eChapters

Introduction

To keep pace with the ever-increasing demand for crop yield by the exploding population, use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in agricultural production has become indispensable.  Production cost of agriculture has skyrocketed owing to the abandoning of green, organic farmyard manure and use of chemicals. However, the problems associated with chemical pesticides are abundant. The excessive application of chemical fertilizers causes soil sealing, fertility diminishing and residual problems. The leftover chemical fertilizers and pesticides have seriously affected the quality of agricultural products, people’s health and caused environmental pollution.  The over use of fertilizers has also damaged the soil’s original micro-ecological balance and deteriorated the diseases spread by soil.  While some pesticides must be abandoned because of their unacceptable non-target effect, there will always be a need in agriculture for safe and selective chemicals to limit the effects of pests.  More significantly, it is becoming increasingly more difficult and expensive to find new kinds of synthetic chemical pesticides.  Implications of chemical pesticides in ecological, environmental and human health problems have increased public awareness and concern regarding the continued use of agrichemicals that are damaging to human or  environmental health thereby obviating the search for effective alternative approaches which have minimal deleterious effects, more environmentally friendly, and will contribute to the goal of sustainability in agriculture.  In this line Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) present immense potential and promise as effective substitutes for chemicals.  PGPR enhance plant growth and survival, control soil-borne fungi, and induces systemic resistance to phytopathogens and is used as inoculants for biofertilization, phytostimulation and biocontrol.

Introduction

India has a big challenge in fruit production in the current backdrop of decreasing per capita land holding and static fruit productivity. In recent years, China has surpassed and secured top position in the fruit production in the world accounting for 4,44,651 mt production followed by India and Brazil.  Now Chinese share in the fruit production is around 13 per cent while India contributes 10.2 per cent, Brazil 8 per cent and USA 6 per cent of total fruit production.

India is bestowed with a wide variety of agro-climatic conditions and enjoys an enviable position in the horticultural map of the world. Almost all types of fruit crops (tropical, sub-tropical and temperate) are grown in one or other part in the country.  The major tropical and sub-tropical fruits grown in India include mango, banana, papaya, orange, mosambi, guava, grape, pineapple, coconut, sapota, ber, pomegranate, litchi, aonla, bael, jackfruit etc.  Cashew nut cultivation has a big potential and its production, productivity and export has increased significantly in recent decades. Indian grape has recorded highest productivity per unit area in the world. The productivity of fruit per unit area in India has increased nearly from 10 t/ha to 12 t/ha in almost one decade.  However, the average productivity in most of the fruit crops is far below than satisfactory except grape and banana in few states.  It is paradox to record that India’s contribution in the overseas market is almost (0.11 per cent) negligible (Chadha, 2000). However, other countries like Mexico, Philippines and Venezuela, which produce far less, export 4 per cent of their total production.

Introduction

Phenolic compounds have been shown to be of importance in regulation of plant growth, development and metabolism, therefore now they are not considered as passive by products of any catabolic or anabolic processes. Salicylic acid is one of them and it is a naturally occurring phenolic which has received much attention due to its association with economically important plant responses to disease and other stresses (Raskin, 1992; Borsani et al., 2001; Clarke et al., 2004). Centuries before medical scientists had identified numerous therapeutic effects of salicylates. Leaves and barks of willow tree were used by women as a pain reliever during child birth in 4th century B.C. It also cured aches and fevers. Due to a number of curative properties of willow bark, in 1828 Jahann Buchner, a scientist from Munich had isolated a small amount of silicin - a salicylic alcohol glucoside, the major salicylate in willow bark. In 1838, Rafaela Piria had given the name salicylic acid (SA), from the Latin salix, a willow tree. Further during 19th century SA and other salicylates, mainly methyl esters and glucosides easily convert to SA, isolated from a number of plants. Salicylic acid has an aromatic ring which bears a hydroxyl group or its functional derivative (Fig. 1).

