eChapters

Soil fertility and crop production can be maintained only by efficient and judicious management of nutrients addition to the soil from external sources. Of the two sources most widely used all over the world, one is organic in nature- the organic manures, simply called manures, and the other comprises the synthetic or naturally occurring chemical fertilizers, simply called fertilizers. A brief account of manures is described hereunder:

The word manure came from Middle English manuren meaning to cultivate land, and initially, from French word manoeuvre meaning hand work alluding to the work which involved manuring land. The term manure originally meant that which was worked by hand (Fr. manoeuvre), but gradually, came to apply to any process by which the soil peroperties could be improved. Prominent among such processes was that of directly applying manure to the land, manure in this sense being what is now called farmyard manure or dung, the excreta of farm animals mixed with straw or other litter. Ronald Fisher seems to have used the word manure systematically for what we would call fertilizer today.

Uses of Manure

Manure has been used for centuries as a fertilizer for farming since it is rich in nitrogen and other nutrients, which facilitate growth of the plants. Liquid manure from pig or hog operations is usually knifed (injected) directly into the soil to reduce the unpleasant odours. Manure prepared from hogs and cattle is spread on fields using a manure spreader. Due to the relatively lower level of proteins in grasses, which herbivores eat, cattle manure has a milder smell than the dung of carnivores, e.g., elephant dung is practically odourless. However, due to the quantity of manure applied to fields, odour can be a problem in some agricultural regions. Poultry droppings are harmful to plants when fresh but after a period of composting are valuable fertilizers.

The dried manure of animals has been used as fuel throughout history. Dried manure (usually known as dung) of cow was and still is an important fuel source in countries such as India, while camel dung may be used in treeless regions such as deserts.

The words ‘system’, ‘sub-system’ and ‘practice’ are commonly used in agroforestry literature. In a broad sense, a system is defined as a group of associated elements forming a unified whole and working together in a well defined regular relation for a common goal. An agroforestry system refers to a type of agroforestry land-use that extends over a locality to the extent of forming a land utilization type of the locality. Sub-system and practice are lower-order terms in the hierarchy with lesser magnitudes of role, content and complexity. However, these terms are used loosely, and almost synonymously.

Classification of agroforestry systems is necessary in order to understand and provide a practical framework for evaluating systems and developing action plans for their improvement. Any classification scheme should satisfy the following criteria (Nair, 2008).

1. INTRODUCTION

Micropropagation is a specific aspect of plant tissue culture dealing with the aseptic vegetative multiplication of plants in-vitro and is divided into several major stages:

Stage 0: Stock plant selection and preparation

Stage 1: Initiation and establishment of an aseptic culture

Stage 2: Multiplication

Stage 3: In-vitro rooting and conditioning

Stage 4: Acclimatization to ex-vitro environment. (Hartmann et al., 1990)

1. INTRODUCTION

Vegetables play a significant role in human nutrition, especially as sources of vitamins, minerals, dietary fibre and antioxidants. Consumption of vegetables on a daily basis is highly recommended because of its associated health benefits, which include reduced risk of chronic diseases.

Due to perishable nature of vegetables, the post harvest losses of these commodities are four to five times higher than those of food grains. The post harvest losses from vegetables accounts to a tune of Rs. 23,000 crores per year. Both quantitative and qualitative losses occur in horticultural commodities between harvest and consumption. Qualitative losses, such as palatability, nutritional quality, caloric value and consumer acceptability of fresh produce, are much more difficult to assess than the quantitative losses.

Postharvest losses vary greatly across commodity types, with area and the season of production. In contrast, the range of produce losses in developing countries varies widely. Losses at the retail, food service and consumer levels are estimated at approximately 20 per cent in developed countries and about 10 per cent in developing countries. Overall, about one third of horticultural crops produced are never consumed by humans. Reduction of post-harvest losses can increase food availability to the growing world population, decrease the area needed for production and conserve the natural resources.

The capacity to reproduce is one of the most important characteristics of all living beings. Reproduction is a process of producing offspring and is aimed to preserve individual species. This is known for self-perpetuation. There are several modes of reproduction, which vary from species to species, in available conditions. All the reproductive methods of plants are broadly classified into two types, i.e., (i) asexual reproduction (apomixis) and (ii) sexual reproduction (amphimixis). In asexual reproduction, the new individuals are produced by any means other than the fusion of sex gametes. In sexual reproduction, the gametes from male (androecium) and female organs (gynoecium) of the flower are fused to produce a zygote (Schranz et al., 2005; Rodrigues et al., 2008). Amphmixis and apomixis are the two sides of same coin (Curtis and Grossniklaus, 2007).

Ornamentals are beautiful plants used in home and urban landscaping to enhance quality of our lives. Ornamental crops are widely cultivated worldwide and appreciated for their characteristics and unique appreciable qualities such as attractive color, impressive shape and size of flower and for fragrance of flowers and foliage. Earlier ornamental plants were largely associated with our social life. Of late trends has changed towards commercialization and now they are used for decoration, personal adornment and value added products viz. dry flowers, extraction of essential oils, perfumes and dyes and in landscaping. Further, it helps in creating more job opportunities for youth and women.

The growing demands for quality flowers, introduction of new ornamental plants and diversification needs more attention in ornamental floriculture industry. Novelty is the key to success in ornamental horticulture. Introduction of exotic ornamentals and the domestication and release of new genotypes of wild ornamentals is always welcome in this connection. Some exotic ornamentals hitherto not widely grown in Indian gardens as well as a few native ornamentals with capability to bring in a color revolution and having the potential for exploitation are discussed below.

In sub-tropical agro-climatic conditions of India, a variety of insect-pest, weeds and diseases hamper the economic growth of field crops. For effective control of these pests, a number of pesticides including insecticides, fungicides, herbicides and nematicides are to be applied. Estimation technique for single pesticideonly can not be followed for detection of residues of all categories of pesticides. Hence, this constantly expanding use of pesticides on food crops accentuates the need for rapid, precise and sensitive method for determination of pesticide residues of all the major groups of pesticides. In such situation, multi-residue analytical technique can be efficiently followed for detection and estimation of multiresidues of intra and inter class xenobiotics.

