterants were used in articles like pepper, essential oils, vinegar, beverages (coffee, tea, beer, wines), butter, bread, etc. In recent years adulteration of foods has become a serious problem the world over. In western countries there is a rising concern over the safety of the food supply and many remedial actions, both voluntary and enforced, have been taken.

Materials Required

Equipments and machinery used in Postharvest Technology laboratory for processing, packaging and quality analysis.

Procedure

    1.    Identify the equipments and machinery, note down the typical features about its shape, size, colour etc.

Materials Required 

Fruits/vegetables, hand refractometers, fruit pressure tester, weighing balance, scale, chemicals and glassware required for analysis.

Procedure

    1.    Go to the orchard or vegetable field and collect samples of fruits and vegetables
    2.    Apply the specific maturity indices to the samples

Materials Required

Fruits/vegetables, thermometer, refractometers, NaOH, Phenolphthalein, glassware, weighing balance, plastic crates for storage of commodity, water cooling facility.

Procedure

    1.    Harvest the fruit / vegetable
    2.    Count No. of unmarketable fruits in every 100 fruits harvested
    3.    Record the internal fruit temperature in about 5-10 randomly selected fruits with the help of a thermometer
    4.    Pre-cool the commodity in cold water (<5ºC), air or refrigerator till the temperature reaches near its optimum storage temperature
    5.    Record the internal fruit temperature
    6.    Record the time required to pre-cool the commodity
    7.    Keep the product for storage at ambient conditions alongwith control
    8.    Record the difference in the shelf life and quality during storage

Materials Required

Fruits/ vegetables, washing tanks/ containers, size grader, fruit waxes, packaging material, neem based fungicides etc. 

Procedure

    1.    Take available fruits or vegetables 
    2.    Wash them in plain water or chemical solution as told by the teacher
    3.    Shade dry the fruits / vegetables
    4.    Prepare suitable wax solution
    5.    Apply wax on to the fruits as told
    6.    Record the fruit weight before packing
    7.    Pack the fruits properly in the trays / boxes depending upon the type and purpose
    8.    Do curing if required 
    9.    Do pre-packaging, if desired
    10.    Label the package for desired information
    11.    Keep the fruits for storage
    12.    Record the observations pertaining to weight loss and rotting periodically depending upon the commodity and its shelf life.

Materials Required

Fruits/ vegetables, weighing balance, plastic crates, CFB boxes or other packaging material fruit pressure tester, hand refractometer, markers etc.

Procedure

    1.    Harvest the fruits
    2.    Subject them to various pre-treatments (as discussed in previous exercise).
    3.    Record their initial parameters i.e. weight, firmness, surface colour, TSS, rotting etc. 
    4.    Place properly packed commodity in storage alongwith a check under ambient conditions
    5.    Record the observations regarding changes in quality during storage
 

Materials Required

Fruit, pulper, fruit mill, hydraulic press, screw type juice extractor, stainless steel pans, chemical preservatives, glass bottles, closures, crown corks, crown corking machine, plastic barrels.

Procedure

    1.    Select and weigh sound fruits/vegetables for extraction of juice/pulp.    
    2.    Wash and peel the fruits as required.
    3.    Extract the juice by hot or cold process.
    4.    Pasteurize the juice/pulp to inactivate the enzymes and partially kill microorganisms.
    5.    Preserve the juice/pulp by heat processing after hot filling and hermetic sealing or by addition of permissible quantities of suitable preservatives.
    6.    Label the bottles properly and keep them for storage

Materials Required

Fruit juice/ pulp, cane sugar, potable water, essence, citric acid, colours, preservatives, weighing balance, bottling and sealing facilities, hand refractometer, homogenizer etc.  

Procedure

    1.    Extract the juice as discussed in previous exercise.
    2.    Filter the fresh or preserved juice through muslin cloth.
    3.    Calculate the quantities of juice, sugar, water, acid (if required), preservatives, colour, essence etc. required for preparation of a known quantity of                      squash as per FPO specifications.
    4.    Prepare the beverage as directed by instructor
    5.    Pack the beverage in bottles 
    6.    Seal the bottles and label them
    7.    Take out one of the bottles and measure its TSS and titratable acidity.

Materials Required

Fruits juice, enzymes (pectinase, cellulase, pectinase CCM etc.), filter press, buchner filter apparatus, water bath, filter paper pulp, buchhi type rotary vacuum evaporator, freeze concentrator, membrane concentrator (whichever available), vacuum grease.