Introduction

The introduction of high yielding varieties and hybrids in late sixties led to accumulation of insect pest problems in cereals. The varieties and hybrids developed during green revolution era with the sole objective to enhance production to feed increasing population were better in quality parameters than traditional locals but were highly susceptible to insect pests. Over 200 pests attack different cereals and insects that were not known or were of minor importance have now become major pests and several new insect pests have appeared on cereals. Out breaks are frequent due to several obvious reasons. Major pests are serious, perennially occurring and persistent species which cause considerable loss in yields every year in large areas require control measures. Occasional pests attack the crops sporadically but cause potential damage and sufficient loss, though in some localities or only in some seasons, so as to warrant human intervention.

INTRODUCTION

Potato is a crop of major significance in human nutrition, ranking fourth in world production, after wheat, maize and rice. Potatoes are grown on over 44 million acres in more than 125 countries, with annual production of about 250 million tons. Potatoes are grown across India, with production concentrated in several areas of the North Indian plains and West Bengal. Indian potato production is significant and accounts for 8.5 per cent of the world total (Dahiya et al., 1999).

The potato has hundreds of recognized pests including many insects, mites, nematodes and rodents. Some of these were transported to new locations alongwith seed tubers. Others were already present in locations where the potato was introduced and then proliferated on this new host plant. Because a potato crop is vegetatively propagated from tubers, which easily carry some pathogens and pests, many pest problems have followed potatoes to areas wherever they are grown. The potato tuber moth was introduced accidentally into India from Italy in 1906, probably through seed potatoes (Lefroy, 1907), and by the middle of century had become well established throughout India (Kumar and Nirula, 1967). Of all the major food crops, potato is heaviest user of chemical pesticides, which often total up to 20 per cent of its cost of production (Anonymous, 1991).

Introduction

Leafhoppers belong to the family Cicadellidae and constitute one of the largest families in the exopterygotan Hexapoda. Recent estimates of species for the world range between 35,000-45,000 species though little over 22,600 species are now described (Dietrich, 2004a). The leafhoppers belong to the order Hemiptera and suborder Auchenorrhyncha.
 
Leafhoppers can readily be recognized from other members of the Auchenorrhyncha by the presence of two or more rows of spines on hind tibiae and by the pronotum not extending back over abdomen. Their close relative, the Membracidae, have pronotum extending back over the abdomen. From planthoppers (Delphacidae) with which they are often confused, they can be recognized by the position and structure of antennae. The leafhopper antennae are placed between eyes compared to beneath the eyes in planthoppers; the second segment of the antenna (pedicel) is small without externally visible sensillae in leafhoppers compared to enlarged pedicel with prominent sensillae in the planthoppers. The movable large spur at the apex of hind tibia in plant hoppers is absent in the leafhoppers.

The term transgenic animal refers to an animal in which there has been a deliberate modification of the genome - the material responsible for inherited characteristics - in contrast to spontaneous mutation (FELASA September 1992, revised February 1995). Foreign DNA is introduced into the animal, using recombinant DNA technology, and then must be transmitted through the germ line so that every cell, including germ cells, of the animal contain the same modified genetic material.  By simple means a transgenic animal is an animal in which foreign DNA has been incorporated into its original DNA. Transgenic animals are altered so that their DNA produces chemicals that normally they would not produce.

Preamble

The recent advances in embryo transfer protocols have placed these techniques as widely adopted means of developing experimental models to understand complex biological processes such as feto-maternal dialogue, fetal programming and maternal effects on early development. This has noticeably widened the scope of embryo transfer programs which are now not only limited to transferring the genetically superior embryos from donors to recipients for faster genetic improvement, or as only the therapeutic tools in human medicine, but has embarked these techniques as basic research tools in biological research. It is however critical to achieve effective synchronization between donors and recipients along with optimal superovulation in donors to get more number of transferable embryos and subsequently greater conception rates of recipients. For transfer, the embryos are collected Day 6 or 7 post insemination of donors. An overall discussion of sequential steps to achieve successful embryo transfer along with recent advances in the subject area and its possible future scope is discussed in this chapter.

