eChapters

Genus : Asimina 
Species : triloba (L.) Dunal
Family : Annonaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 18

Uses

The delicious pawpaw fruits are used as dessert. The red or brown streak wood is light in weight hence not used for furniture or allied work. On account of its handsome foliage, large leaves and attractive form, it provides additional attraction when planted in gardens.

Materials Required

Ostwald viscometer, stop watch, sample, distilled water, thermometer.

Procedure

    a.    Take sample and distilled water. Record their temperatures (they should be same for correct estimation). If the temperatures are not same bring both to a specific temperature say 20ºC or the room temperature.
    b.    Clean and dry the Ostwald viscometer properly before use
    c.    Fill the ostwald viscometer with distilled water and record the time taken (T₁) for the a known volume of water to flow through the orifice.
    d.    Empty the viscometer and dry it
    e.    Fill the ostwald viscometer with sample juice or liquid and record the time taken (T₂) for the a known volume of sample to flow through the orifice of the same viscometer.
    f.    Calculate the relative viscosity using the following formula

The students in batches will visit the laboratory of Plant Pathology for their acquaintance with different appliances, tools, glassware‘s and other miscellaneous items, which they will use for various exercises and experiments to be conducted. A list of some of them is given below:

Procedure

1.Peeled Potato slices are cooked in 500 ml of water by the time till they are easily penetrated by a glass rod.

2.Filtered with the help of muslin cloth.

3.Agar-agar is melted in another 500 ml of water.

4.Potato extract is added to the melted agar.

5.Dextrose is added in this mixture and stir well with the help of glass rod.

6.Make the volume to 1000 ml, by adding required water.

7.Medium is sterilized in an autoclave at 15 lbs pressure for 20 minutes at temperature of 121.6^oC.

Collection and dry preservation of disease samples

Materials : Iron knife, hand lens, vasculum, pruning scissors, paper envelops and plant press with blotters and news papers.

Method

•Collect infected plant parts and place them in paper envelops (use separate envelops for different kinds of diseased specimensxsxs).

•Place envelops in vasculum and bring to the lab.

•Arrange leaves and herbaceous stems inside the folder newspaper sheet.

•Place the newspaper between the blotters in plant press and tighten the bolts.

•After proper drying remove dried specimen from the press and keep them in separate folders.

•Label each folder giving the following informations.

a.Name of the organism

b.Habitat

c.Locality

d.Date of collection

e.Name of collector

f.Collection number

g.Other notes

Biological control of disease employs natural enemies of pests or pathogens to eradicate or control their population. Interactions that lead to biocontrol can include antibiosis, competition, induction of host resistance, and predation. Some of the microbial taxa that have been successfully commercialized and are currently marketed include bacteria belonging to the genera Agrobacterium, Bacillus, Pseudomonas and Streptomyces and fungi belonging to the genera Ampelomyces, Candida, Coniothyrium and Trichoderma.

•Dual Culture Technique: For in vitro screening, performance of antagonist isolates in dual culture (Morton and Stroube, 1955) with test pathogen can be tested.

•Pour 15-20 ml of sterilized melted PDA in 9 cm Petriplates and allowed to solidify.

•Place the bits (5 mm) of the test pathogen and antagonist on the PDA plates opposite to each other from 1.0 cm from the periphery of plates (if both are fast growing) or place it 2-3 cm apart (if both are slow growing).

•The Petriplates are incubated (at 28 ± 2^oC) for desired duration.

•Periodical observation on the growth of the antagonists and the ability of the antagonist to colonise the pathogen are recorded.

Any farmer/Entrepreneur who wishes to avail bank loan for starting or expanding his dairy enterprise should apply for loan to the nearest branch of a commercial bank, regional rural bank or co-operative bank in their area in the prescribed application form which is available in the branches of financing banks.

Preparing Projects for Bank Appraisal

    1.    The entrepreneur can prepare the project or Scheme report after consulting local technical persons of State Animal Husbandry Department, DRDA, Dairy Co-operative Society / Union / Federation / commercial dairy farmers.
 
    2.    The project report should have mention about practical training and experience in dairy farming. So in order to meet this requirement the inexperienced entrepreneurs can visit progressive dairy farms and government / military / agricultural university dairy farms in the vicinity to have first hand information about the enterprise. Nowadays several online portals (www.aaqaa.com.) also provide useful guidance and information on setting up dairy based enterprise.