Procedure

    1.    Extract the juice as discussed in earlier exercises. Take a known quantity of juice in a conical flask.
    2.    Add enzymes i.e. pectinase @ 0.2% to the juice and keep in a water bath at temperature of 40-50ºC for 2 hrs.
    3.    Shake the flasks occasionally for uniform mixing of enzyme all throughout the flask during the enzymatic treatment.
    4.    Leave the flasks undisturbed for 10-12 hrs for allowing the insoluble solids to settle at the bottom of the flask.
    5.    Siphon the clear juice from the top of the flask.
    6.    Pass this siphoned juice through filter press or through a 0.4-0.5 cm thick bed of filter paper pulp in a Buchner filter apparatus or filter press.
    7.    Record the volume of the clarified juice obtained. Calculate the wastage.
    8.    Concentrate the juice in rotary vacuum evaporator at 50+2ºC temperature and at 28-30” Hg vacuum to a TSS of about 50 to 70º Brix. Record the exact TSS.
    9.    Record the volume of condensate obtained in the round bottom flask of the buchhi apparatus.
    10.    Calculate the folds of concentration

Materials Required

Fruit pulp, cane sugar, potable water, essence, citric acid, colours, preservatives, weighing balance, glass jars (500 ml capacity), jar closures, hand refractometer, steel pan, ladle etc.

Procedure

    1.    Select sound and fresh fruits, free from any blemishes. Generally a mixture of ripe and unripe fruits should be taken as the ripe fruits impart good flavour and the unripe fruits are rich in pectin, required for a good set.

    2.    Wash the fruits thoroughly. Cut into 4-8 pieces depending upon the fruit and size
    3.    Boil the fruit pieces for about 20-25 min in boiling water and pass through pulper to get a good pulp.
    4.    Weigh known quantity of fresh or preserved pulp and add about equal quantity of sugar (preferably in 45:55 ratio)
    5.    Cook the mixture on gas flame by occasional stirring. 
    6.    When the mixture becomes thick, perform sheet test.
    7.    Citric acid is added generally towards the end of cooking. Addition of all the acid in the beginning may result in stickiness and poor set. 
    8.    Remove from the flame when the mixture gives a clear sheet
    9.    Flavours, colours etc may also be added towards the end of boiling. 
    10.    Fill the jam in glass jars (preferably pre-warmed in hot air).
    11.    Close the jars with lug caps and allow to cool overnight.
    12.    Label and store in a cool place.

Materials Required

Fruit extract, cane sugar, potable water, essence, citric acid, colours, preservatives, weighing balance, glass jars (500 ml capacity), jar closures, hand refractometer, steel pan, ladle etc.

Procedure for Jelly

    1.    Select sound and fresh fruits, free from any blemishes. Generally a mixture of ripe and unripe fruits shouldbe taken as the ripe fruits impart good flavour and the unripe fruits are rich in pectin, required for a good set.
    2.    Wash the fruits thoroughly. Cut into 4-8 pieces depending upon the fruit and size
    3.    Boil the fruit pieces in water (about ½ to an equal weight of fruits for fruits like apple and 2-3 times the weight of sliced fruits in case of citrus fruits) for about 30 min. with occasional stirring. Strain the boiled mixture through coarse muslin cloth to get a clear pectin extract
    4.    A second extract may also be taken by boiling the same mass again and straining.
    5.    Add sugar (usually 3/4th to one part of the extract or in 45:55 ratio) to the pectin extract and boil in a stainless steel pan. Add required quantities of acid towards the end of boiling.
    6.    Remove the scum rising on the top of boiling mass occasionally.
    7.    To avoid charring, occasional stirring is also done.
    8.    To avoid destruction of pectin the cooking should be completed fast
    9.    Determine the end point of jelly as detailed ahead.
    10.    Fill in hot dry glass jars and cool rapidly
    11.    Pour a thin layer of hot molten paraffin wax seal to avoid moulding.   
    12.    Label and store in a cool place.

Materials Required

Lime fruits, green chillies, ginger salt (common), stainless steel pans, kinives, weighing balance, spices etc. 

Procedure

    1.    Select sound and mature fruits of lime, mature but green chillies having good size and ginger rhizomes.
    2.    Wash the lime fruits, ginger and chillies properly in running cold water.
    3.    Cut the lime fruits into pieces / halves. 
    4.    Remove the stalks of the chillies and cut into longitudinal slices. Peel ginger and cut into long thin slices.
    5.    Put the lime pieces, chilli and ginger slices in a wide mouthed pre-sterilized glass jar 
    6.    Add common salt @ 250g / Kg of material.
    7.    Squeeze some of the juice over the slices
    8.    Stir the mass well mixing thoroughly
    9.    In case the juice does not cover the material completely, add pre-boiled and cooled 5% solution of citric acid.
    10.    Keep the jar in Sun for about a week with occasional shaking of the material.
    11.    When the lime pieces start turning light brown, the pickle is ready for consumption.

Materials Required

Fruits or fruit pulp, steel pans, weighing balance, refractometer, sugar, salt, spices, acetic acid, citric acid etc. 

