eChapters

The term ‘mycorrhizae’ was coined more than a century ago (Frank 1885) describing that the roots of most plants are colonized by fungi and transformed into fungus roots organ. Mycorrhizae result from a mutualistic symbiosis between plant roots and certain fungi. Roots of most flowering plants live in mutual symbiosis with mycorrhizae which bio-tropically colonise the root cortex and extra-metricial mycelia help the plant to obtain plant nutrients from soil (Barea, 1991).

These fungi are ubiquitous in soil and are found in the roots of many Angiosperms, Gymnosperms, Pteridophytes and Thallophytes (Mosse et al., 1981). The mycorrhizal fungi perform the function of root hairs. The fungus takes carbohydrates from the plant and in turn supplies the plants with nutrients, hormones and protects it from root pathogens. The dependency of fungal species on host plant ranges from obligate to facultative (Brundrett, 2002; Read and Perez-Moreno, 2003). The mycorrhizal plants have greater tolerance to toxic heavy metal, nigh soil temperature, soil salinity, unfavourable soil pH and to transplantation shocks.

They play an important role in increasing plant growth and nutrients uptake (Bagyaraj, 1992, VasanthaKrishna and Bagyaraj 1993). These fungi can be used to promote biotechnologically developed plant in soil (Varma and Schuepp 1994).

Phosphorus is one of the essential plant nutrients, which is required in optimum amounts for proper growth of plants and soil biota. Being a constituent of ATP it is involved in various processes such as cell division, energy generation and transfer of genetic characteristics and regulation of metabolic pathways (Theodorou and Plaxton, 1993). Phosphorus constitutes about 0.2% plant dry weight (Schachtman et al., 1998). The average soil contains 0.05% phosphorus but only one tenth of this is available to plants due to its poor solubility and chemical fixation in soil (Narayansamy et al., 1981, Barber, 1984). About 98 percent of Indian soils have inadequate supply of available phosphorus (Ghosh and Hasan 1979, Hasan, 1994). A survey of Indian soils showed that out of 363 districts, only 2,2% were high, 51.5% medium and 46.3% were low in phosphorus content (Ghosh 1982).

The problem of P fertilization may become serious in coming years because of the fact that manufacture of phosphatic fertilizers requires the use of non renewable resources such as high grade rock phosphate and sulphur which are becoming costlier. The situation is further aggravated by the fact that P is readily fixed in the soil and the average utilization efficiency of added fertilizer P by plants ranges from 15-25% only (Gaur 1982, 1990). The recent report showed that 42 per cent of soil samples fell in low category, 38 per cent in medium and 20 per cent in high category (Motsara, 2002). It has been observed that the vast alluvial tracts of the country are either low or medium in available P. Hence they need P application at recommended rates.

Rice is grown in about 40 million hectares of land in India and nitrogen requirement for the crop is 60 lakh tonnes based on the present levels of consumption. Rice production has to be sustained and increased to provide staple diet to our increasing population. Blue green algae is a potentional biofertilizer in rice because of their capacity to meet both carbon and nitrogen requirement naturally from the air. They are microscopic algae which are collectively called phytoplankton produce basic organic matter forming the first link in food chain and alongwith replenish the oxygen content of atmosphere. Algae contain proteins, Vitamins, iodine, bromine and substances of antibiotic and stimulatory nature. The soil algae are divided into chlorophyta (green algae) cynophyta (blue green) bacillariophyta (diatoms) and xanthophyta (yellow-greens).

De (1939) suggested that fertility of rice fields is maintained due to the growth of blue-green algae. Different types of blue-green algae have been reported to colonize the rice fields. The cells such as heterocysts in Anabaena, Nostoc, Tolypothrix etc. which have capacity to fix atmospheric nitrogen under aerobic condition and unicellular and non- hetercoystous forms also fix atmospheric nitrogen under microaerophilic conditions.

The accumulation of nitrogen under non-leguminous and cereal cropping systems seem to be generally universal at least in the tropics. Free-living heterotrophic nitrogen fixing bacteria are very widely distributed taxonomically, geographically and ecologically. But only a few genera and species are known to possess the potential for high amount of nitrogen fixation. Azospirillum has shown high nitrogen fixation attributes. The association of Spirillum lipoperum (Azospirillum brasilense) and Digitaria decumbens was reported by Dobereiner and Day (1974).

I. Spirillum

The description of members of genus Spirillum was available as early as 1670s by Leeuwenhoek (Dobell 1960 and Muller 1773). But the genus Spirillurn was created in 1832 by distinguishing it from phototrophic spirilla which were placed in a separate genus Thiospirillum (Ehrenberg, 1838). The subsequent developments of the taxonomy of the chemo- heterotrophic spirilla which generated knowledge of their characteristics, were extensively reviewed by Giesberger (1936) and Williams (1959 a, b).

There are several bacteria which fix atmospheric nitrogen and do not have a symbiotic partner such as a plant. There are conclusive evidences regarding nitrogen gains due to free living bacteria (Dart and Day, 1975) The diazotrophic bacteria have been classified based on the mode of nutrition and oxygen requirement (Alexander, 1977, Knowles, 1977). Free living nitrogen fixing bacteria fix nitrogen in soil and their population in rhizosphere of plants are significantly higher than in non-rhizosphere soils

Although the economic and ecological significance of many of these bacteria have yet to be established, the most promising diazotrophs are Azotobacter, Azospirillum, Beijerinckia and Clostridium. Azotobacter and Beijerinckia are some of the most preponderant, non-symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria. Studies on these organisms in Indian soils have been done earlier by Rangaswamy and Sadasivam (1964) Sen and Barooah (1964) and Jagtap and Bhide (1971). Among the free living bacteria, Azotobacter is the most intensively investigated. Several species viz., A. chroococcum, A. vinelandii, A. macrocytogenes, A. agilis and A. insignis were reported but A. chroococcum is the most common specie encountered in arable soils.

Azolla, a fresh water fem is a rich source of nitrogen especially for low land rice farming. It is found in rice paddies in many tropical countries like China, India, Korea, Philippines and Vietnam. The agronomic importance of Azolla lies in its ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen through the symbiotic association with a blue-green alga, Anabaena azolae. The symbiotic association can fix nitrogen proportional to its biomass produced. When Azolla is grown in paddy f ields and subsequently incorporated as green manure, the nitrogen contained within Azolla biomass is mineralized during the process of decomposition.