The purpose of multiresidue analysesistodeterminetheresidues ofas manypesticides as possible withina short period of time even if the recoveries of somecompounds are low. In multiresidue methods the recoveries up to 70% are accepted.The recoveriesless than70%have tobe mentionedspecifically. Multiresidue analysis is relativelymore sensitiveand requires extreme vigilance on the part of the analyst during processingof samples. Additionally, instrument, GLC,need to beequipped withcapillary columnsforhigh resolutionand sophisticated detectorslikeECD, NPDand MSD for detectingmulti-residues of the pesticides. Multiresidue analytical methods/techniques havebeen developed for determination of general pesticide residues for some environmental componentsand differentfood commodities.Criteria formulti-pesticides screening as per California Department of Food and Agriculture (CDFA) are:

Abstract

The southern part of the Indian Peninsula has long been regarded as a stable area free from Pleistocene tectonics as it represents the Precambrian shield region. But the frequent earth tremors even up to a magnitude of 6.5 (Richter scale) which occurred in Tamil Nadu have started encouraging the geologists to think that it could possibly be a seismic prone zone. In addition, images acquired by the polar orbiting satellites offered valuable information on the fracture systems and fluvial anomalies suggesting possible Pleistocene tectonism in South India. Hence, a study has been undertaken to evaluate the signatures of Pleistocene tectonism in South India using IRS-lA, LISS-1 FCC imagery (Indian Remote Sensing Satellite lA, Linear Imaging Self Scanning 1, False Colour Composite) involving band 2, 3 and 4 under blue, green and red bands respectively.

The study has brought out a series of E-W trending cymatogenic arches and N-S trending extension, NE-SW trending sinistral, NW-SE trending dextral and E-W trending release fractures with characteristic signatures supporting Pleistocene tectonism in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

On the basis of such morphotectonic features, a Pleistocene tectonic model has been presented with a N-S trending greatest principal stress and an E-W oriented least principal stress related to the movement of the Indian plate towards the Tibetan plate. Based on the model developed for Tamil Nadu and Kerala, a series of E-W trending cymatogenic arches and deeps have been proposed for Cochin- Rameswaram in the south to the Himalayas in the north. Further studies for seismotectonics, geothermal resources and hydrocarbon search have also been suggested along such arches and deeps.

The muscles of the head (Fig. 2-3 A) are described in four groups viz (1) superficial muscles including the cutaneous muscle. The other muscles in this group of muscles are the muscles of lips, cheeks, nostrils, eyelids and external ear. (2) the orbital muscles (3) the mandibular muscles and (4) the hyoid muscles.

The cutaneous muscle on the head of the ox is well developed and extensive. In most of the regions of the head it is intimately adhered to the skin. The superficial fascia forms a continuous layer beneath the cutaneous muscle in this region except the natural orifices like nostrils, mouth, eyes and the external ear. The deep fascia forms a continuous layer particularly on the temporal, buccal, and the pharyngeal parts of the head. A part of the cutaneous muscle on the frontal region is called the frontalis muscle. The muscle fibres of this muscle blend with the muscles of the eyelids and the contraction of fibres of this muscle causes elevation of the superior eyelid and forms wrinkles to the skin on forehead.

The Indian ancient texts have some mention of the forest and the activities that were performed in the forests. Forests were revered by the people and a large number of religious ceremonies centred on trees and plants. Ancient Hindu culture is said to have evolved in the forest. The epics Ramayana and Mahabharata give an attractive description of forests. The Agni Purana, written about 4000 years ago, stated that man should protect trees to have material gains and religious blessings. Around 2500 years ago, Gautama Buddha preached to his followers to plant trees. There is enough evidence to show that dense forests once covered India. But the growing population and man’s dependence on the forest for infrastructural developments caused the depletion of forests.

HISTORY OF INDIAN FORESTS

The earliest indication of forestry administration in India is found in 300 BC. It was during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya. He realized the importance of the forests and appointed a Superintendent of Forests who looked after forests and wildlife. Later Ashoka continued the process. He launched programmes to plant trees on a large scale. Much importance was also given for planting trees along roadsides and temple premises. These rules continued even during the Gupta period.

Introduction

The increase in agricultural production, particularly food grain is one of the major problems of national planners to achieve the target in the food production. Our farmers have been utilized more and more the modern methods of agriculture including the use of chemicals for protection of crop and stored products against the pests. A successful farmer knows that what pests to expect on his crops and stored products, when and under what conditions their attack will be possible. But due to insufficient knowledge of chemicals and their application, our farmers use them without care and injudicious manner, therefore, these chemicals not only give poor kill of insects but also cause the hazards to man and domestic animals. Success in pest control operations depends on many factors such as correct identification of pest, proper timing of insecticidal application, right choice of chemicals and their formulations, doses and method of application.

Fumigants are still widely used for the control of insects and other pest organisms. Because of their unique characteristics and the great adaptability of fumigation technique, fumigants can often provide effective and economical control where other forms of pest control are not feasible. The development of light weight plastic sheets to enclose spaces or materials requiring fumigation has extended its use and made control procedures easier and much more adaptable. Among the fumigants, aluminum phosphide, ethylene dibromide (EDB), Ethylene dibromide- carbon tetrachloride (EDCT) etc. are most common in tropical and sub-tropical while methyl bromide is prevalent in temperate regions. Modern technology and research have also brought to notice certain problems with fumigants that are previously unknown. Among these, adverse effects on seed quality are most important. Thus, fumigants used in seed stores should not affect the viability of the seeds, should not be persistent, non-corrosive and highly diffusible.

The produced food grains have to be stored either for short or long duration for utilization in the coming times for food, feed and seed. In storage, these undergo 9.33 per cent losses due to various agencies such as rodents, insects and mites, microorganism and moisture in India, whereas, in other developing countries, the losses are as high as 30 to 50 per cent. Therefore, with an urge to produce more, there is still urgent need to protect the produce in the storage to meet the challenge. As a result of improved storage technology, the losses in Government Warehouses could be reduced to minimum but at farmers’ level, where 60-70 per cent of the produce is retained, the losses are still too high.