The quality of medicinal plants is paramount in respect of its therapeutic value. The therapeutic value of a plant solely depends on its genuineness in respect of its identity and optimum quantity of therapeutically active phyto-constituents. The medicinal plants are resourced from wild and cultivated sources. The major sources of medicinal plants are wild sources viz. forest areas, open land, non-cultivated sources etc. The medicinal plants collected from wild sources remain questionable for their quality especially when they have been procured from trade channels owing to fair chances of adulteration, substitution and inappropriate storage condition which lead to deterioration in quality. All the medicinal plants which are available in dried form in the trade are termed as crude drugs and are always subject to quality check in a laboratory on the basis of pharmacognostical, physico-chemical, phyto-chemical, microbiological and other analytical specifications. These specifications are available in pharmacopoeial monographs under regulatory frame work.  The pharmacopoeial standards are experimentally established and are also approved standards incorporated in a pharmacopoeia. A pharmacopoeia is a book of standards applicable to drug substance and their dosage forms of common usage in a country. Pharmacopoeia is prepared by recognized authority appointed by the Government of a particular country. It is an essential requirement of a regulatory framework in the sphere of Drugs and Cosmetics Act 1940 and Rules there under (Anonymous 1940). Pharmacopoeial standards are experimentally established and approved standards.

Calorimetry

The process of measuring  the amount of heat generated by the combustion of a substance is known as calorimetry. The first successful calorimeter using oxygen under pressure for the combustion of substance in a closed vessel was devised by Berthelot in 1881. Subsequent development by Mahler in 1992, Atwater in 1899, and Parr in 1912, served to improve and to reduce the cost of the original Berthelot apparatus by variations in mechanical details.

Embryologically, the circulatory system is the first organ system to develop in the living animals. The form and function of this system vary considerably among the animals and are shaped by a variety of environmental factors i.e. phenotypic plasticity. Oxygen (O₂) acquisition and carbon dioxide (CO2) elimination occur simultaneously at the gill site of fish and shrimp. The gases are transported around the body by the circulation of the blood.

3.1. Circulatory System of Fishes

In fishes, heart is simply a muscular enlargement and modification of a part of the main blood vessels, lying between the hepatic capillaries and the gills. Fishes have a closed circulatory system with a heart that pumps blood in a single loop throughout the body. From the heart, blood goes to the gill capillary bed. Then via the systemic capillaries it returns back to the heart. Usually the gills account for approximately 30% of the total resistance to blood flow, the rest being in the visceral and somatic vasculature. Tuna requires more O₂ and the gill area is large with gill resistance up to 57%.

Various activities of the body in different external environmental conditions are co-ordinated by the appropriate message from the neurons due to the stimuli from the environment. These messages pass in the form of impulses through the co-ordinated links between a number of neurons or nerve cells. The constant passage of messages require a very little energy but high level of O₂ .There is interaction between the nervous and endocrine system with the areas of interchange among the two systems. Some neurons show the action of both the systems and thus termed as neurosecretory or neuro-endocrine. Fishes have a well-developed nervous system. Broadly the nervous system can be divided into central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).The brain and spinal cord are the parts of the CNS. The motor and sensory nerves link the receptor and effector organs. All nerve tissues other than brain and spinal cord are grouped under PNS. Peripheral nervous system consists of nerves, ganglia and receptors. The nerves carry sensory information from special receptor organs like eyes, internal ear etc. to the integrating centers of the brain and spinal cord. The PNS also carries information via different nerve cells from the integrating centers of the brain and spinal cord. This coded information is carried to the various organs and body systems, such as the skeletal muscle system for appropriate action in response to the original external and internal stimulus. The PNS can be divided into somatic and visceral. The term visceral is sometimes used in referring to the autonomic or involuntary nervous system (ANS), controlling visceral functions. The ANS helps to co-ordinate the activities of many glands and organs, and it is closely connected to the integrating centers of the brain.

The respiration of animals includes the exchange of gases either at the surface of the body or through the internal processes involving circulatory system. The gases that are exchanged are oxygen (O₂), carbon dioxide (CO₂) and the inert gas like nitrogen. When the organism respires, the O₂ that is taken up from the external environment is transported by the vascular system to individual cells within the tissues. At the same time this system picks up CO₂, an end product of cellular metabolism, and releases it to the environment. Thus respiration is a term applicable either to a whole organism or one of its cells. The mechanical process, by which respiration is achieved, is called ventilation.  This ventilation rate of aquatic organisms is controlled directly by the concentration of dissolve oxygen (DO₂) in water.