1. Technical Feasibility of Dairy Unit

This includes following information such as
 
    1.    Availability of good quality animals in nearby dairy market,
 
    2.    Availability of good grazing grounds and lands,
 
    3.    Availability of green/dry fodder,
 
    4.    Availability of concentrate feed, medicines etc.
 
    5.    Further availability of veterinary aid, dairy breeding (AI) centre, milk collection and marketing centre are also important.

    6.    Nearness of the selected area to veterinary/breeding/milk collection centre and the financing bank’s branch.

    7.    Capability of the owner and employees such as technical knowledge and skill.

The Feasibility study of dairy project cover capital investment on land, building, infrastructure, working capital, manufacturing and marketing cost, and financial projections to work out its viability. Once viability is established, a detailed project report should include the following ten steps for project planning and implementation:

First Step: This step involves appointing a consultant to plan the project in relation to the design the dairy plant, proposed market and select an architect and a structural consultant. Prepare tender documents for civil works and plant equipment. Study the demand-supply of target products through a market survey to formulate the suitable product mix in terms of volume and range. e.g. study of various dairy products e.g. Khoa, ghee, Ice cream. The capacity of the plant and the provision of various facilities would be determined by the products demand.

• Introduction
• The Concept of a Farm Management System

Appendix A: Diagrammatic Presentation of Processes Involved in Obtaining an Indian Patent

For the diagnosis of clinical reproductive problems it is essential to collect blood, penile swab, Prepucial swab, prepucial washing, semen, smegma etc from breeding bulls. These samples are dispatched to the nearest laboratory for clinical diagnosis. 

5.1 Collection of Blood Serum

The bull is properly restrained and jugular vein area is cleaned and sterilized with 70% alcohol. An sterile hypodermic needle is used to collect 5-10 ml blood aseptically in a sterile test tube. This test tube is then kept in a slanting position. Serum is separated after the formation of blood clot and dispatched to the laboratory.

5.2 Collection of Seminal Plasma

Semen sample is collected as per the standard procedure. Carbolic acid or 1 % sodium acid is added to preserve seminal plasma at the rate of 2 drops in 1 ml ejaculate in the centrifuge tube. It is then centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 20 minutes. The supernatant is collected and stored in deep freeze till further analysis.

Bioinformatics is a multidisciplinary approach that combines computational and biological expertise to analyze biological data to advance research and development and it drew public attention with the announcement of the draft sequence of human genome by the then US President, Bill Clinton along with Craig Venter and Francis Collins in 2000. Bioinformatics and life sciences research are gaining attention in the government, industries and academic sectors. India was the first country in the world to establish a biotechnology information system (BTIS) network in 1987 through the Dept. of Biotechnology and created an infrastructure that enables it to harness biotechnology through the application of bioinformatics. Through this branch of science, biological data are acquired, stored and then analyzed. Bioinformatics can be used to store huge bioscience data for their future uses. By exploring computational tools, databases and new strategies for pests and diseases, resistant genes can be identified and plants with desired traits can be engineered to enhance agricultural productivity. Bioinformatics can be utilized in two ways for agriculture, viz., (i) at molecular level for application in breeding strategies and (ii) agri-informatics for land use planning, farmers window, early warning system, impact assessment and environmental applications.

The focus of world’s trade and economic activities is increasingly being shifted from resource-based economics to knowledge-based economics. This paradigm shift has been triggered due to the implementation of Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) and other related international treaties and policy frameworks. CBD for the first time states that bio-resources are the sovereign property of the countries in which they are found. It further stipulates that access to bio-resources by outside parties can be made only after prior approved consent of the concerned stakeholders and also with mutually agreed terms and conditions for equitable sharing of benefits accrued from the commercialization of biodiversity. To realize such proclaimed rights given in CBD and to fulfill obligations of various other relevant treaties, particularly in the context WTO regulation, it is imperative that the bio-resources-rich nations like India have comprehensive knowledgebase of the biodiversity and associated information systems in accessible form.

The advances in science and technology are deeply intertwined. Researchers can use the semiconductor manufacturing techniques that underlie miniaturization to build radios and exceptionally small mechanical structures that sense fields and forces in the physical world. These inexpensive, low-power communication devices can be deployed throughout a physical space, providing dense sensing close to physical phenomena, processing and communicating this information, and coordinating actions with other nodes. These multifunction devices are battery operated and are connected wirelessly with sensing, processing and communicating capabilities and are known as the wireless sensors. If we use these sensors with biological issues or Biotechnology, then we can find the new concepts biosensors. If we really implement these concepts in real life we can get rid of many diseases like heart attack, blood sugar level, gene reaction and other changes that happens in our body much before its shows to outside.