The management of insects in stored products is in transition from a dependence on regular applications of chemical insecticides to the use of integrated pest management (IPM). IPM involves understanding interactions between stored product environment and insects associated with stored products, and replacing all or most of the chemical applications with cost effective non chemical alternatives. The increased emphasis in adopting IPM strategies for stored product insects is primarily due to consumers’ demand for food free from pesticide residues. The transition from a heavy reliance on chemicals to little or no chemical input and increased use of non chemical approaches requires a thorough understanding of stored product insects, their identification, monitoring, biology, ecology and response to chemical and non chemical management options. The current scenario of stored grain protection in India depends totally and judicious use of IPM strategies. For safe storage of food grains, both the preventive and curative measures are required:

Introduction

Plant genetic resources management essentially consists of two phases; its conservation and utilization. Germplasm conservation includes acquisition, in which germplasm is safeguarded in situ (by establishing reserves) or ex situ (by assembling collections through exchange or exploration). It also involves maintenance, protecting germplasm in situ in reserves or storing it ex situ under controlled conditions, propagating it while preserving its original genetic profile with maximum fidelity, monitoring its viability and health in storage or in situ and maintaining associated passport information and other data. Germplasm conservation also involves characterization, assessing highly heritable morphological and molecular traits for taxonomic, genetic, quality assurance and other management purposes. The second phase of germplasm management, encouraging utilization, includes evaluation, assessing agronomically or horticulturally important traits with relatively low heritability and high components of environmental variance e.g. yield adaptation and host-plant resistance to certain abiotic/biotic stress. It also includes genetic enhancement, making particular genes more accessible and usable to breeders by adopting exotic germplasm to local environments without losing its essential exotic genetic profile and/or introgressing high value traits from exotic germplasm into adapted varieties. Genetic enhancement can be subdivided into introgression i.e. backcrossing a few genes controlling desired characters into adapted stocks and incorporation i.e. the large scale development of locally adapted populations good enough to enter the adapted genetic bases of the crops concerned.

Introduction

Spices have played a very important role in shaping the history of human culture and civilization. Spices condiments and aromatic plants were the first articles traded by ancient people. These prompted the foreigners to the land of spices. Among spices, seed spices is a group well distributed over different agro-climatic regions in India covering major part in semi-arid to arid region largely in Rajasthan and Gujarat. The other states where one or more of seed spices grown are Haryana, Punjab, M.P., Bihar, U.P., West Bengal, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The seed spices are grown in different parts of the world covering mainly Mediterranean region, South Europe and Asia. These crops were introduced to India from Mediterranean and Central Asian region, perhaps a long time ago. Today India enjoys the position of largest producer and exporter in the world for these crops. The country is bestowed with immensely rich land races diversity in seed spices crops. Much of the country’s agro-biodiversity is in the custody of farming community who followed age old farming systems. However the land races are being lost due to expansion of agriculture production in the frontier areas or replacement with the improved cultivars. Hence, scientific management of these valuable resources on different dimensions of activities in India viz. survey and collection, characterization, evaluation, documentation and conservation has assumed prime importance today. Out of the total 20 seed spices grown in India the ten are prominent. These important seed spices are divided into major and minor group of seed spices. The crops covered as major seed spices are coriander, cumin, fennel and fenugreek, whereas, ajowan, dill, nigella, celery and anise constitute minor group. The semi-arid to arid region is considerably rich in plant biodiversity of seed spices and it is required to conserve the natural wealth of these crops. The increasing loss of plant diversity owing to numerous natural and manmade causes calls for immediate efforts for its collection and safeguard.

Introduction

The crops, its significance along with its classification has got paramount importance in agricultural heritage. A crop is a plant or animal product that can be grown and harvested in an area with a target to earn profit or achieve subsistence. Crop may refer either to the harvested parts or to the harvest in a more refined state (husked, shelled, etc.). Most crops are cultivated in agriculture or aquaculture.

A crop is usually expanded to include macroscopic fungus (e.g. mushrooms), or alga (alga-culture) at the point of origination. Most crops are harvested as food for humans or livestock (fodder crops) or to get raw materials for agro-based industry. Some crops are gathered from the wild collection (including intensive gathering). The important non-food crops include horticulture, floriculture and industrial crops. Horticulture crops include plants used for other crops (e.g. fruit trees, grown single or in orchard). Floriculture crops include blanket plants, houseplants, flowering garden and pot plants, cut cultivated greens, and cut flowers. Industrial crops are produced for clothing (fiber crops), bio-fuel (energy crops, algae fuel), or medicine (medicinal plants).

Microbes (fungi, bacteria or viruses) are rarely referred to as crops. Animals raised for human or animal consumption are referred to as livestock and microbes as microbiological cultures. Microbes are not typically grown for food itself, but are rather used to alter food (e.g., for production of citric acid, fermenting yogurt, soya sauce and so on). The importance of a crop varies greatly by region. Crop production depends on the availability of arable land and is affected in particular by yields, macroeconomic uncertainty, as well as consumption patterns; it also has a great incidence on agricultural commodities’ prices. The importance of crop production is related to harvested areas, returns per hectare (yields) and quantities produced. Crop yields stands for harvested production per unit of harvested area for the particular crop i.e. products. In most of the cases yield data are not recorded, but are obtained by dividing the production data by the data on area harvested. The actual yield that is captured on farm depends on several factors such as the crop’s genetic potential, the amount of sunlight, water and nutrients absorbed by the crop, the presence of weeds and pests infestation. These indicators are presented for wheat, maize, rice and soybean. Crop production is measured in tons per hectare, in thousand hectares and thousand tons.

Introduction

India has one of the best agricultural research systems in the world with better amount man-power amongst the developing countries. The research system includes more than 30,000 scientists along with 1,00,000 subordinate personnel actively engaged in research system in the country involved to agricultural research which considered to be second highest next to China. The achievement and success looks very much impressive and at par with all the developed nations of the world.

National Agricultural System

India has one of the largest agricultural research systems in the world with the largest number of scientific personnel of any developing country except China. The research system includes approximately 30,000 scientists and more than 100,000 supporting staff actively engaged in research related to agriculture. Although the total number of scientists engaged in agricultural research in India looks very impressive, it compares less favorably with many developed countries.