Respiration in aquatic medium is produced by a water current passing in a single direction. The area of respiratory surface is thus an important limiting factor in the movement and growth of the animal. For aquatic animals, if the water is at all deficient in O₂, the rate of breathing is naturally accelerated, and the animal appears to respire hurriedly. Other factors, which lead to an increased rate of respiration, are the stresses.

Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa L.), one of the most important cereal crops of India, occupies 23.3 per cent of total cropped area of the country. Rice contributes 43 per cent of total food grain production and 46 per cent of total cereal production. It continues to play a vital role in the nation’s food grain supply. It is also a staple food of nearly half of the world population. Rice is primarily a high caloric food having protein content (6-17%) with high biological value and a low amount of fat (2-2.5%). B-group vitamins content in rice grains are at par with wheat, however, calcium content in rice is generally low. It ranks third after wheat and maize in terms of worldwide production. Asia accounts for 90 and 92% of the world’s rice area and production, respectively. Thus, rice production, consumption and trade are concentrated in Asia. Among the rice growing countries in the world, India has the largest areas under rice crop and ranks second in production next to China.

Indian arid zone is one of the largest sub-tropical deserts of the world, of which 20 % is arid and the remaining semi-arid with varied habitats. The hot arid region is spread over 31.7 million ha mainly in Rajasthan (19.6 m ha), Gujarat (6.22 m ha), Andhra Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana. Rajasthan is the largest state in the country covering approximately 34.2 m ha geographical area out of which 27.1 m ha (79.08 % of total area) is laying in arid and semi-arid climate, spread over 21 out of 32 districts. Western part of Rajasthan is under hot arid climate (Thar Desert) and it extends from 24^º 37’ to 30^º 10’ N latitude and 690 29’ to 76^º 05’ E longitude. Barmer, Bikaner, Churu, Ganganagar, Hanumangarh, Jaisalmer, Jalore, Jhunjhunnu, Jodhpur, Nagour, Pali and Sikar districts of Western Rajasthan account for 63.4 % area of  hot arid realm of India. Apart from these, about 10 % area each of Sirohi, Ajmer and Jaipur districts are also in arid region. Punjab and Haryana bound it in North and Gujarat in South. The Aravali hill ranges provide a natural boundary with semi-arid Eastern Rajasthan. In the West, it has a long international boundary with Pakistan.

Tree-borne vegetables spring out from woody perennial plants. There are too many trees in nature across the globe which offer edible fruits, a few of them are exploited for vegetable purpose. Of course, in popular parlance, vegetable gives the connotation of the product of herbaceous crop, but there are vegetables which are the product of woody perennials. In the present agri-horti-scenario, where diversity in product range is the most sought after aspect, attempts are underway to popularize culture of such vegetables which have not yet found commercial momentum at the grower’s field. Tree-borne vegetables are one such group which needs proper popularization to really help to percolate their farming. These vegetables being vested with woody nature, tap root system, bark covering and stress tolerance mechanism are worth exploitation under diverse farming systems prevalent across the country. Further many tree-borne vegetables are rich in nutrients also and as such add to their plus identity.

Wood apple (Feronia limonia (L) Swingle) is a thorny tree commonly found in dry deciduous forests. In India, it is known by several common names like elephant apple, curd apple, monkey fruit, kavat, curd fruit and kath bel. In Malaysia, it is known as gelinggai or belinggai; in Thailand, ma-khwit; in Cambodia, kramsang; in Laos, ma-fit; in French, pommed’ elephant, pomme de bois or citron des mois. The tree is very hardy and has tolerance to drought and salinity. Its cultivation as a fruit tree is rare, but fruits of naturally occurring trees in community lands, forests and on roadsides are  used for chutney and pickle making. Fruits being rich in pectin, minerals and vitamins offer unique opportunity to utilize them extensively for processing. Extensive root system and synchronization of its reproductive phase with high moisture availability make it a suitable crop for arid zones.

Origin and Distribution
The wood-apple is native and common in  wild in dry plains of India and SriLanka and cultivated along roads and edges of fields and occasionally in orchards. It is also grown throughout Southeast Asia, in Northern Malaysia and on Penang Island. In India, the fruit was traditionally a “poor man’s food” until processing techniques were developed in the mid-1950’s. It is one of the very hardy trees  growing all over the plains of India, especially in the semi-arid and arid regions. It is more common in Deccan, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Chhatishgarh, Bihar and Jharkhand. Iit also occurs in the Western Himalayas upto an elevation of about 500 m amol.