Azolla is a genus of small aquatic fern comprising 7 living and 25 fossil species, which is globally distributed. It occurs on still water ponds, lakes, swamps, lagoons and paddy fields in both tropical and temperate regions. Because of its rapid growth, high nitrogen percent and its ability to grow in stagnated waters, it has been used as organic manure in Vietnam and China for centuries. Its use in India and other countries is relatively recent. Azollla pinnata is native to India and widely distributed.

Frankia is potent nitrogenous biofertilizer for forest trees since it establishes symbiotic association with non-leguminous plants. Nitrogen fixing non leguminous trees thrive in temperate condition. The species belong to Casuarinaceae are an exception and grow successfully in tropical areas. Alnus for temperate regions and the genus Casuarina for tropical and sub-tropical regions stand out examples of the benefits they provide to ecosystem by the way of nitrogen fixation. They have an excellent potential to adapt themselves to grow under diverse geographical and environmental conditions providing enough fuel, fodder, pulp and timber. The microsymbiont within these root nodules of non-leguminous plants has been identified and designated as Frankia (Becking, 1970).

Historical Developments

First of all Boussingault, a French farmer during 1838 drew attention that non-legumes were capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen. The roots of Alnus were described as warty brownish biomass as large as man’s fist (Woronin, 1866). Frank and coworkers (1887a, b, 1891) studied the nodulated nitrogen f ixing trees regardless of whether they were leguminous or non-leguminous (actinorhizal). Frank believed that the bacteroids were protein deposits but subsequently he named the causative organism as Frankia subtilis. Moller (1885, 1890) reported the causative organism in the nodules as plasmodia and Frank also revised his opinion and pointed out that the causative organism was a fungus. Such conflicting results were due to imperfect techniques to differentiate between vesicles and sporangia. Later the organism was renamed as Frankia bruchorstii to honour Frank and his coworker, Brunchorst (Moller, 1890).

Nitrogen is the most important plant nutrient for increasing crop productivity. A few prokaryotic microorganisms are able to fix N2 directly mediated by enzyme nitrogenase. Annual biological nitrogen fixation (Table 96) is estimated to be around 175 million metric tonnes per year of which about 139 million tonnes (79%) are accounted for by terrestrial fixation (Burns and Hardy 1975).

The nitrogen fixers involved are metabolically diverse but the process is similar and depends upon (1) nitrogenase (Nase) enzyme complex (ii) a high energy requirement (ATP) (iii) anaerobic conditions for nitrogenase activity (iv) source of strong reductant.

The symbiotic process is known to be one of the important contributors to the nitrogen cycle both from agricultural and ecological points of view. The soil bacteria of the genus Rhizobium colonizes and forms nodules on the root of leguminous plants such as clover, lucerne (alfalfa), pea, chickpea, pigeonpea, beans, groundnut, Vigna species etc.

The nitrogen uptake in legumes by some unknown process was demonstrated through agronomic experiments by J.B. Boussigault in 1838 which was opposed by Liebig and others. However, Hellriegel and Wilfarth’s experiments (1886-88) clearly showed that the growth of non-leguminous plants, barley, oats etc. was directly proportional to the amount of nitrate supplied while in case of leguminous no such relationship existed and growth of the leguminous plants picked up in some cases after the seedling stage. Beijerinck (1888) isolated the bacterium from the root nodules in pure culture which lead to study their morphological characteristics and physiology.

The biosphere or part of the earth and its atmosphere where life is found is made of different size of ecosystem regulated by solar energy. Ecosystems have both biotic and abiotic components. The biotic component comprises closely interacting groups of flora and fauna having varying energy needs which comprise heterotrophic, chemoautotrophic and photoautotrophic microorganisms.

Biodiversity refers to the richness of life as manifested by their morphological, cultural and biochemical characteristics of microorganism and their interdependence in habitat. It is because of biodiversity that each ecosystem functions as the basic life support system of the planet earth. Biodiversity sustains the food and nutrition security of human beings and mediates the ecological process by resisting environmental perturbations in a given soil and climatic conditions.

Presently greater emphasis is being placed on the biodiversity of above ground biotic components belonging to plant and animal kingdom. The living organisms in soil and their diversity in relation to their contribution to sustainable agriculture often do not receive adequate attention. Without taking into considerations the magnitude and understanding of the global diversity will be fragmentary. However, management of below ground biodiversity is being focused presently by several national and international bodies.

Proper soil management without impairing soil health is the prerequisite for achieving higher productivity from agriculture land. The arable soils of tropics and subtopics are poor in organic matter due to high temperature and intense microbial activity. The importance of organic matter in improving soil fertility through maintenance of optimum levels of soil organic matter as well as plants nutrients is well recognized. There is need to encourage more ecofriendly and productive farming system.

A growing number of farmers, ecologists and scientists are coming to conclusion that conventional farming can not be sustained because in the end it does more harm than good and it is high time to think of sounder ways of farming which are healthy for the soil, environment, plants, animals and human beings.

The practices of economically sound, viable and culturally appropriate agriculture is termed as sustainable agriculture. The excessive and imbalanced use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides on soil and plant in not only harmful to soil microflora and fauna but also reduces the productivity potential of the land. The conventional intensive agriculture has depleted the soil organic matter content and plant nutrients besides the susceptibility of crops to pest and disease. Nitrates the ultimate product of N- fertilizers pollute the ground of water and food, has higher levels of non-protein nitrogen (NPN). Increasing levels of NPN in human bodies have been reported. Soil is a dynamic living system and if it is not manured to feed soil biota, soil health gets deteriorated which is essential for cycling of plants nutrients.

The terms such as organic, natural, biological, biodynamic, altemative and sustainable farming have entered the agriculture vocabulary. Inspite of these differences in terminology, basically identical ideologies, ideas and technologies are reflected. The common objectives of all the system are to develop farming methods to restore, maintain or build-up soil productivity, to protect the environment instead of causing pollution, produce safe and healthy food, and preserve or help the small farmer.

In Japan, the farmers study the nature, learn from it and apply the knowledge on their farms. For instances growing plots should also be mulched with straw or plant residues, this imitates the conditions in natural forest where ground is never bare. Instead of using pesticides, strong herbs or plants can be grown around vegetable plots to ward off the insects. To keep the soil health natural, organic fertilizers are used. Soil microorganisms and earthworms take care of the processes involved in decomposition and mineralization of the organic substances, fix atmospheric nitrogen, solubilise insoluble forms of phosphate and produce natural growth promoting substances and antibiotics,

The concept of sustainable agriculture is gaining acceptance and momentum because of rapid degradation of natural resources, increase in the cost of production in conventional agriculture system and deterioration in the quality of rural life caused by environmental pollution. Moreover it is risky and uneconomical to practise conventional agriculture in over 70 percent of the cultivated area in India which is presently under rainfed farming. Much of the know how to practice organic farming models has rested on the individual farmers till now. They however do not have the benefit of appropriate technology and scientific information and also institutional support to ensure success of the new farming system.