The present agricultural research system comprises essentially two main streams, the ICAR at the national level and the Agricultural Universities at the State level. Besides, several other agencies such as General Universities, Scientific Organizations, and various Ministries/Departments at the Centre, as also Private or Voluntary Organizations participate directly or indirectly in research activities related to agriculture.

Citrus is a major fruit crop grown all over the tropical and subtropical region of the world. Maximum citrus species are native of tropical and subtropical regions of South East Asia specially India, China in the area between these two countries. It is mainly cultivated in China, Brazil, India, USA, Mexico, Spain and Egypt in the world. China is the leading producer country in the world followed by Brazil, India and USA. India is the third largest citrus producer which has 4.8 per cent of the world’s total citrus production.

The International movement of seed takes place for (i) germplasm for R&D purposes, (ii) experimental lines and hybrids for screening purposes, (iii) basic seed for multiplication purposes, and (iv) commercial varieties and hybrids for marketing (Ranganathan, 2019). Vegetable seed import and export for research purposes is handled by National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi where the importing research organization in India first gets an import permit from NBPGR following due procedures as available on NBPGR website (www.nbpgr.ernet.in). Once the importing research organization, like ICAR institutes, state agricultural universities, private seed companies, etc get the import permit which specifies the list of material to be imported and the seed source, the import permit is sent to the research seed supplying agency who in turn attaches a phytosanitary certificate along with the copy of the import permit to the consignment and sends the same to NBPGR. NBPGR retains part of seed and releases the seed to the indenter after necessary quarantine test and charging quarantine fee. The importing organization is expected to give a brief report about the material to the NBPGR after its evaluation at its farm/lab.

The bulk seed import (vegetable seed for commercial purposes) is handled by Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage, Faridabad, Haryana (www.ppqs.gov.in) with no condition of testing by government system. This exemption of testing is not available for field crop seed. It needs to be clarified that the bulk vegetable seed import has been simplified as per New Seed Policy-1988 which has put the vegetable seeds among others under OGL (open general license) and this provision facilitates the vegetable seed in bulk and the private seed companies have taken advantage of this provision. The Indian private seed companies are importing large quantities of seed of cauliflower, cabbage, broccoli, radish, carrot, beet root and even vegetable peas. The bulk vegetable seed import for commercial purposes is done as per following procedure.

Solanum melongena L. (2n = 2x = 24, family Solanaceae, often cross-pollinated) is known as eggplant in the United States and aubergine in France and England. It is one of the few cultivated solanaceous species originating from the Old World. It is known as brinjal in its home country, India, where it was domesticated long ago and where the greatest diversity exists. Widely grown in temperate and tropical Asian countries, eggplant has been also a common crop in the Middle East and around the Mediterranean basin and is now cultivated worldwide. Although an Old World taxon, S. melongena unexpectedly shares strong genetic similarities with New World Solanum species, namely, tomato and potato. These syntenic features have been discovered and will undoubtedly assist in an unlocking of the genes controlling eggplant key horticultural traits (Daunay, 2008).

As per FAOSTAT website-2018 quoted by Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India, Horticulture Statistics Division (2018), the world production of eggplant was 51.29 million tons from 1.79 million ha with a productivity of 28.65 tons/ha during 2016. Top ten countries in eggplant production during this period were China, India, Egypt, Turkey, Spain, Iran, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, and Philippines. The bulk of eggplant production came from top ranking China (0.78 million ha area, 32.03 million tons production and 41.06 tons/ha productivity) followed by India (0.66 million ha area, 12.60 million tons production and 19.09 tons/ha productivity) occupying the second rank. Productivity-wise, Spain is top rank holder with productivity close to 65 tons. Leading brinjal producing states in India are West Bengal, Odisha, Gujarat, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Haryana, Jharkhand and Assam.

5.1 Introduction

A Crop Simulation Model is a mathematical model which describes crop growth and development processes as a function of environment, soil conditions, and crop management. Simulation model is a schematic representation which works on set of underlying assumptions, equations and algorithms, closely replicating the behaviour of the agricultural systems. A crop growth simulation model predicts the harvestable yield. Apart from this final state of crop production, the model also provides a host of quantitative information about major processes involved in the various stages of crop development. The information covers each component of the crop such as leaves, stems, roots and harvestable products as they change over time, including the changes in soil moisture and nutrient status.

An increase in the population, demands an increase in agricultural production with available resources. Efficient management of available resources under varying weather conditions is important for increasing agricultural productivity. Besides that, the emphasis of agricultural production changes from quantity to quality and sustainability (Aggarwal et al., 2000). Solution of these new challenges lies in understanding the interaction of the numerous elements affecting the plant growth and generating a crop growth model. This extremely complicated information needs to be processed and interpreted on a spatial scale. Information technology which has unleashed new frontiers in data analysis and automation is the driving force behind this model generation. These powerful computer programmes simulate the crop growth or yield of crops under various management regimes and provide near real time information to help farmers to make strategic decision in the management of their crops.

Storage : It can be defined as keeping the commodity fresh or processed in safe condition with minimum of deteriorative changes for later use.

Reasons of Deterioration During Storage

Preservation of food (fruits and vegetables) in common salt sand vinegar is called pickling. It is one of the most ancient method of preservation of fruits and vegetables. Pickling is the result of fermentation by Lactic acid forming bacteria which are found in large number on the surface of fruits and vegetables. They can grow in acidic medium and in the presence of 8-10 percent salt solution. The growth of majority of undesirable bacteria is inhibited. Lactic acid most active at 30 °C temperature. This temperature should be maintained during the process of pickling.

Preparation of pickles

Pickles are prepared with salt, vinegar and oil or combination of these ingredients. Spices are also used for pickle preparation.

This chapter is based on literature reviews on urban regeneration with the intention to record and appreciate the perception of urban regeneration as reflected by the experiences of regeneration attempts in Europe and the United States. Since India owes much of her urbanization characteristics of the contemporary era to the colonial days, a special focus is on the experiences of U.K. The chapter also deals with early civilization and understanding of Urbanism, Impact of industrial Revolution and discusses Cities of South Asia. This attempt acts as a window to view cities as centres of power and performance, the assets of a city are discussed and the declining factors observed, a view necessitated out of the exercise is to look at cities on their own merits, demerits and policies, the programme for renewing would stem out of these inherent qualities which make these cities stand apart. The third and concluding part discusses some of the successful efforts of regeneration in the West and specifies on the strategies drawn for regeneration as a product of declining factors, the capacity to withstand change and available resources.