Persimmons are mainly distributed in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. The genus contains nearly 400 species including the horticulturally important, Diospyros kaki, D. virginiana and D. lotus. The persimmon cultivated mainly for fruit is D. kaki, which is called the Japanese persimmon, Oriental persimmon, or simply Kaki. The generic name is derived from the Greek ‘dios’ (meaning divine) and ‘pyros’ (meaning grain of wheat), referring to the excellent fruit of the genus. The specific name kaki is from the Japanese common name given by Carl Peter Thunberg (1743–1828), a Swedish naturalist and medical doctor, and a pupil of Linnaeus. He stayed in Japan from 1775 to 1776 and published “Flora Japonica” in 1784 introducing many Japanese plants.

Introduction

Soil supports richest number and kinds of microorganisms interacting with each other and thus by modification or alteration in soil conditions greatly influence the microbial community and their activity in soil ecosystem. Soil physico-chemical and the biological factors interact to provide rapidly changing ecological niches and microbial components fluctuate in response to change in soil conditions. There are large evidences that agricultural practices often favour antagonistic microorganisms (Cook and Baker,1983; Yarham,1979) and therefore, biological control of plant pathogens could be possible through manipulation of soil condition. Soil organic matter also has a profound influence on microorganisms in soil, particularly those, including some pathogens, saprophytic and obligate plant parasites. Soil organic matter is distributed at discrete sites within the soil and determines to a great extent which parts of pore space are occupied. 

Biology, the science of living organisms, is linked with microscopes, test tubes and Petri dishes, but these conventional methods are changing with the advent of Bioinformatics. Due to the advancement in molecular biology and genome sequencing techniques, there is an overflow of biological information. This flood of information has led to a requirement for computerized databases to store and organize the data and to design specialized computational tools to view and analyze the data. Accordingly Bioinformatics can be defined as conceptualizing biology in terms of macromolecules (in the sense of physical-chemistry) and then applying “informatics” techniques (derived from disciplines such as applied maths, computer science and statistics) to understand and organize the information associated with these molecules on a large-scale (Tramontano, 2007).

INTRODUCTION

Meat is the flesh of animals that is used for food and consists of muscle, fat and bone. If the muscle which is commonly known as the lean meat, is examined under the microscope, it is seen to be made up of bundles of fibers held together by a thin membrane called connective tissue. Further study reveals that these fibers are in readily hollow tubes that vary in length in different animals and in different muscles in the same animals that are filled with a fluid, sometimes called muscle juice, which is known to contain protein, minerals and extractives. The forms of protein in the muscles are myosin (a globulin) and myogen (an albumen) and in addition, on red meats, hemoglobin.

SUMMARY

Conventional agriculture has been contributing significantly to several modern day environmental problems like global climate change, soil degradation, water pollution, biodiversity loss etc. directly or indirectly. Organic agriculture has been identified as one of the eco-friendly agriculture techniques and is being promoted worldwide to meet the increasing demand for organic products and conserve the natural eco-systems. It helps mitigating climate change through reduced emission of green house gases (GHGs), greater C sequestration and less use of fossil fuel. Besides, it has been found helpful to reduce export of harmful agro-chemicals to water bodies, biodiversity conservation, restoring soil health etc. Organic agriculture can help to meet the objectives of sustainable and eco-friendly agriculture.

SUMMARY

To meet the food requirement of spirally growing population we need to produce more crops per unit area of land. Soil is the raw material for land and is the outer covering of earth surface. It is a very important resource and gift of nature for the substrate where plant can grow. Agriculture is the backbone of our country, and agriculture mainly dependent on soil quality. The success management of soil quality depends on the mechanistic approach, how soil responds to agricultural use and practices over times. As soil degradation grows day by day there is a big challenge against agriculture to sustain. Now days the main cause for soil degradation is non-planed use of land resources. This is the time when we think about this big challenge and face it for the future generation which we need to manage the soil quality for self sustainability. Because adaptation of appropriate soil management scientific methodologies and land use planning could replenish the degraded soil properties for sustainable agriculture which is need of the hour.