1.     Length and Size
2.     Volume
3.     Weight

Centre of gravity

It is most commonly located is the middle of the rib cage, just caudal to the line separating the cranial and middle third of the body because the CG & located more cranially. The forelimbs bear 60-65% of body weight. This causes an increased stress of forelimb and increase incidence of lameness. The horse that is taller over the group than the wither has an additional disadvantage, because PTS CG is shifted further forwards.

1. Long backed horses may develop a swing in the gait that alters the movement of their limbs. Such horses are prone to speedy cutting. Cross firing & back problem due to muscle ligament strain.

2. Short backed horses may develop a swing in the gait that alters the movement of these limbs. Such horses are prone to speedy cutting, cross firing & back problem due to muscle and ligament strain.

Gait of ANormal Animal

This is a four - beat gait. Walking can be of various forms, but regardless of the form, it must be an even four beat gait.

When a regular sequence is lost, identified by four hoof beats at precise interyals, the cattle is no longer walking.

The walking sequence is lateral because both feet of one side hit the ground before the two feet of opposite side strike.

Propulsion primarily results from the hindlimbs, and the forelimbs simply follow.

The length of stride in the walk will usually vary between 5 1/2 and 6 ft. This distance is measured between successive imprints of the same foot.

The step will vary between 33 and 39 inches and is the measurement made between the imprints made by a pair of forefeet or the imprints made by a pair of hind feet.

The sequence of the hoof beats can be described according to this pattern: (1) near - hind, (2) near - fore, (3) off - hind, (4) off - fore.

This gait is sometimes described as beginning with a forelirnb as ; (1) off — fore, (2) near - hind, (3) near - fore, and (4) off - hind.

This description is not proper according to the way the cattle starts, but it is proper after it is in motion.

1: extensor carpi radialis

2: m. extensor digiti III propr.

2: its tendon

3: m. extensor digiti communis

3: its tendon

4: m. extensor digiti IV. propr.

4’: its tendon :

5: m. ulnaris lateralis

The condition in the young subject is as follows:

The two parietals are united with each other and also with the interparietal and supraoccipital. The resulting mass is somewhat horse shoe shaped. Its occipital part (planum occipitale) forms the greater part of the posterior wall of the cranium and bears about its centre the tubersity for the attachment of the ligamentum nuche. From either side of this a line curves outward and divide the surface into an upper smooth area and a lower area which is rough for muscular technique. The upper borderjoins the frontal bone and concurs In the formation of the frontal eminence. The temperal part (Plana temporalla) are much smaller and are concave externally; they join the frontal above and the squamous temporal below. A median occipital crest extends ventrally from the external occipital protuberance.

This vertebra is decidedly atypical in form and structure. The body and spineous process are absent. It has the form of a strong ring, from which two curved plates, the wings, project laterally. The ring incloses a very large vertebral foramen and consistis of two lateral masses connected by dorsal and ventral arches.

The lateral masses (Massae laterales) present two deep oval anterior articular cavities (Foveae articulares craniales) which receive the occipital condyles; they are separated by a wide notch above and a narrow one below. The lateral margin is also notched, and a triangular non-articular depression cuts into the medial part of each cavity. The posterior articular surfaces (Facies articulares caudales) are somewhat saddle-shaped; they are confluent on the ventral arch, but are widely separated dorsally, and do not conform in shape to the corresponding surfaces of the axis.

The dorsal arch (Arcus dorsali,) presents a median dorsal tubercle (Tuberculum dorsale) and is concave ventrally. It is perforated on either side near its anterior margin by the inter vertebral foramen (Foramen invertebrale). The anterior border is deeply notched, and the posterior border is thin and concave.

The ventral arch (Arcus ventralis) is thicker, narrower, and less curved than the dorsal. In its lower surface is the ventral tubercle (Tuberculum ventrale), into which the terminal tendon of the longus colli muscle is inserted. The upper face has posteriorly a transversely- concave articular surface, the fovea dentis, on which the dens or odontoid process of the axis rests.

In front of this is a transverse rough excavation and a ridge for the attachment of the ligamentirm dentis.