Procedure

    1.    Extract fruit pulp as told in earlier exercises. 
    2.    Take a known quantity of freshly extracted or preserved pulp.
    3.    Weigh sugar (about half the weigh of pulp).
    4.    Heat pulp and sugar over a gas flame.
    5.    Add spices, chillies, salt, citric acid (if required) etc. and cook
    6.    Record the TSS to judge the end point. It should be more than 50o Brix.
    7.    Add measured quantities of acetic acid and sodium benzoate at the end.
    8.    Cool and pack in pre-washed and sterilized glass jars
    9.    Label and store.

Materials Required

Tomato fruits, pulper, steel pans, weighing balance, refractometer, sugar, salt, spices, acetic acid, citric acid, muslin cloth etc.

Procedure
I. Puree

    1.    Extract fruit pulp by Hot process as told by the teacher.
    2.    Record the TSS of the pulp.
    3.    Concentrate the pulp by heating to 12º Brix (heavy puree)
    4.    Hot fill the boiling puree into pre-sterilized glass bottles (200 ml cap.)
    5.    Seal the bottles by crown corking
    6.    Heat process in boiling water in a big aluminium pan for 15-20 min. 
    7.    Cool the bottles to room temperature as quickly as possible.
    8.    Label and store at a dry place.

Materials Required

Fruits or vegetables, stainless steel knife, steel pans, Can Body Reformer, Flanger, Double seamer, weighing balance, Refractometer / Salometer, sugar or salt etc. 

Procedure

    1.    Wash the selected fruit or vegetable (as the case may be) 
    2.    Cut into pieces or slices (the size and shape may depend on the fruit/ vegetable but it should not be too large or too small)
    3.    Blanch the material in boiling water for 1-2 min for effective inactivation of enzymes. 
    4.    Prepare the sugar syrup of strength 40o Brix or brine of 1-3 % strength.
    5.    Prepare the can body using a can body reformer and flange the ends in a flanger.
    6.    Seal the base plate using first and second roller operations of the double seamer. 
    7.    Transfer the prepared fruits / vegetables into the cans. 
    8.    Pour in hot syrup or brine into the cans.
    9.    Place the lid over the top of filled can. (follow the first roller operation of the double seamer, if the cans are OTS cans)
    10.    Exhaust the cans in boiling water for about 10 min. to exclude any dissolved air out of the tissues or syrup/brine.
    11.    When the temperature of the centre of can reaches 79-80 ºC for fruits or 82ºC for vegetables, remove the cans from the exhaust box and seal them properly (follow the second roller operation of the double seamer, if the cans are OTS can).
    12.    Process the sealed cans at 100ºC and 115-121ºC for fruits and vegetables respectively for 15-30 min in case of fruits and 25-45 min. in case of vegetables.
    13.    Cool the cans immediately in cold water and air dry them at room temperature.
    14.    Label and store in a cool dry place.

Materials Required

Canned product, weighing balance, can cutter, vacuum/pressure guage, seam checking guage, Refractometer / Salometer etc. 

Procedure

    1.    Take a canned product say canned peach.
    2.    Record the weight of the can (A)
    3.    Record the information marked on the label i.e net  weight, date of packing, etc
    4.    Observe the can externally for the concavity of the lid.
    5.    Record the vacuum of the can by using a vacuum guage
    6.    Cut the lid of the can with a can cutter
    7.    Record the head space
    8.    Put all the contents over a sieve and let the liquid drain
    9.    Record the weight of empty can (B) to calculate net contents
    10.    Record the drained weight of the pieces.
    11.    Record whether the liquid is syrup or brine
    12.    Record the TSS of the salometer reading of the liquid (as the case may be)

Materials Required

Dehydrator, balance, thermometer, sulphur dioxide, blanching pan, fruits / vegetables, polythene or aluminium bags.

Procedure

    1.    Select sound fruits or vegetables 
    2.    Record their initial weight and wash them properly in plain water to remove any dirt or extraneous matter. 
    3.    Peel with stainless steel knife (as the case may be) and cut into thin uniform pieces or slices of  0.2-0.5 mm thickness
    4.    Blanch the slices in boiling water for 1-2 min. to inactivate the enzymes followed by immediate cooling.
    5.    Treat the slices with sulphur (sulphuring or sulphiting) in order to prevent darkening of the product during drying. 
    6.    Dry the slices in a mechanical air dehydrator at about 55 + 5oC temperature.
    7.    Record the weight of the product after every 2 hr till it becomes (almost) constant i.e. when there no more (significant) loss of moisture from the product.
    8.    Pack the product in ploythene or aluminium laminated pouches and seal them air tight. 
    9.    If it is to be converted into powder, the dried product can be ground in a grinder before packing.
    10.    Label the packages and store them in a cool dry place.
    11.    Plot the drying rate curve of the product on a graph paper and analyse it.
    12.    Record the initial and final moisture content of the product (as discussed in Exercise No. 19). 