6.1. Introduction

A river is a large natural waterway. The source of a river may be a lake, a spring, or a collection of small streams, known as headwaters. From their source, all rivers flow downhill, typically terminating in the ocean. The mouth, or lower end, of a river is known as its base level.

A river water is confined to a channel, made up of a stream bed between banks. Most rainfall on land passes through a river on its way to the ocean. Smaller side streams that join a river are tributaries. The scientific term for any flowing natural waterway is a stream; so in technical language, the term river is just a shorthand way to refer to a large stream. Rivers throughout history have been the source and support for civilization, and many major cities today are near a river of some sort (Fig. 6.1).

6.1.1 Topography

A river conducts water by constantly flowing from a higher to a lower elevation, thereby converting the potential energy of the water into kinetic energy. It starts to form loops and snakes through the plain by eroding the river banks. Sometimes the river will cut off a loop, shortening the channel and forming an oxbow lake from the cut off section. Rivers that carry large amounts of sediment may develop conspicuous deltas at their mouths, if conditions permit. Rivers, whose mouths are in saline tidal waters, may form estuaries. River mouths may also be rias.

4.1 Defining erosivity and erodibility

Rainfall erosion is the interaction of two items - the rain and the soil. The amount of erosion which occurs in any given circumstances will be influenced by both, and our study of the processes of soil erosion is simplified by considering the two aspects separately.

We know from observation that one storm can cause more erosion than another on the same land, and we also know that the same storm will cause more erosion on one field than on another. The effect of the rain is called erosivity and the effect of the soil is called erodibility. The way they differ is best explained by examples.

Let us imagine an experiment station which has over its whole area exactly the same soil type and slope. Assume also that the whole of the station is covered by a completely uniform crop. If the amount of erosion taking place during each storm were measured, the amount would be influenced only by the nature of the rain. Comparing the effect of one storm with that of another storm would provide a relative measure of the power of each storm to cause erosion, and that is what is meant by erosivity. This will enable us to say that on this imaginary experiment station, storm A caused a soil loss of X kilograms per hectare and storm B caused a soil loss of Y kilograms per hectare. If Y is half of X, then the erosivity of storm B is half of the erosivity of storm A.

11.1 The farmer’s point of view

In the last chapter possible conservation practices were reviewed in groups according to their purpose in terms of influencing runoff or soil loss. Now, looking at ways of limiting soil degradation by improved land husbandry, the primary consideration is to look at the alternatives from the farmer’s point of view. In fact we need to be very wary of manual-type recommendations. A better approach is to offer a menu of alternatives, and the role of the professional is to help the farmer choose what is appropriate for his or her circumstances. A recent review of technologies acceptable to resource-poor farmers points out that combining practices into a farming system must take account not only of the physical factors such as soil and climate, but equally the available resource inputs, especially cash and labour, and the farmer’s objectives (STOCKING 1993).

The objectives of a commercial farmer are usually to maximize yield and income, but the subsistence farmer is likely to be more interested in improving food security by reducing the risk of failure, or improving the return on inputs of seed, fertilizer and labour, or improving the quality of life by reducing drudgery, particularly relevant in the case of women farmers.

We need a new approach to the farmer when recommending changes to farming practice. Instead of recommending practices because they will reduce erosion, we should show how they can lead to increased production. For example, practices which lead to better soil structure, more organic matter, or more moisture-holding capacity should be put forward because they improve yield, not because they reduce the soil erodibility. Increasing infiltration from better ground cover or the use of contour farming or ridging can result in better crops as well as reducing soil loss. Improved crop management could include more use of fertilizer and manures or crop rotations. These practices will make more sense to the farmer if they are recommended as leading to better production, which he can instinctively appreciate as desirable, rather than because they will reduce soil erosion which is likely to be a less important objective.

Introduction

Food and nutraceuticals are obtained from various agricultural resources available in this planet. Many types of bio-active compounds are available in small quantities in the plants and animals which are evidenced to improve performance of various organs, increase in immunity and cure for some diseases. Last decade evidences several advancements in developing phytochemical formulations which can be used as a cure for many diseases as well as helps in boosting immunity in human being. Such materials exist in different form, structure and chemical compositions. Examples of such chemicals are phenolic and organosulphur compound (Pascall 2011). The vegetables, fruits and seeds are used without further processing. Some plants are subjected to cooking before its consumption. Many industries are carried out extraction of bioactive compounds and developed products in the form of tablets, powders and liquids which are available in the market. In order to make commercial process more economic and feasible, long term storage of plant residues (Raw materials) as well as the prevention of the extracts emerges as essential requirement for the industries. Moreover, the products requires suitable packaging solution to increase its self-life, preventing it from the influences of environment, and to make viable solution for easy access which makes it more user-friendly. Suitable packaging solution is required for mainly the three reasons: (i) prevention. (ii) protection and (iii) presentation. Prevention is required in-order to avoid deterioration of the packaged items due to microbial growth, loss in moisture and enzymatic action. Protection is required for the purpose of protecting the packaging materials from the contamination as well as from the environment impact and rough handling. Presentation is equally important to provide it an aesthetic look to make it more approachable to the consumers. Moreover, packaging also offers “labelling for easy identification, warnings, instructions, and nutritional information, ease of transportation” (Pascall 2013).

6.1 Introduction

Irrigation is the process of applying water to soil, primarily to meet the water requirement of plants. Irrigation is mostly done when rain water availability in the soil for plant is insufficient. Water from different sources like rivers, lakes, reservoirs or aquifers is pumped or flows by gravity through pipes, canals, ditches or even natural streams. Irrigating the fields enhances the quantity, quality and reliability of crop production. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, irrigation contributes to about 40% of the world’s food production on 20% of the world’s cultivated land (Bjorneberg, 2013).