I. Rock Phosphate

Rock phosphate is natural source of phosphorus. It occurs as natural deposits of rock in Morocco, U.S.A., Egypt, Poland, Russia, Tunisia, Algeria, Brazil, Nauru and some Islands in the Pacific and the Indian ocean. It contains 20 to 35 percent phosphoric acid (P2 O5 ) but this phosphorus is in insoluble form. In India, some of rock phosphates occur in Udaipur and Jaisalmer districts (Rajasthan), Purulia (West Bengal), Singhbhum (Zharkhand) and Mussorie (Uttrakhand). Most of these phosphates are classified as low grade phosphate since its phosphoric acid content is less than 20-25%. The total reserve of low grade rock phosphate is estimated to be around 165 million tonnes of which nearly 70 million are reported to occur in Rajasthan. The other economically viable deposits are in Mussorie (Uttarakhand), Jhabua district (Madhya Pradesh), Singhbhum (Zharkhand) Kasipatnam (Andhra Pradesh) and Purulia district (West Bengal). Rock phosphate is the basic raw material for manufacture of superphosphate and other kind of phosphatic fertilizers. It is reported above that India has mostly low grade rock phosphate. Hence India has to spent huge amounts of foreign exchange to import high grade rock phosphate containing around 32-35%, P2 O5 for manufacture of phosphatic fertilizers.

There are about 3000 tanneries processing 6000 tonnes of hides and skin annually in India. Large amounts of solid and liquids are generated in tanneries containing N and heavy metals. The treatment of tannery waste waters generates sludge which contain a large variety of organic and mineral components. The amount of sludge from a single tannery may be obtained up to 10,000 tonnes/ Yr. Fresh Sludges undergo preliminary fermentation on liquid separating plots which are stored in piles where further decomposition takes place. As a result of decomposition process, partially biodegraded material resembling compost is obtained. It looks like deep black earthy material. The chemical composition indicates the possibility of using it in agriculture. The hides of infected animals many contain anthrax germs and be contaminated with heavy metals particularly chromium in the sludge which depends on the technology for hide tanning and the methods used in a sewage treatment plants. The sludge from tanneries using chromium in the treatment process are not suitable to be used as fertilizer as they contain high amount of chromium. Co-composting of these wastes with crop residues could provide good quality compost and the heavy metal content would get diluted and reduced per unit weight.

Solid wastes, which are left after the fermentation process is complete, may be potential sources for use as fertilizers and feed stuffs.

I. Antibiotic Fermentation Wastes

Antibiotics are produced by microoganisms and have capacity, in dilute solution, to inhibit the growth or even destroy the other microorganisms. They are produced on a large scale using fermentation process except chloroamphenicol which has been produced synthetically since 1948. Solid wastes remaining after the liquid containing the antibiotic has been extracted from the fermentation broth need to utilised. This is usually done by filtration. The solids are a heterogeneous mixture of hyphae of the producing organism, unused media, defoaming oils and metabolic products of the micro-organisms, the most important of which is residual antibiotic. The levels of residual antibiotic can vary a great deal.

India produces around 33 mt. of fruits and 50 mt. of vegetables annually (Chadha and Bhargava, 1997). It is estimated that 10 to 15 percent of total produce is available as organic waste for recycling in agriculture (Nand et al., 1996). In addition to processing of fruits and vegetables results in production of around 5 mt. of solid wastes (Table 66). Most of these wastes contain organic and plant nutrients (Table 66). There are still large amounts of wastes that are not being completely utilized. In most cases, these wastes are pro-duced from isolated sources and not by large centralized.companies. In practically all cases, horticultural and vegetable products are processed in relatively small canning plants and distributed for use generally in the same geographical area where the produce is grown, this is true world over since fruit and veg-etable wastes cannot be usually transported long distances in view of their bulk, high moisture and low to moderate feeding value relative to conventional feed.

1. Oil Cakes

Several varieties of oil seeds are produced in India. Oil seeds contain 40 to 50 percent oil and residues left after extraction are known as oil cakes. Oil seed cakes are generally referred as concentrated organic manure because of their high content of plant nutrient, nitrogen in particular as compared to conventional farmyard manure or compost. Oil cakes also invariably contain 2 to 15 percent oil depending on the method of extraction. Oil seeds are further demarcated into edible and non-edible oil seed cakes depending on their palatability to animals. Both type of oil seed cakes can be used as organic manures, but edible oil seed cakes are generally used as animal feed as warranted by socio-economic reasons (Bhardwaj, 1995). Non-edible cakes are generally used as organic manure to supply major plant nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.

Potential of Non-edible Cakes

The authentic estimates of quantity of non-edible cakes produced in the country are not available because the oil yielding trees are grown and scattered our vast tract of the country. Only a part of oil bearing seeds of these trees are being collected and processed. According to an estimate, annual production of non-edible oil seed cakes was of the order of 3.8 million tonnes annually which on average can provide 87, 25 and 57 thousand tonnes of N, P2 O5 and K2 O respectively (Singh and Gurumurti 1984).

I. Crop Wastes

Crop residues are the main sources for recycling of the organic and plant nutrients removed from the soil during the growth of crops. These residues have competitive uses such as fuel and cattle feed. There was an estimated demand of 583.6 million tonnes of dry fodder against the supply of aljout 398.8 million tonnes (Singh, 1997). Besides the use of crop residues as animal feed, industrial uses of crop residues also pose competitive demands. The potential of crop residues of some principal crops was worked out by Bhardwaj (1995). It was assumed that not more than one third of the total crop residues (273.63 million tonnes) was available for recycling as plant nutrients (Table 21). Out of a total 5.61 million tonnes (N+P2 O5 +K2 O) available in the form crop residues, only 2.47 million tonnes can be mobilized either through composting or in situ incorporation or mulching. Based on these estimations, Sekhon (1997) projected that approximately 4.82 and 5.79 million tonnes of N+P2 O5 +K2 O will be available from recycling of crop residues by the year 2011 and 2025 with utilizable value of 2.21 and 2.26 million tonnes respectively (Table 22).

Type and Potential of Organic Residues

A number of diverse sources of organic materials are available for recycling in agriculture. These are mostly of plant origin and recycled either directly or after having being used as feed or food by animals and humans. In view of high organic content and mineral nutrients in the biomass, these are considered as valuable inputs to improve the soil fertility and crops production. Organic resources are low cost inputs but are valuable based on its potential for nutrients and organic matter content.