Materials Required

Apple (or any local fruit), fruit mill, hydraulic press, weighing balance, Refractometer/sugar pectinol, diammonium hydrogen phosphate, Saccharomyces cerevisiae culture, Potassium metabisulphite (KMS) etc.

Procedure

    1.    Take a known quantity of apple (or any other fruit) say 20 Kg
    2.    Extract the juice as discussed in earlier exercises.
    3.    Add about 200 ppm of kms.
    4.    Add sugar syrup to increase the TSS to about 20 – 24ºBrix.
    5.    To about 10 Kg of juice diammonium hydrogen phosphate (10 g) and pectinol (20-25 g are added).
    6.    Take about 500 ml of this mixture in a conical flask and add pure Saccharomyces cerevisiae culture @ 1 % and plug the neck with cotton. Keep at 22-24ºC to complete the fermentation within one day and yeast culture is ready.
    7.    Add this culture to about 10 Kg of must for further fermentation (i.e. culture is added @ 5% therefore 500 g is added to 10 Kg must).
    8.    Record the TSS of the must before fermentation.
    9.    Keep must for fermentation in big jars (narrow mouth) filled to about 75 % of their volume. Close the mouth of jars or bottles with cotton plug.
    10.    Allow fermentation to take place at 22-24ºC for about 10–15 days.
    11.    When no more bubbles are coming out of the jars, fermentation is complete. At this stage the TSS reaches about 7º Brix.
    12.    Siphon the wine. Add filter aids if wine is not clear.
    13.    Blend the wine with sweetening agents if required.
    14.    Fill in beer bottles by keeping a head space of about 2.5 cm followed by crown corking them.
    15.    Pasteurize the bottles by keeping at 62.5ºC for 20 min.

Materials Required

Cut flowers, 1000 ml conical flasks, scissor, tape, distilled water, chemicals, weighing balance, volumetric flasks, labels, thermometer (max. & min. type) and hygrometer. 

Procedure

    1.    Collect fresh spikes of flowers
    2.    Cut at the base keeping about 25-60 cm of the cut flowers stick (uniformly for each flower).
    3.    Prepare Pulsing/ Vase solutions.
    4.    Put the prepared flower spikes in labeled conical flasks containing different Pulsing/ Vase solutions (for a known period of time).
    5.    Record the weight of the spikes and other observations daily.
    6.    Record the temperature and relative humidity of the storage chamber daily.
    7.    Analyse the recorded data and draw conclusion about the best vase solutions for the selected cut flower.

Materials Required

Fruit, vegetable or product sample, hot air oven, weighing balance, crucibles, petri plates, lead pencil / marker etc.

Procedure

    1.    Take crucibles  or petri plates and record the tare weight of crucibles / petri plates (C) and mark them
    2.    Cut the sample into small and thin pieces (if solid)
    3.    Put the sample into the crucibles / petri plates in three replications
    4.    Record the weight of crucibles + sample (C + S)
    5.    Put in hot air oven for drying at 70 + 2ºC.
    6.    Record the loss in weight after every 1-2 hrs till it becomes constant
    7.    Calculate the moisture and total solids. 

Materials Required

Sample, hot air oven, weighing balance, crucibles, muffle furnace, lead pencil / marker etc.

Procedure

    1.    After following the procedure for the determination of moisture (in silica crucibles as given in previous chapter) the same sample can be used for the determination of ash. 
    2.    Heat the dried sample in the silica crucibles over a heater/hot plate/burner to burn the carbon.
    3.    When it becomes completely black and no more smoke comes out of the sample, shift them to muffle furnace.
    4.    After heating the samples in muffle furnace, all the marks of pen / pencil/ marker are lost, so one would not be able to identify the samples and error of weights may occur. Therefore, it is advised to place the samples in the furnace in one or two rows and draw the diagram on a piece of paper for identification purpose.

Materials Required

Fruit/ sample, refractometers, thermometers, standard solutions of known TSS, temperature correction Tables.

Procedure

    1.    Calibrate refractometers of all ranges to be used.
    2.    The TSS of the juices/pulps/fresh fruits can be measured with the one having lowest range i.e. 0-32º Brix while, for measuring the TSS of concentrates, syrups, squashes, jams, jellies etc. refractometers of the higher ranges are made use of.
    3.    Put a drop of material on to the glass surface of refrectrometer’s prism, cover gently with the lid and observe the TSS against light.
    4.    Measure the temperature of the liquid which is being evaluated and apply temperature corrections (Annexure III).
    5.    Record the corrected value as the TSS of the sample.