Though nearly 75% of the total area on the earth’s surface is occupied by water, 97.3% of the water is in oceans and seas, and only 2.47% is the fresh water. Water is a vital factor and natural resource for the growth of any living organism, and is a limiting factor for plant growth. Plants require water for their better growth and production. Where there is shortage of water, particularly during critical stages like fowering and fruiting, there can be drastic reduction in yield. Hence, the necessity of irrigation is to make up this deficiency of water.

Water is an essential component of all living things. Although once believed as a resource with a never-ending supply, it has now been understood that water is becoming increasingly scarce and therefore a proper management is necessary to keep a sustainable food production (Kannan & Anandhi, 2020). A continuous and safe supply of water is indispensable for the food industry where it has numerous applications along the agriculture and food production processes.

At present, food and nutrition security are the prime aspects which need to be addressed in an efficient way. It has been projected that by 2050 the global population will reach 9.2 billion which in turn enhances annual demand for agricultural products by 1.1 per cent from 2005 to 2050 (McKenzie and Williams 2015).

Executive summary

The ITK system had been developed by the indigenous communities based on their experiences, continuous improvement through informal experimentation and transfer of such knowledge to next generations. The tried and tested rich ITK pertaining to agriculture, livestock and other allied sectors had been interwoven with the socio-cultural and traditional practices followed by them. Since time immemorial indigenous communities had been applying ITK in animal husbandry to increase milk production, fertility, retention of placenta, breeding, prolapsed, care for the young stock and preparation of indigenous livestock products. ITKs are often adapted according to the local culture and traditions, needs, and environment; they are very dynamic and continuously changing, and lay emphasis on minimizing the risks rather than maximizing profits. Indigenous knowledge of livestock rearing is often “tacit” and not necessarily expressed in the conventional form of scientific documentation. The origin and evolution of indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) in India has been reported since time immemorial. Since then, the knowledge, belief, skills and practices pertaining to diagnosis, treatment and management of animal and human diseases are imprinted and carried to future generations. In the light of evolution, the practice has come to limelight as an alternative low cost solution to conventional western medicine and readily practiced by ordinary farmers. 

Introduction Millets are a group of annual grasses which are small seeded, hardy, drought tolerant, low maintenance and mainly found in semi-arid regions. The historic importance of millets can be derived from various types of traditional dishes which uses millets like roti and chapati flatbreads in India, uji (a type of porridge), injera (a fermented flatbread commonly eaten in Ethiopia) and beer in Africa, and kasha and fermented drinks in Eastern Europe. Millets are the 6th most important cereal grain in the world. India, China and Nigeria are the largest producers of millets, and the Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics estimates that in Africa and Asia more than 90 million people depend on millets in their diets. There are hundreds of millet types, but the major types grown commercially are: proso millet, foxtail millet, pearl millet, Japanese barnyard millet and browntop millet. In this book chapter, we will mainly focus on two minor millets i.e., Teff and Fonio

Crops and trees can be protected from disease by applying pesticides at precisely scheduled intervals. It may only take a few grammes of the chemical to facilitate its distribution over the aerial parts of the plant, or to treat seeds or other propagating organs (tubers, bulbs, corns, etc.) or the soil in which plants will grow. Any chemical can be used in one of four different physical states: gas, solid, liquid, or solution. As a result, it is critical to employ the most efficient equipment to ensure a uniform deposit of the chemical on the target substrate with minimal material waste in the shortest amount of time and with the least amount of manpower.

An index number is a statistical measure designed to show changes in a variable or group of related variables with respect to time, geographical location or other characteristics like: income, profession, etc. A collection of index numbers for different years, months, locations, etc. is called an index series. Since index number are usually used to measure the level of business and economic activities over a period of time, so they are rightly called barometers of economic activities or simple called economic barometers. The various problems faced in the construction of an index number are to known the specific purpose of index number, selection of items, data for index numbers, choice of base periods, choice of an average, selection of weights and choice of a suitable formula.

Methods of Constructing Index Numbers

A number of formulae have been developed for constructing index numbers, which may be grouped into the following categories:

• Unweighted index numbers

• Weighted index numbers

• Unweighted index numbers: In this case, weights are not expressly assigned. 

1.0 Introduction

Kiwi or kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa) belongs to the Actinidiaceae family that is a fruiting vine originated from Yangtze Valley of China. Kiwifruit was named because it resembles a flightless bird, kiwi which is New Zealand’s national symbol. It is also referred as “New Zealand’s horticultural wonder”. In china kiwi was named as Yang Tao and also as “China’s miracle fruit”. Over the past century, kiwis have also acquired a variety of strange names, including “melonette”, “wood berry”, “strange fruit”, “monkey peach, “macaque pear”, “mihoutau”, “Chinese gooseberry” (Tyagi et al., 2015) “vine pear”, “sun peach” and the particularly enticing moniker “hairy bush fruit” (Hugh Cambbell and Julia Haggerty., 2008). Kiwifruit is a nutrient dense fruit which is exceptionally known for its flavour and vitamin C content (Guroo et al., 2017). Digestive potential, antioxidant property, healthy metabolism, immune function and protection from coronary artery disease are the therapeutic benefits of kiwi (Feruguson., 2003; Boeing et al., 2012; Singeltary., 2012). It reduces the risk against cancer (Puri and Manjula., 2018), arteriosclerosis, cardiovascular diseases and irritable bowel syndrome (Chang et al., 2012) as it is a rich source of ascorbic acid and polyphenols. Due to palatability, aromatic compounds present in kiwifruit attract many consumers. Unique flavour and aroma is increased due to the presence of aldehyde E-2-hexenal, methyl benzoate, ethyl butanoate and esters. China tops in kiwifruit production followed by Italy. Two biggest exporters of Kiwi in world are Italy and New Zealand (Testolin & Ferguson, 2009). Kiwifruit has excellent pharmacological profile and it helps in development of nutritional supplements for welfare of mankind. Farmers can earn high return per unit area as it bears heavily every year and has no crop failure. Thus, kiwifruit has bright prospects in our country.