Attractive Features of Organic Resources

• Organic matter is the basic resource of several essential plant nutrients.

• It buffers the effects of pH dependent changes on nutrient availability.

• They are generated close to their use.

• They are renewable as they are generated regularly.

• With increasing demand for increasing food production, the potential of organic resources is expected to rise.

• Farmers are familiar with organic resources from time immemorial.

I. Introduction

India has been deeply concerned about the food security on the one hand and health and welfare of its people on the other. Agriculture has been traditionally the backbone of Indian economic progress and development. The role of agriculture including animal husbandry, dairying and fisheries accounts for some 33 per cent of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP) and about 65 per cent of the work force depends directly or indirectly on agriculture for its livelihood and support. Along with the food grain, the production of vegetables and fruits has also been increased to meet the nutritional security of the people.

India is the second most populated nation with a geographical land area of about 329 million hectares (Table 1). The gross cropped area is 185.5 million hectares with a net sown area of about 142.5 million hectares. Currently area under assured irrigation is estimated to be 50.10 million hectares which is 35.15 percent of the cultivated area which has progressively risen to this level due to the expansion of major and medium irrigation projects including harnessing of ground water reserves excluding tanks (Shantaram, 1998). A substantial part of the net cultivated area which works out to be about 92.3 million hectares is rainfed depending on the vagaries of rains. The forest area (68.07 million hectares) only 22.3 per cent which is much less than the desired level because the national forest policy demands it at least 66 per cent in hills and 33 per cent in plains. However, it is not feasible to divert land for forest plantation due to obvious population pressure on agricultural land. However, the advantages of forest can be harnessed by growing trees on marginal lands alongwith crops through agroforestory practices for restoring ecological balance.

Q1. Fill in the blanks with appropriate answers.

1. India ranks …first…. position in cattle population in the world.

2. India ranks … first …. position in buffalo population in the world.

3. India ranks … first ……. position in total milk production in the world.

4. …Buffalo…….. species produce the highest amount of milk in India.

5. Frieswal cattle is a cross of …Holstein Friesian….and ……Sahiwal…

6. Mehsana buffalo is a cross of …Murrah….and ……Surti……

7. India ranks … first …. position in goat population in the world.

20th Livestock Census of India

India has highest cattle population (192.49 million), buffalo population (109.85), in the world producing 24% is the highest milk yield (221.1 million tons in the year 2021-2022, and per capita availability was 444 gm/day) in the world (Source NDDB). India produces 43% of world buffalo meat production. Unfortunately, 80% cattle and 70% buffaloes are non-descriptive and yield very low amount of milk.

After independence Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has developed serval projects and plans for research and characterization of livestock species all over the country. Our country holds enormous genetic biodiversity in our domestic animals, result in increasing number of registered breeds in every decade. Breed registration Committee on its online meeting held on 5th December, 2023 approved registration of eight new breeds of livestock. This includes Aravali Chicken (Gujarat) Andamani Duck (Andaman and Nicobar Islands), Anjori Goat (Chhattisgarh), Andamani Goat (Andaman and Nicobar Islands), Bhimthadi Horse (Maharashtra), Andamani Pig (Andaman and Nicobar Islands), Macherla Sheep (Andhra Pradesh), Frieswal Cattle (Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand). Endangered, critical and vulnerable breeds of livestock also have been identified by ICAR which need more scientific research and multiplication breed.

Using the FAO criteria, Bargur and Siri cattle breeds and Attapadi goat breeds were categorized under vulnerable status of risk; Krishna Valley, Mewati, Pullikulam and Punganur cattle breeds, Chilika and Toda buffalo breeds and Karnah and Poonchi sheep breeds under endangered status of under risk and Vechur cattle under critical status of risk. All these breeds need immediate steps for rescue by using suitable conservation methodology. Breed-wise census should be continued in future so that trends in breed populations may also be estimated for fine tuning of risk assessment of breeds.

Rate of inbreeding in Indian livestock breeds: The rate of inbreeding estimated for different breeds of cattle was well below 0.5% (needed for a breed ‘not at risk’) except for Mewati (1.193%), Pullikulam (0.72%) and Vechur (17.893%). The rate of inbreeding in buffalo breeds was also well below 0.5% except in Chilika buffalo, where it was 0.731%. The rate of inbreeding of these breeds may be reduced by increasing the number of breeding males and in Vechur also the breeding females. The rate of inbreeding in all the breeds of sheep (Indian or exotic), goat and pig were estimated to be less than 0.5%. In these species, a good balance of breeding males and females is always expected.

Some have described Mithun as domesticated Gaur others as a hybrid descent from the crossing of gaur bulls and common cows. Considered to have originated along the Assam and Myanmar border. • Mithun, also known as ‘Cattle of Mountain” is an important bovine species of north-eastern hill region of India and also of China, Myanmar, Bhutan and Bangladesh. This magnificent massive bovine is presently reared under free-range condition in the hill forests at an altitude of 1000 to 3000 m above mean sea level.

• Mithun plays an important role in the socio-economic and cultural life of the local tribal population.

• Presently, this animal is mainly reared for meat, which is considered to be more tender and superior over the meat of any other species.

• Mithun milk, though produced less in quantity, is of high quality and can be used for preparation of various milk products.

• Leather obtained from this species has been found to be superior to cattle.

The yak is a bovine species that provides livelihoods for people in high altitude conditions of extreme harshness and deprivation. Yaks live predominantly on the “roof of the world”, as the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau is often called, and provide milk, meat, hair and down fibre, hides, draught power and dung (principally used as fuel). The yak has physical and physiological characteristics that allow it to thrive at high altitudes (low oxygen) and in extreme cold (at temperatures as low as -40 °C) and to survive feed shortages in the winter (FAO).

The milk yield of the yak cow is often no more than the amount suckled by the calf and is not comparable to the milk yield of dairy cattle. However, although milk offtake for human consumption may be at the expense of the calf, yak milk is important for households. In economic terms, milk is often the most important yak product. Yak milk is generally produced by small-scale farmers in traditional systems where management is highly influenced by climate and seasons. Lactation is seasonal and yak cows produce between 150 and 500 litres; yields vary by breed and location. Lactation can generally continue into a second year without another calving. During the winter, yak cows do not go dry and continue to produce a small amount of milk, with milk yields as low as 2 to 4 litres/month. During the second year of lactation, milk yields are between half and two-thirds of those in the first year. Currently, there are no specialized dairy yak breeds (FAO).