The scapula is more regularly triangular than in horse, relatively, wider at the vertebral end and narrower at the distal end. The scapular index is about T.0.6. The spine is more prominent and is placed further forward, so that the supras- pinous fossa is narrow and does not extend to the lower part of the bone. The spine is sinuous, bent backward in its middle, forward below. Its free border is somewhat thickened in its middle, but bears no distinct tuber. Instead of little more prominent, and is prolonged by a pointed production, the acromion, from which part of the deltoid muscle arises. The sub scapular fossa is shallow. The areas for the attachment of the stratus muscle are not very distinct. The nutri- ent foramen is usually in the lower third of the posterior border. The glenoid cavity is almost circular and without any distinct notch. The tuberosity is small and close to the glenoid cavity. The coracoid process is short and rounded. The cartilage resembles that of the horse. The tuberosity unites with the rest.

Fia.1. Left carous and adjacent bones of Ox: Front view:-

Ulna

Radius

Fused second and tliird carpals

Ulnar carpal

Radial carpal

Fourth carpal

Fused second and third carpals

Metacarpal tuberosity

Vascular groove

???????Intermediate carpal bone

The ilia are almost parallel to each other and form a much smaller angle with the horizontal plane than in the horses.they are relatively small. The glutei line is prominent and nearly parallel to the lateral border,it joins the ischiatic spine.A rounded ridge separates the two parts of pelvic surface.The surface for articulation with sacrum is triangular. The tuber coxae is relatively prominent and not so oblique as in horses, wide in middle,smaller at either end.Shaft is short and compressed from side to side.

Ischium is large.Its long axis is directed obliquely upward and downward forming an angle of 5o to 60 degree with horizontal plane.The transverse axis is obliquely downward and inward at similar angle so concave from side to side.Ventral surface has rough ridge for muscular attatchment. The ischiatic spine is high and thin and bears a series of vertical rough line. lschiuatic arch is narrow and deep.The tuber ischii is large and three sided bearing dorsal ,ventral, lateral tuberosities.The symphysis bears a ventral ridge which fades out at ischial arch.The acetabular branch of pubis is narrow and is directed laterally,and a little forward.The anterior border is marked by a transverse groove which ends below rough iliopectineal eminence. The symphyseal branch is wide and thin. The acetabulum is smaller than in horses. Rim is rounded and usually marked by two notches. One is directed to deep acetabular fossa and and converted to foramen. The other is anteromedial and small also replaced by foramen or absent.

ILIUM

The ilium are almost parallel to each other and form a much smaller angle with the horizontal plane than in the horse. They are relatively small. The gluteal line is prominent and is nearly parallel to the lateral border; it join the ischiatic spine. A rounded ridge separates the two parts of the pelvic surface. The surface for articulation with the sacrum is triangular. The tuber sacrale is truncated, does not extend so high as the vertebral spines, and is separated from the opposite angle by a wider interval than in the horse. The tuber coxae is relatively large and prominent; it is not so oblique as in the horse, and is wide in the middle, smaller at either end. The shaft is short and compressed from side to side.

M.mMedial malleolus

M.I., Lateral malleolus

T, Tibia

T. t., Tibial tarsal bone

T.f., Fibulartarsal bone

T.c. + 4, Fused central and fourth tarsal bones.

T.1, First tarsal bone

T.2+3, Fused second and third tarsal bones

Mt.2,Small, or second metatarsal bone

Mt.3+4, Large metatarsal or fused third or fourth metatarsal bon

Definition: A fracture is a dissolution of bony continuity with or without displacement of the fragments.

Different stages of fracture: Inflammatory phase, reparative phase, and remodelling phase.

Fundamental steps

Fig. 1: Cotton Bandage

Aim

To know the portion of limb to be covered by P.O.P cast bandage for immobilization of fore limb (Fig 1a) & hind limb ( Fig 2a) bone fracture.

As per general rule, joint below and joint above should be covered.

Objective

The poor quality of Plaster Of Paris makes the cast weak. For its strengthening, 4pieces of padded green bamboo splints are placed within POP cast along its four sides.

Requirements

4 green bamboo splints which are padded soft at both the ends

Definition

Compound fracture is a type of fracture in which a broken piece of bone protrudes to outside rupturing the skin with a risk of further infection.

Procedure of management

Clean and flush thoroughly the exposed bone using sterile NS followed by sterile medicated NS (NS with antibiotic or antiseptic). Figure (1)

Mop dry the wound thoroughly.

Apply topical antiseptic or antibiotic.

Put the bone inside the part.