SUMMARY

Vegetables play a pivotal role in food and nutritional security of the ever increasing population of our country. The vegetarian society largely depends on vegetables for the want of their nutritional requirements. Vegetables are exhaustive crop with an exceedingly high turnover of plant nutrients, Thus , nutrient element required for optimum growth and development of vegetables should supplied to soil and plants in right time and in a balanced and integrated mode. Neither the chemical fertilizers are alone nor the organic sources exclusively able to sustain the soil fertility/productivity. The national average productivity of different vegetable crops of our country at present is much below the potential productivity. It may be increased up to 2-3 times more by adoption of appropriate nutrient management practices. The majority of our Indian soils are deficient in about 7-8 macro and micronutrients which leads lower productivity. Integrated nutrient management (IPNM) is one of the recent methods of supplying nutrients to the plants by organic as well as inorganic means together to fulfill the nutrient requirements. Organic manures are the key characteristics including the long term fertility of soil by maintaining organic matter levels, fastening soil biological intervention, nitrogen fixation as well as effective recycling of organic materials including crop residues and live stock wastes and weed. Micro - organisms play an important role in various chemical transformations in soil and thus, influence the availability of major nutrient like N, P, K. and S to the plant.

History of Rickettsial infections went back to 16^th century and it has long been associated with famine and war. Thus Rickettsial infections played a significant role in the history of Western civilization. Epidemic typhus had major impact to decide over the outcome of several wars. This epidemic alone killed or caused great suffering to over 100,000 people in the two World Wars.  However, the causative agent was not determined until the early part of the 20^th century. Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever (RMSF) was the first detected Rickettsial infection as early as in 1896 in Idaho Valley, USA.  It was originally known as ‘Black Measles’ because of its clinical appearance in the form of characteristic spotted rash appearance throughout the body of the patients. Howard Taylor Ricketts, an American pathologist for the first time described the causative agent of Rocky Mountain spotted fever and was able to isolate it in the laboratory animals during 1902-1909. He was a dedicated scientist and, on several occasions, injected himself with a pathogen for experiment. The causative pathogen of Rocky Mountain spotted fever, Rickettsia rickettsii was named after him. Later, the family Rickettsiaceae as well as the order Rickettsiales was named after him. Ernest William Goodpasture, an American pathologist and physician, invented the methods of isolation and culturing the rickettsial pathogens in chicken embryos and fertilized chicken eggs.

INTRODUCTION

Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn (teleomorph: Thanatephorus cucumeris (Frank) Donk is cosmopolitan in soils. It is a destructive plant pathogen with an almost unlimited host range. The fungus inhabits in soils and causes damping-off of seedlings, root, crown and stem rots, and occasionally foliar blight (Baker, 1970). R. solani is an important symbiont with the saprophytic seedling stage (protocorm) of many orchids (Warcup, 1985). It aggressively colonizes organic matter and is one of the fastest growing fungi. According to available information, the isolates of R. solani possess the following-characteristics (Plate 2.1).

INTRODUCTION

Throughout the history of agriculture, humans have struggled to reduce the adverse effects of plant disease on their crops. Early agriculturalists realized the benefits of cultural practices such as crop rotation and the use of organic soil amendments in promoting plant productivity. It is now well established that many of these effects are achieved by promoting the natural microbiological processes that keep plant disease in check. Cultural practices were mainstays of traditional agricultural systems and still provide the primary approaches for management of many soilborne diseases today. For example, disease suppressive soils, into which pathogen(s) can be introduced without causing the expected levels of disease severity, can result from alterations in cropping patterns or other cultural practices. Recently,

1. Introduction

Processed foods have become a way of life in the modern world. Manipulation of chemical and physical properties facilitated by modern food technology and followed by addition of food additives has created a plethora of innovative food products that offer consumers greater convenience, variety, safety, satiety and quality.
Food additives have been in use for centuries for preservation, for providing improved appearance or desired texture and flavour. Preservation of foods started with salting and smoking. The Egyptians used colours and flavours, Romans used saltpeter and in India, turmeric is being used. Similarly additives such as baking powder as a raising agent, thickeners for sauces and gravies and colours- synthetic as well as from natural sources are being used.
Today more than 2500 food additives have been in use mainly due to the spurt in the research activities in food science and technology that are aimed at providing different characteristic functions to foods. Out of these, about 1300 are the flavouring additives.