The full name of an organism technically has eight terms. For the dog it is: Eukarya, Animalia, Chordata, Mammalia, Carnivora, Canidae, Canis, and lupus. Notice that each name is capitalized except for species, and the genus and species names are italicized. Scientists generally refer to an organism only by its genus and species, which is its two-word scientific name, or binomial nomenclature. Therefore, the scientific name of the dog is Canis lupus. The name at each level is also a taxonomy Carnivora is the name of the taxon at the order level; Canidae is the taxon at the family level, and so forth. Organisms also have a common name that people typically use, in this case, dog. Note that the dog is additionally a subspecies: the “familiaris” in Canis lupus familiaris. Subspecies are members of the same species that are capable of mating and reproducing viable offspring, but they are separate subspecies due to geographic or behavioural isolation or other factors. Dogs, which are under the species Canis lupus familiaris, are known to have a total of 78 chromosomes (2n). The diploid genes can be classified into 38 pairs with two sex chromosomes.

Donkeys can also be termed as ass (Equus africanus asinus) and is a domesticated member of the horse family, Equidae with chromosome number 62. The Wild ass of Africa, E. africanus is the wild ancestor of the donkey. For approximately 5000-7000 years, the donkey has been used as a working animal.

An adult male donkey is a jack or jackass, an adult female is a jenny or jennet, and an immature donkey of either sex is a foal. Jacks are often mated with female horses (mares) to produce mules, the less common hybrid of a male horse (stallion) and jenny is called hinny. NBAGR-ICAR has registered three breeds of donkey till date.

1. Kachchhi

• These donkeys are found in Kachchh district of Gujarat.

• Coat colour is mainly grey (dorsal surface grey and ventral surface white) followed by white, brown and black.

• Forehead is convex. Nasal bone is straight.

• Height at wither ranges from 77 to 115 cm.

• Docile in temperament.

• Only donkeys are used for agricultural purposes like inter cultivation for weed removing.

• Also utilized for transportation as donkey cart, as pack animal during pastoralist migration, etc.

In some developing countries, milk from horses (Equus caballus) and donkeys (Equus asinus) is an essential food for poor farmers. Generally, horses are more commonly used for dairy purposes in cool areas and donkeys in dry semi-arid regions. Milking equines is time-consuming and has to be repeated five or six times a day. In addition, an equine will not release milk unless it is stimulated by the presence of its foal. Mare’s milk is commonly consumed in the steppe areas of Central Asia, where a traditional lactic-alcoholic beverage called koumiss is produced through fermentation. Horse milk is also an important source of animal protein for pastoralists in Mongolia. The consumption of donkey milk has become very marginal. In some African communities, donkey milk is consumed for medical purposes.

Equus is a genus of mammals in the family Equidae, which includes horses, asses, and zebras. Within the Equidae, Equus is the only recognized existing genus, comprising seven living species. Like Equidae more broadly, Equus has numerous extinct species recognized only from fossils. Equines are odd-toed ungulates with slender legs, long heads, relatively long necks, manes (erect in most subspecies), and long tails. All species are herbivorous, and mostly grazers, with simpler digestive systems than ruminants but able to subsist on lower-quality vegetation. The chromosome number of a horse is 64 (2n).

Camels could be exploited for augmenting the country’s milk production capacity as a supplementary milk resource in India for the benefit of increasing human population. Since milk production potential of camels in India have remained unexploited and considering its therapeutic utility it can fetch good prices. Camels are raised for milk, meat, fibre (wool and hair), transport and other work; their dung is used as fuel. Milk is often the most important camel product and is the staple food of nomads.

The camel is an important species of the Indian fragile desert ecosystem, a proven icon of adaptation with its unique bio-physiological characteristics and has formidable ways of living in harsh situations of arid and semi-arid regions. The proverbial Ship of Desert earned its epithet on account of its indispensability as a mode of transportation and draught ability in desert. However, its utilities are subject to continuous social and economic changes. The camel has also played a significant role in civil law and order, defence and battles from the ancient times till date. Camels formed an important component of the Mauryan Army (C.322-232 BC) and continued through the Mughal period (1200-1700 AD) to the present times.

Pork production in India is limited, representing only 9% of the country’s animal protein sources. Production is concentrated mainly in the northeastern states of the country and consists primarily of backyard and informal sector producers. The contribution of pork products in terms of value works out to 0.80% of total livestock products and 4.32% of the meat and meat products. The contribution of pigs to Indian exports is very poor.

The chromosomes of the domestic pig (Sus scrofa domesticus) are known to be prone to reciprocal chromosome translocations and other balanced chromosome rearrangements with concomitant fertility impairment of carriers. The domestic pig has diploid chromosome (2n) number 38. The domestic pig karyotype shows a tendency for balanced structural chromosomal rearrangements, such as reciprocal, Robertsonian, and tandem translocations, as well as inversions. There is extensive polymorphism in the heterochromatin, with G-C-rich heterochromatin located in centromere regions of biarmed chromosomes and less G-C-rich heterochromatin in the centromere regions of one-armed chromosomes.

The diploid chromosome number of the pig is 2n = 38, consisting of 18 autosomal chromosome pairs, which vary in length and morphology (12-bi-armed and 6 one-armed pairs), and two sex chromosomes, XX or XY. Robertsonian translocation is known to occur in the acrocentric chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18. In these cases, the chromosomes fuse at the centromeric region, resulting in the production of two derivative chromosomes, a large bi-armed chromosome, and a secondary short chromosome often lost in subsequent cell divisions. Thus, the karyotype of a domestic pig carrying Robertsonian translocation has a distinct 2n = 37 diploid chromosome number, with the noticeable addition of a novel large bi-armed chromosome.

Origin of Fowl

Domestication of poultry seems to have been undertaken in south-east Asia. The chickens were brought to India by 1000 BC, and later on they spread north, westwards and reached Greece by 525 BC. By the beginning of Christian era, the birds were already popular in West Asia and East Europe, and then gradually reached South Africa, Australia, Japan, USSR and USA.

Red Jungle fowls are the ancestors of the present-day poultry breeds. There are four known species of wild fowl and they belong to the same genus “Gallus” meaning a cock. The four species are as follows:

The Red Jungle fowl is supposed to be the main contributor for the development of modern-day poultry and is widely distributed throughout Burma, China, India, Philippines, Sumatra and Thailand. The plumage (colour of the feather) of females resembles that of Brown Leghorn, the males have orange red feathers in hackle, wing bow and saddle regions, while the breast is black. Eggs are buff (off-white) in colour. The legs are slate (dark bluish grey) coloured. The comb is all red.