2.1. Classification of Fish

Fish are incredibly diverse aquatic vertebrates. There are over 32,000 de scribed species of bony fish, over 1,100 species of cartilaginous fish, and over 100 hagfish and lampreys. Fish can be broadly classified into three groups:

2.1.1. Superclass Agnatha (Jawless fish): These are the most primitive fish, lacking jaws and paired fins. They have existed for over 500 million years. Examples include lampreys and hagfish.

2.1.2. Class Chondrichthyes (Cartilaginous fish): These fish have skeletons made of cartilage instead of bone. They have jaws and paired fins. Examples include sharks, skates, and rays.

2.1.3. Superclass Osteichthyes (Bony fish): This is the largest and most diverse group of fish. They have skeletons made of bone and have jaws and paired fins. Examples include tuna, salmon, goldfish, and many more.

The soil acidity and alkalinity are major driving forces in regard to the mobility of plant nutrients from soil to plants. The extreme acidity or alkalinity cause damage to the crops and thus yield is affected. Correction of soil acidity or alkalinity depend upon the pH of the soil and its previous management options. Application of fertilizer in soil may be one of the factors affecting soil conditions. Exchangeable and soluble iron and aluminium ions and their hydroxy ion species may contribute hydrolysis to release H+ ions to the soil solution. The soluble salts of carbonate and bicarbonates also develop salinity in soils.

7.0 Soil reactions

Soil reaction is an indication of the acidity or alkalinity of soil and is measured in pH . The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14 with pH 7 as the neutral point. When the amount of active hydrogen ions in the soil solution increases the soil pH decreases and thus becoming more acidic in reaction. One of the outstanding physiological characteristics of the soil solution is its reaction. Soil reaction can influence the physico-chemical properties of soil which can regulate the growth and activity of plant and soil organisms associated with it.

Introduction

Discovery of the antimicrobial agents in the early twentieth century was a breakthrough to safeguard the public health from the microbial infection. Propensity of these compounds to kill pathogens influenced the discovery of novel antimicrobials. However, since the 1970s, soon after the discovery of the fluoroquinolones, no major antibiotics have been introduced. The prevalent issue is largely attributed to the repercussions of antibiotic overuse or irresponsible utilization across diverse contexts, predominantly in clinical treatment, agricultural practices, animal healthcare, war crisis and the food system. Moreover, the accessibility and availability of antibiotics results in antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Nonprudent use of antibiotics accompanied by genetic plasticity allows microorganisms to adapt to the effect of antimicrobials causing a rapid surge of antimicrobial resistance. Extensive use of antimicrobials in animal husbandry is a major driver of AMR selection and the emergence of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria (ARBs) (World Health Organization, 2014).

Pre-cooling is an essential process in the post-harvest stage of perishable produce. It involves swiftly removing heat from freshly harvested fruits and vegetables, reducing quality loss and extending shelf life. The advantages of precooling are evident not only in the enhanced quality of the produce but also in the increased profitability for growers.
In addition to improving quality and shelf life, pre-cooling helps curb the growth of microorganisms. Lower temperatures effectively prevent the growth of both existing and potential microbes, aiding in the preservation of the produce.
Field heat, which refers to the temperature difference between the freshly harvested produce and its optimal storage temperature, highlights the importance of precooling. The method of precooling selected depends on the perishability of the produce and the refrigeration equipment available, emphasizing the need for a customized approach.
Many studies stress the importance of precooling for storing and transporting produce over long distances. In this context, the focus is not on whether to precool, but on how to choose and implement the most effective method. This underlines the critical role of precooling in maintaining the quality, shelf life, and marketability of harvested produce.
Precooling fruits and vegetables is a vital post-harvest procedure aimed at rapidly reducing the produce’s temperature to slow down metabolic processes and prolong freshness. The ideal precooling temperature varies based on the type and maturity of the produce but is typically lower than the surrounding temperature. Various methods such as hydro-cooling, vacuum cooling, and forced-air cooling can be used for precooling. Properly understanding and applying these techniques is key to preserving the quality and freshness of fruits and vegetables from the farm to the consumer.

The operation and maintenance of dehusking, dehulling, degerming, and drying equipment are crucial in ensuring the efficiency and longevity of these machines in grain and seed processing industries. These machines play a vital role in removing husks, hulls, and germs from grains, as well as reducing moisture content to enhance storage stability. Proper handling and regular maintenance not only improve performance but also reduce downtime and operational costs.
Dehuskers are used to remove the outer husk from grains like paddy and millet. Their efficiency depends on factors such as roller pressure, feed rate, and machine alignment. Routine maintenance involves checking for wear and tear on rollers, adjusting pressure settings, and ensuring that all moving parts are well-lubricated. Similarly, dehullers remove the outer shell of seeds and grains, requiring careful calibration to avoid excessive grain breakage. Blade sharpness, motor performance, and sieve integrity should be regularly inspected to ensure optimal functioning.
Degermers are employed to separate the germ from the endosperm in grains like maize. This process enhances the shelf life of processed products and improves their quality. Regular maintenance of degermers involves inspecting the abrasion plates, checking the feed rate, and ensuring that airflow mechanisms are clear of obstructions. Any malfunction can lead to uneven separation, affecting the final product quality.

The operation and maintenance of dehusking, dehulling, degerming, and drying equipment are crucial in ensuring the efficiency and longevity of these machines in grain and seed processing industries. These machines play a vital role in removing husks, hulls, and germs from grains, as well as reducing moisture content to enhance storage stability. Proper handling and regular maintenance not only improve performance but also reduce downtime and operational costs. Dehuskers are used to remove the outer husk from grains like paddy and millet. Their efficiency depends on factors such as roller pressure, feed rate, and machine alignment. Routine maintenance involves checking for wear and tear on rollers, adjusting pressure settings, and ensuring that all moving parts are well-lubricated. Similarly, dehullers remove the outer shell of seeds and grains, requiring careful calibration to avoid excessive grain breakage. Blade sharpness, motor performance, and sieve integrity should be regularly inspected to ensure optimal functioning. Degermers are employed to separate the germ from the endosperm in grains like maize. This process enhances the shelf life of processed products and improves their quality. Regular maintenance of degermers involves inspecting the abrasion plates, checking the feed rate, and ensuring that airflow mechanisms are clear of obstructions. Any malfunction can lead to uneven separation, affecting the final product quality. Dryers are essential in reducing the moisture content of grains to prevent microbial growth and spoilage. They require proper temperature control, uniform airflow, and regular cleaning of heat exchangers and drying chambers. Overheating or under-drying can compromise the grain quality and lead to storage losses. Timely inspections of sensors, air ducts, and burner efficiency help maintain effective drying operations. A well-planned operation and maintenance routine ensures these machines function optimally, increasing productivity and product quality while reducing energy consumption and repair costs.