Anthurium (Anthurium andraeanum Linden) belongs to the complex family Araceae, is a slow growing perennial that requires shady, humid conditions as found in tropical forests. The name anthurium is derived from Greek word “anthos” meaning flower and “oura” tail referring to the spadix. Thus, anthurium is also known as “tail flower” (Tajuddin and Prakash 1996). Anthuriums are gaining popularity due to higher returns per unit area and their beautiful and attractive long lasting flowers. Anthurium ranks ninth in the global flower trade and commands a respectable price both for its cut flower and whole plant. Commercial production has focused on two major species viz. A. andraeanum and A. scherzerianum. A. andraeanum is grown mostly for cut flower production, the main production areas being Hawaii, The Netherlands, and some other tropical and subtropical countries. A. scherzerianum is sold as a flowering potted plant, with main production areas located in Europe. In India, the anthurium cut flower industry is still in its infancy. At present anthuriums are mostly grown in some small gardens and nurseries. The important states cultivating anthuriums are Assam, Kerala, Tamilnadu (Salem), Karnataka (Coorg) and Mizoram where the favourable climate exists (Agasimani et al., 2011).

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Anthurium andreanum Linden Ex Andre is named after a French Horticulturist Edouard Francois Andre (1840-1911) who discovered it in 1876 and described it for the first time. The genus includes around 1000 species (Croat, 1980). Most of them are tropical herbs originating from warm areas of Central and South America (Gantait et al., 2008). The distribution of this genus extends from northern Mexico and the Greater Antilles to southern Brazil, northern Argentina, and Paraguay (Croat and Sheffer, 1983). Most anthurium species are native of tropical rain forests and are primarily epiphytic in nature. Thus, in their natural habitat, they receive ample, frequent water with good drainage. In Brazil, it is noted the occurrence of around 130 native species (Gonçalves, 2003).

In Malaysia, anthurium is mostly grown in Pahang (Cameron highlands), Selangor, Perak and Johor mainly for cut flower production. The Netherlands is the chief supplier of the anthurium in the European market. Hawaii covers 60% export share of Japan and the rest of the west coast of the USA. The Caribbean produces the anthurium for the east coast of United States and Canada. Mauritius is one of the important producer of anthurium and it exports to Japan and Italy. While some eastern countries like Taiwan, Philippines, China and Thailand mainly produce for their local market. In India, anthurium is commercially grown in Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Maharashtra and north east India. Kerala is identified as the most desirable place for growing anthurium (Singh, 2006).

Tulip cut flower is first among the bulbous ornamentals due to its attractive colours and exquisite flowers. Tulip is a member of Liliaceae family, commonly grown from bulbs. The name tulip is derived from the Persian word “toliban” meaning “turban”, which is an appropriate term to describe the flower shape of certain tulips. The mother bulb dies and is replaced by several daughter bulbs, each of which is an annual unit of growth borne in the axils of the mother bulb scale. Tulips are basically grown for three purposes i.e. bulb production, forcing as cut flower and potted plant and for landscaping (Singh, 2006). The world tulip flower industry is dominated by the Netherlands. Another important tulip producing country is France.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The primary gene centre of the genus Tulipa is located in the Pamir Alai and Tien Shan mountain ranges of central Asia. Diversification in this region, resulting in a distribution from Morocco to Western Europe and eastward to Western China. A second gene centre has been found in the Caucasus (Hoog, 1973). However, Bailey (1963) reported that the tulip is native of Siberia, Turkey, Asia Minor, China, Japan and Mediterranean countries of Europe, the species are particularly abundant in central Asia, in the Bokhara region.