In India, goats are known as “poor man's cow” because they are an important source of income for poor and landless people. They can be reared on cheaper resources easily than other livestock.

Goats come under the genus Capra have evolved from five wild species, including Capra hircus (which includes Bezoar), Capra ibex, Capra caucasica, Capra pyrenaica, and Capra falconeri. This evolutionary pattern contributes to their phenotypic diversity and adaptability to various environments. The chromosome profile of goats (specifically the Capra hircus species) reveals some interesting features which are as follows:

Chromosome Number
The modal chromosome number for goats is 60.
These chromosomes can be categorized into different types based on their centromere position:
Autosomes: These are either acrocentric or telocentric.
X Chromosome: It is acrocentric.
Y Chromosome: It is submetacentric.

Identification

Quinacrine-mustard staining and fluorescence microscopy allow us to identify 28 out of 30 chromosome pairs in goats.

According to the karyotyping the domestic sheep (Ovis aries) has 54 chromosomes. The following is a brief summary of their chromosome composition:

Autosomes: There are one pair of sex chromosomes, 52 autosomes and three pairs of these autosomes are submetacentric (having a centromere slightly off centre), while the rest are acrocentric (with the centromere near one end).

Sex Chromosomes: The X chromosome is acrocentric and the Y chromosome varies from submetacentric to metacentric.

Important features

• According to the Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical (FAOSTAT) Database (2019) and database of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, the top three countries by the number of heads of sheep were: China (163.48 million heads), India (74.26 million) and Australia (65.75 million). • India has second largest sheep population in the World.

• Sheep milk is an important product in the Near East and North Africa (9% of total milk production) and sub-Saharan Africa (4%).

• The countries with the most dairy sheep are China, Sudan, Turkey and Algeria (FAO).

• Major sheep milk producers are China, Turkey and Greece.

• More than half of the world’s sheep population is found in developing countries. Sheep are more prevalent than goats in cold climatic conditions. The major produce from Sheep production are milk, meat, skin, fibre and manure. However, most of the small-scale producers in developing countries raise sheep for meat or sale.

The buffalo belonged to the Bovidae family, Bovinae subfamily and the scientific name is Bubalus bubalis. This is descended from the Bubalus arnee or wild Indian buffalo, and is widely dispersed throughout Southern Asia. The world population of buffaloes is approximately 204 million head: more than 98% are in Asia; 0.8%are in Africa, particularly in Egypt; 0.9% are in South America; and 0.2% are in Europe (FAO, 2024).

The countries with the largest numbers of dairy buffaloes are India, Pakistan, China, Nepal and Egypt. In Pakistan and Nepal there are more dairy buffaloes than dairy cows. Water buffaloes are the main source of milk in South Asia. India is the largest water buffalo milk producer compared to Pakistan, where buffaloes produce more milk than cattle.

 Scientific classification
 Genus: Bubalus 
 Species: bubalis
 Wild water buffalo: Bubalus arnee
 Domestic water buffalo: Bubalus bubalis
 Lowland anoa: Bubalus depressicornis
 Mountain anoa: Bubalus quarlesi
 Tamaraw: Bubalus mindorensis
 Cebu tamaraw: Bubalus cebuensis

Important features

• Cattle produce 81% of world milk production, followed by buffaloes with 15 percent, goats with 2 percent and sheep with 1 percent; camels provide 0.5 percent. The remaining share is produced by other dairy species such as equines and yaks.

• About one-third of milk production in developing countries comes from buffaloes, goats, camels and sheep. In developed countries, almost all milk is produced by cattle.

• Milk from dairy species other than cattle represents 40 percent of milk production in Asia, 23 percent in Africa, 3 percent in Europe and 0.5 percent in the Americas; it is almost non-existent in Oceania (FAO)

Taxonomy of Cattle

Cattle belong to the kingdom Animalia, phylum Chordata, class Mammalia, order Artiodactyla, family Bovidae, genus Bos, and species taurus or indicus. Cattle were originally identified by Carolus Linnaeus as three separate species: Bos taurus, Bos indicus, and Bos primigenius. Bovines, which include cattle, bison, African buffalo, water buffalos, and certain antelopes, belong to the subfamily Bovinae.

17.1. Introduction

Grounded Theory (GT) is a systematic methodology in the social sciences that involves the construction of theories through methodical gathering and analysis of data. Developed by Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss in 1967, GT is widely used in qualitative research to generate theories that are grounded in empirical data. Unlike traditional research methods that test hypotheses, GT allows theories are to emerge from the data itself, making it a valuable tool for exploring complex social phenomena.

This chapter provides an in-depth exploration of Grounded Theory, including its origins, key principles, methodologies, applications, and criticisms. By the end of this article, readers will have a thorough understanding of GT and its significance in qualitative research.

16.1. Introduction

Game theory is a mathematical framework designed for understanding and analyzing strategic interactions among rational decision-makers. It has applications in various fields such as economics, political science, psychology, biology, and computer science. The foundational premise of game theory is that the outcome of a decision made by one agent depends on the decisions made by others. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of game theory, covering its fundamental concepts, types of games, solution concepts, and applications.

16.2. Fundamental Concepts

16.2.1. Players

In game theory, a player is any individual or entity that makes decisions within the context of the game. Players are assumed to be rational, meaning they aim to maximize their own utility or payoff based on their preferences and the information available to them.

15.1. Introduction

Meta-analysis is a statistical technique used to combine the results of multiple studies to produce a single, more precise estimate of the effect size of a particular intervention or association. It is a powerful tool in research, particularly in f ields such as medicine, psychology, education, and social sciences, where it is often necessary to synthesize evidence from numerous studies to draw meaningful conclusions. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of meta-analysis, including its history, methodology, advantages, limitations, and applications.

15.2. Historical Background

The concept of meta-analysis dates back to the early 20th century, but it was not until the 1970s that the term was coined by Gene V. Glass. Glass defined meta-analysis as “the statistical analysis of a large collection of analysis results from individual studies for the purpose of integrating the findings” (Glass, 1976). Since then, meta-analysis has evolved significantly, with advancements in statistical methods and software making it more accessible and robust.

15.3. The Need for Meta-Analysis

15.3.1. Accumulation of Evidence

In many fields, particularly in medicine and psychology, a large number of studies are conducted on the same or similar research questions. However, individual studies may have small sample sizes, leading to low statistical power and inconclusive results. Meta-analysis allows researchers to pool data from multiple studies, increasing the overall sample size and statistical power, thereby providing a more reliable estimate of the effect size.