With a sterile artery forcep fix a flushing catheter within the wound at its higher level. Figure (2)

Cover the wound over fracture site with sterile soft padded absorbent cotton padding. Figure (2)

The joint below and above of the fracture site covered with thick layered padded cloth before application of POP cast. Figure (3)

POP cast is wrapped as per the conventional procedure over the fracture site covering the joint below and above. Figure (4)

Aim: To prepare a list of materials used for ammobilisation for fractured limb with gum bandage. Materials required

Indication

Fracture in case of large animals, act as soft padding

Procedure

A single piece of long cotton cloth is taken which is separated into two equal halves on the middle line (Fig. 1).

One of the 2 parts is taken and folded to form a bilayer padded cloth (Fig 2)

The bilayer padded cloth to further folded to form 4 layer padded cloth and subsequently to S and 16 layer padded cloth (Fig. 3).

The 16 layer padded cloth is thus used around the fractured limb from the joint above to joint below.

The other half of the doth from Fig 1 is then separated into further 2 parts horizontally (Fig. 4)

The pieces thus formed are folded to form 2 layer, 4 layers and 8 layers Cloth paddings in order to cover the ends of netted bamboo splints longitudinally and retention Is done with ropes.

Procedure for Netted Padded Bamboo Splint

Marking of the bamboo splints is done maintaining equal distance (Fig.1).

At both the edges of the marking, grooving of the bamboo splints is done for perfect tieing of the plastic rope (Fig.2).

The bamboo splints are tied with the help of plastic rope maintaining 1 finger space between each bamboo splint (Fig.3).

Soft 8 layer padding of cotton is provided at both the ends of the netted bamboo splint in order to avoid injury (Fig.5).

The width of the netted padded bamboo splint should be upto one and half times of the limb’s circumference (Fig.6).

Purpose-To now the technique of application of thick layer sterile absorbent protective cotton padding over fractured site and its retention with thread ligature in order to protect the bone from further damage

Site-Generally area joint above and joint below of fractured site of bone needs to be covered with a thick layer for perfect immobilization of fractured bone.

Purpose

To strengthen gum bandage in order to keep the fracture perfectly immobilized.

Materials required

Soft cotton padding, Adhesive gum, netted bamboo with soft padding, retention ligature.

CORPUS

Fixation of rubber slipper over the foot, after application of fracture, immobilising devices the foot is protected with rubber slipper to avoiding soiling and affection of foot (Fig. No-1).

The foot protection the protective rubber slipper is applied given to both their foot (Fig No.2).

Gum bandage, immobilised limb (Fig No.3).

As well as POP cost application (Fig No. 4).

The rubber could be given anterior to posterior derection to avoid entering of soiling towards the foot.

The slipper retain in position with due to splint.

Classification of fracture and its repair in large animal practice by external completion method.

Aim

To know the different level of fracture limbs. In order to access their method of repair (Fig.1).

Aim

To know the immobilization technique for fractured metatarsus.

The fractured metatarsus comes under lower level fracture whose immobilisation is cast as well as conjoined U-Plate application. (Fig. 1).

Requirements

Thick padded cloth (Fig. 2(a)

Padded netted bamboo splint (Fig. 2(b)

Conjoined U plate (Fig. 2(c)

Definition

Fracture of humerus bone and femur bone are generally categorised under higher level fracture.

Methods Used For Fracture Repair

These level fractures are repaired appropriately by intramedullary pinning and Thomas splint application.

Only pinning or only Thomas splint are not the method for its repair as the distal fragments of bone get tourqed by pinning only and the fracture fragments get distracted by simple Thomas splint application.

Hence after pinning a humerus or femur bone, the limbs are kept immobilised perfectly by Thomas splint application.

When pinning as well as Thomas splint application are not possible the fractured bones are kept immobilised with fevicol gum bandage only. So for this purpose modification of velpeau sling is generally adopted and animal is restrained within limited space for 21 days.

Definition

Any fracture or discontinuity in bony structure like scapula and pelvic girdle present above the shoulder joint and hip joint respectively are called as highest level fracture.

Aim

To know the method of repair of highest level fracture.

Procedure

As there is no satisfactory method of external immobilisation till date, generally animal is kept under restricted movement. Sometimes application of charge (glue bandage) externally may give some satisfactory result.

Fracture of scapula, shoulder dislocation, fracture of pelvic girdle, hip dislocation have been grouped under highest level fracture.

For large animal, immobilization of bone & joint have not been developed satisfactorily/ till date. Hence after correction of dislocation or rearrangement of fractured the site Is kept immobilized with application of gum bandage.