Workflow Optimization is the process of improving the way work is done by making it faster, more efficient, and more organized. In every organization, work is completed through a series of steps. These steps together form a workflow. If the workflow is not properly organized, it can lead to delays, errors, confusion, and increased costs. Workflow optimization helps in improving these processes so that work can be completed in less time, with fewer errors, and with better results. In the modern digital world, workflow optimization has become very important because organizations are handling large amounts of data and complex tasks. With the help of AI tools and automation software, workflows can be optimized and automated. Workflow optimization

Healthcare organizations require collaborative learning methods that protect sensitive patient information. This chapter introduces federated learning as a framework for training models across decentralized institutions without transferring raw clinical data. Horizontal, vertical and hybrid federated architectures are examined alongside communication protocols, threat models and security requirements. Privacy-enhancing methods—including differential privacy, secure aggregation, cryptographic techniques and trusted execution environments—are discussed. Applications in medical imaging, electronic health-record analysis, wearable devices and remote patient monitoring demonstrate the framework’s practical value. The chapter also evaluates accuracy, privacy, communication cost, scalability and robustness while addressing data heterogeneity, fairness, explainability, legal compliance and ethical challenges in collaborative healthcare analytics.

Climate change is altering insect-pest development, reproduction, feeding, survival, distribution, host preference and interactions with natural enemies. These shifts may make conventional control measures and existing integrated pest-management programmes less reliable. Climate-resilient IPM must therefore combine continuous pest surveillance, forecasting, biological control, resistant cultivars, cultural practices, habitat management and the careful use of pesticides. Management decisions should account for changing pest phenology, emerging invasive species and regional climate risks. This chapter examines how climate change affects established IPM components and proposes adaptive, knowledge-based approaches for sustainable pest suppression, reduced pesticide dependence, ecosystem protection and long-term food security.

Quality management in apparel production requires an integrated approach covering every stage from material sourcing to final inspection. Important areas include fabric inspection, spreading, cutting, in-process monitoring, finishing and evaluation of completed products. The chapter explains the Acceptance Quality Limit system through practical examples and introduces Statistical Process Control for monitoring manufacturing performance. It aims to help students, practitioners and researchers understand the multiple dimensions of apparel quality and apply appropriate inspection systems. Checklists, performance indicators and corrective measures support continual improvement. Because perceptions of quality depend on value, expected performance and durability, manufacturers must translate customer expectations into measurable specifications and consistently controlled production processes.

Reliable artificial intelligence depends on accurate, timely and multidimensional livestock data. This chapter examines the transition from manual record-keeping to sensor-based systems that capture physiological, behavioural, production and environmental information. Data sources include wearable devices, IoT monitoring networks, computer-vision systems and environmental sensors. Their applications include monitoring health, welfare, movement, feeding and productivity. The chapter also considers the integration of heterogeneous datasets and persistent challenges involving missing values, noise, interoperability, scalability and system reliability. By connecting data generation with intelligent analysis, it emphasizes that robust acquisition protocols and dependable infrastructure are essential for developing effective, evidence-based and responsive livestock-management systems.

Cloud computing and Edge AI provide complementary infrastructure for intelligent livestock management. Cloud platforms offer scalable storage, centralized analytics, model training and integration of data from sensors, cameras, automated feeders and farm-information systems. Edge AI processes information close to the farm, reducing latency, bandwidth consumption and response time. This chapter explains their architectures, workflows and applications in dairy, poultry, swine and small-ruminant production. Uses include disease detection, estrus prediction, behavioural monitoring, feeding and environmental control. Hybrid cloud-edge systems balance centralized intelligence with local autonomy. Challenges involving connectivity, interoperability, cybersecurity, cost, model reliability and ethical animal surveillance are also critically examined.

Computer vision provides an important foundation for automated plant analysis, monitoring and precision agriculture. This chapter explores computer vision approaches for plant phenotyping, disease detection, growth monitoring and yield prediction. Traditional image-processing methods are considered alongside machine learning and modern deep learning techniques, including convolutional neural networks and vision transformers. Image segmentation, object detection and classification are used to extract meaningful information from plant images and video data. The chapter also examines multispectral and hyperspectral imaging, IoT integration and real-time monitoring. Environmental variability, dataset quality, computational complexity and model generalization are discussed, together with transfer learning, data augmentation, edge computing and future directions

Precision agriculture uses spatially and temporally variable information to improve crop management, resource efficiency and agricultural productivity. This chapter examines the integration of artificial intelligence throughout the precision agriculture workflow. It introduces variable-rate technologies, georeferenced data collection and decision-support systems, followed by machine learning, deep learning, computer vision, reinforcement learning, fuzzy logic and expert systems. Applications include crop yield prediction, plant disease monitoring, soil property estimation, irrigation planning and autonomous agricultural operations. Remote sensing, satellite imagery, IoT sensor networks and edge computing are considered for real-time decision-making. The chapter also discusses agricultural robots and autonomous machinery, practical field applications, data limitations, hardware costs, connectivity and model interpretability.

Remote sensing provides large-scale information about crops and agricultural environments through satellite, aerial and other sensing technologies. This chapter examines the integration of remote sensing and artificial intelligence for crop monitoring and yield prediction. It introduces the fundamentals of agricultural remote sensing, important sensors and data types, vegetation indices and crop health assessment. Data acquisition and preprocessing are followed by applications of AI models for monitoring crop conditions and predicting yields. Remote sensing datasets can be combined with machine learning and other AI techniques to identify patterns associated with crop performance. The chapter also discusses case studies, limitations, emerging technologies and future research opportunities in intelligent crop monitoring and yield forecasting