Project managers need to make sense on the many data that they have. Analytical tools are used in project management to achieve such need. Such tools are used to create a forecast of potential outcomes based on the variations present in the environmental and project variables. There are different types of analytical tools used and one of the most common tools is regression analysis.

14.1. Multiple Regression

Concept: Multiple regression is the most commonly utilized multivariate technique. It examines the relationship between a single metric dependent variable and two or more metric independent variables. Multiple regressions are often used as a forecasting tool. Goal is to use the linear composite of two or more continuous and/or categorical variables (predictors) to: 1) predict scores on a single continuous variable (criterion), or to 2) explain the nature of the single continuous criterion variable from what is known about the predictor variables. In prediction, the criterion is the main emphasis because decisions are made on its value, but often times, it is difficult to directly measure or obtain a subject’s actual score on the criterion; therefore, it is important to estimate or predict one’s criterion score based on the value of the predictor scores.

13.1. Introduction

The Delphi technique is a systematic, interactive forecasting method that involves gathering expert opinions to make informed decisions, predict future trends, or address complex problems. The core idea behind this technique is to use the knowledge and insights of experts in a structured manner to produce well-informed and reliable outcomes. By combining expert judgment with iterative feedback, the Delphi method allows for deeper analysis, greater accuracy, and a better understanding of complex issues that cannot be easily solved through traditional data analysis or quantitative methods (Ismail and Taliep, 2023).

Originally designed for defence-related forecasting, the Delphi technique has since evolved into a versatile tool used across a wide range of fields, such as business, healthcare, education, public policy, environmental science, and social research. Its versatility stems from its ability to gather expert opinions in a manner that allows for rigorous analysis of complex issues, without the constraints of traditional group meetings or face-to-face discussions.

12.1. Introduction

Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) are computational models inspired by the way biological neural networks in the human brain process information. They consist of interconnected nodes or “neurons” arranged in layers: an input layer, one or more hidden layers, and an output layer. Each neuron in the network processes data and passes the results to the next layer. ANNs are designed to recognize patterns, learn from data, and make predictions or classifications based on that learning.

In an ANN, the connections between neurons are weighted, meaning each connection has a strength or value that determines the influence of one neuron on another. Through a process called training, the network adjusts these weights to minimize errors in its predictions. This is typically done using techniques like backpropagation, where the error is propagated backward through the network to update the weights (Abiodunet al., 2018).

ANNs are highly versatile and have been applied across various domains, including image and speech recognition, natural language processing, and decision-making systems. Their ability to model complex relationships in large datasets makes them a crucial component in the field of machine learning and artificial intelligence (Ahmed et al., 2023).

11.1. Introduction

Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping (FCM) is a powerful soft computing technique that integrates elements of fuzzy logic and cognitive mapping to model complex systems. It allows for the representation of causal relationships between variables in an interpretable and flexible manner, making it particularly valuable for analyzing and simulating real-world dynamic systems. FCM has its roots in cognitive science, systems thinking, and artificial intelligence, enabling researchers and practitioners to model uncertainties and interdependencies effectively (Tyrovolas et al., 2023). The approach is particularly advantageous when dealing with complex, ill-structured problems where traditional mathematical modeling techniques fall short. By capturing expert knowledge and combining it with computational techniques, FCM helps in making informed predictions and policy decisions.

It is widely applied across multiple domains, including environmental management for sustainability assessments (Özesmi and Özesmi, 2004), decision support systems in business and governance, healthcare for medical diagnostics and treatment planning (Apostolopoulos et al., 2024), and socio economic planning for policy analysis and forecasting (Gray et al., 2015). Furthermore, its adaptability has led to its increasing integration with artificial intelligence, machine learning, and big data analytics, making it a promising approach for tackling contemporary challenges.

10.1. Introduction

Decision-making is a fundamental aspect of human life, influencing choices in both personal and professional settings. Every individual, whether consciously or unconsciously, engages in decision-making daily, ranging from simple tasks like selecting a meal to complex strategic planning in organizations. However, decision-making becomes increasingly challenging when multiple conflicting criteria are involved. The presence of numerous factors, each with varying degrees of importance, often creates ambiguity and uncertainty, making it difficult to arrive at the most suitable option. To address these challenges, structured decision-making methodologies have been developed to provide a systematic and logical framework for evaluating alternatives.

One such widely recognized method is the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP), introduced by Thomas L. Saaty in the 1970s. AHP was designed to assist decision-makers in breaking down complex problems into a structured and systematic hierarchy. This approach allows for a step-by-step evaluation of different factors, making it easier to analyze their relative importance. By structuring a problem into different levels - such as goal, criteria, sub-criteria, and alternatives - AHP provides clarity in decision-making and enhances consistency in judgments. The method is particularly beneficial when dealing with decisions that involve both tangible and intangible factors, as it allows subjective preferences to be quantified systematically (Saaty, 2008).

9.1. Introduction

The human population of the world will reach nearly 10 billion by 2050, boosting agricultural order-in a situation of humble financial development (FAO, 2017). At present, approximately 37.7% of total land surface is being utilized for crop production. From employment generation to contribution to National Income, agriculture sector is contributing a significant role in economic prosperity of the developed nations and is playing an active part in the economy of the developing countries as well. The growth of agriculture has resulted in a significant increase in the per-capita income of the rural community. Thus, a greater emphasis on agricultural sector is the need of the hour. For countries, like India, the agricultural sector accounts for 18% of GDP and provides employment to 50% of the country’s workforce. Development in the agricultural sector will enrich the rural development which will lead toward rural transformation and ultimately the desired structural transformation (Mogili and Deepak, 2018; Shah et al., 2019). The role of Artificial Intelligence (AI) has been obvious in the agricultural sector recently. The sector needs the impetus from AI based technology to maximize its yield including improper soil treatment, disease and pest infestation, big data requirements, low output, and knowledge gap between farmers and technology.

8.1. Introduction

Sometimes writing reference list could be so confusing since there are a lot of different rules. Each universities or even each faculty use different rule in writing reference list. The different rule of writing reference list is normal because they refer to different style guide. There are a lot of styles guide available. MLA (Modern Language Association of America) style; the Chicago Manual of Style; the Oxford Guide to Style are some examples of style guide. Difference reference of style guides chosen will result in totally different way of writing reference list. The most widely accepted style guides in social science is the APA (American Psychological Association) style. In some higher education journals (e.g. Journal of Studies in International Education, Higher Education) it is stated clearly that author must submit their paper according to APA style. Referencing in a general sense means to give credit to someone for using his or her own ideas or thoughts in a research activity. Referencing helps in gaining the originality of the ideas and thoughts used in the research activity. Failure to reference is treated as disrespect to the original author or writer and seen as a major misconduct in the area of academic research writing. Generally students made the mistake of not mentioning proper referencing at the end of their research projects, essays or any other piece of work. This may lead to cancellation of the written matter. If we do not reference properly the written matter is treated as if it is copied from somewhere. The research paper or material cannot be submitted for further research or reading purpose. We find a lot of data when we search for something.

7.1. People’s Participation in Observation, Analysis and Planning for Rural Development

Why should people participate?

There is no controversy as to whether there should be people’s participation in the development programmes in the development programmes designed to meet the basic needs of the people. The post-mortem of any unsuccessful programmes has shown that they have invariably failed when they failed to provide an adequate place and importance to people’s participation in the planning and analysis.

There is a body of philosophy and a set of assumptions behind people’s participation in rural development. These are;

i) It should be people’s programme with government’s participation;

ii) Community needs to build up their own capacity, agents have got a catalytic role;

iii) Self- imposed changes have got permanence as compared to those imposed from outsides

iv) Holistic approaches are far better than the fragmented approaches;

v) People need certain help to solve unique problems;

Statistics as a wide subject is used in almost all disciplines especially in research studies. Statistics provides scientific tools for representative data collection, appropriate data analysis and summarization of data and inferential procedure for drawing valid conclusion in the face of uncertainty. Each and every researcher should have some knowledge in Statistics and must use statistical tools in his or her research, one should know about the importance of statistical tools and how to use them in their research or survey. The quality assurance of the work must be dealt with: the statistical operations necessary to control and verify the analytical procedures as well as the resulting data making mistakes in analytical work is unavoidable. The emergence of statistical software in the twenty-first century has helped different researchers in the physical and social science to improve in the quality of research. Most renowned researchers in adopting this software in their data analysis have been able to identify the immense contribution to research findings (Adetola, 2013). Any quantitative research cannot be done effectively without Statistical Software. Moreover, it enables research data for easy presentation. It helps professionals to interact with data thereby paving way for creativity and innovation. Some are user friendly interface with drop-down tips for beginners (ATS, Ucla Edu, 2014). Advances in technology have improved all our lives (Akindutire, 2013) and has allowed experts greater freedom to come out with results within a twinkle of an eye than ever before where it takes time to finish analysis. This same technology has offer tremendous opportunity to research and keep research as a more interesting field of study. This study is significant, because it is an attempt to measure the direct impact of different statistical software on research analysis.

A linear programming problem aims to maximize or minimize a linear function subject to the linear constraints. But in many cases, the objective function may not be linear or all/some of the constraints may not be linear or both the objective and the constraints may not be linear. Such an optimization problem is called a nonlinear programming problem (NLPP). In this chapter, we discuss about NLPP’s. Nonlinear programming is the process of solving an optimization problemdefined by a system of equalities and inequalities, collectively termed constraints, over a set of unknown real variables, along with an objective function to be maximized or minimized, where some of the constraints or the objective function are nonlinear. It is the sub-field of mathematical optimization that deals with problems that are not linear. A typical non-convex problem is that of optimizing transportation costs by selection from a set of transportation methods, one or more of which exhibit economies of scale, with various connectivity and capacity constraints. An example would be petroleum product transport given a selection or combination of pipeline, rail tanker, road tanker, river barge. Owing to economic batch size the cost functions may have discontinuities in addition to smooth changes. In experimental science, some simple data analysis (such as fitting a spectrum with a sum of peaks of known location and shape but unknown magnitude) can be done with linear methods, but in general these problems, also, are nonlinear.

Multivariate analysis is essentially the statistical process of simultaneously analyzing multiple independent variables with multiple dependent (outcome or criterion) variables using matrix algebra. During the last two or three decades, multivariate statistical analysis has become increasingly popular. The theory has made great progress, and with the rapid advances in computer technology, routine applications of multivariate statistical methods are implemented in several statistical software packages. The traditional approach to the teaching of multivariate statistical analysis, as exemplified by Anderson (1958), relies heavily on advanced matrix mathematics. On the other hand, Hury and Riedwyl (1988) suggest that it is possible to understand most of the basic ideas underlying multivariate statistical analysis without a mastery of such mathematics, provided that these are conveyed with the help of real data sets. In this chapter we propose a non-mathematical data-driven approach for teaching multivariate statistical methods to students. Despite this, we are mindful of the need for students to know some basic linear algebra and univariate statistical concepts. Such basic knowledge provides students with the foundation necessary for the application of the appropriate multivariate statistical procedures and for the interpretation of results.

In statistics, sampling is concerned with the selection of a subset of individuals from within a statistical population to estimate characteristics of the whole population. Two advantages of sampling are that the cost is lower and data collection is faster than measuring the entire population. Each observation measures one or more properties (such as weight, location, colour) of observable bodies distinguished as independent objects or individuals. In survey sampling, weights can be applied to the data to adjust for the sample design, particularly stratified sampling. Results from probability theory and statistical theory are employed to guide the practice. In business and medical research, sampling is widely used for gathering information about a population. Acceptance sampling is used to determine if a production lot of material meets the governing specifications.

The sampling process comprises several stages

• Defining the population of concern

• Specifying a sampling frame, a set of items or events possible to measure

• Specifying a sampling method for selecting items or events from the frame

• Determining the sample size

• Implementing the sampling plan

• Sampling and data collecting

Statistics is a branch of science which deals with the collection, classification, description and interpretation of data obtained by conducting surveys and experiments. The essential purpose of it is to describe and draw valid inferences about numerical properties of populations” (Ferguson 1966). The experience in statistics application indicates that a single statistical method can be used in different research areas for dealing with different types of problems. Various possibilities which application of a statistical method provides in certain research areas should be considered as an adequate way of dealing with a problem of the research. However, it should be noted that statistics is not a method by which it is possible to solve all the problems in a research. Nachmias and Nachmias (2009) stated that there are basically two types of statistics which include descriptive and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics enable the researcher to summarize and organize data in an effective and meaningful way. It involves the use of tables, charts, graphs, mean, modes, median, standard scores and correlation to treat collected data. Inferential statistics is concerned with making inferences from a unit of a population. Inferential statistics is concerned with making inferences from a unit of a population. Inferential statistics allow the researcher to make decisions or inferences by interpreting data patterns. Researchers use inferential statistics to determine whether an expected pattern designated by the theory and hypotheses is actually found in the observations. To decide whether this hypothesis is true, researchers might survey the respondents and then use descriptive statistics to make comparison between these groups and would employ inferential statistics to determine whether the differences between the groups are significant or not.