Tulips were first seen in Turkey. The vast majority of species occurs in central and western Asia in the countries such as Turkey, Afghanistan, Iran, Kazakhistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Georgia. East of this center of distribution, the range of a couple species extends into northern India and far western China but on limited basis. One species of tulip i.e. Tulipa stellata is found wild in the mid and high hills of Himachal Pradesh and T. aitchisonii is native of Himalaya. There are around a hundred species of Tulipa originated from Turkey to the Pamir and Hindu Kush mountains in Asia, which have been used for breeding purposes. In fact, a small number of species can be found in the wild in Europe and those are all restricted to southern parts, primarily in the Mediterranean region as far west as Portugal. There is not a single species of tulip native to Holland, the country frequently associated with these colourful and well known flowers.

Records show that tulips were in cultivation in Turkey as early as 1000 A.D. In 1578, first tulip appeared in England. Carolus Clusius planted the first tulip in 1593 in the botanical garden in Leiden (The Netherlands). The tulips appear in France in 1598. During 1600-1650 tulip become an exclusive garden plant and it was planted in strategic places in various gardens. Commercial cultivation of tulip started during 1600 in South Haarlem. The famous first parrot tulip was described in 1630. The famous tulip firm namely Voorhelm was established in 1650 in the Haarlem. An inventory of 126 different tulips was released in 1661. The bulbs of tulip had been sold to the U.S. from Holland as early as the eighteenth century. During nineteenth century, several hybrids were developed and cultivable area expanded largely. A fragrant variety Prins van Ooslenrijk and a double early tulip Murillo were developed in 1860. The worldwide popular Darwin tulip group was introduced in 1889. The first classified list of the tulip name including cultivation practices and flower management was released during 1914-1915. The most of the modern tulip complex is based on T. gesneriana with some important hybrids with species tulip. There are approximately 100 of these wild or species of tulips that occur naturally in the world and several thousands of distinctly different hybrids, selection and mutants that are gracing gardens and becoming remunerative to the growers around the world. In India its cultivation is limited to amateur gardeners of hilly areas in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. Srinagar, Kangra, Kullu, Mandi, Solan, Shimla, etc. are most suitable areas. Tulip cultivation can be extended in new areas like hills of Uttarakhand in India.

Zantedeschia commonly known as Calla lily, Richardia or Pig lily belongs to family Araceae. It is the only genus in the tribe Zantedeschiae which is the sub family philodendroideae. The name Zantedeschia was given as a tribute to Italian botanist “Giovanni Zantedeschi” (1773-1846) by the German botanist Kurt Sprengel (1766-1833). It is considered by many people in the Republic of Ireland to be a symbol of Irish Republicanism. The Romans valued them so much that they often decorated the edges of the bloom with filaments of gold. These spectacular flowers are beginning to rival the rose in popularity for bridal bouquets. In India there has been initiation in the production of tubers of Calla and few tissue culture labs have started production for New Zealand and Dutch Companies. It is used as potted plants, callas are very attractive. It is used for decoration throughout the spring and early summer months focal point for a spectacular arrangement or bouquet.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The Zantedeschia albomaculata are native to areas of South Central Africa which are subjected to periodic drought (Letty, 1973). Zantedeschia was originally placed in the Calla genus by Carl Linnaeus, Zantedeschia aethiopica was moved in 1818 by Carl (Charles) Sigismund Kunth to the Richardia genus, until it was finally classified as Zantedeschia. Although Zantedeschia did not remain in the Calla genus, even after all this time this wonderful bulb is still referred to by its common name of calla lily.

The name “aethiopica” probably denotes South Africa, the country of the origin. Formerly its name was Calla or Richardia. This plant was introduced in Europe very early, apparently before Van Riebeeck had established the refreshment station at Cape. It is also illustrated in an account of Royal Garden in Paris in 1664. It was sent as one of the interesting plant of Cape to Europe by Simon van der Stal sometime before 1697. The genus is restricted to African continent with seven recognized species Z. aethiopica, Z. albomaculata, Z. ellottiana, Z. jucunda, Z. odoratum, Z. petlandii, andZ. rehmannii.

The common calla (Z. aethiopica) is found from the western Cape through the eastern Cape, Kwa Zullu-Natal, Mpumalanga and in to the Northern Province. In Australia calla lily is naturalized in moist niches of the cooler parts of the New South Wales, southern and south western Victoria, moist valley in Adelaide hills and north west Tasmania. They are serious weeds of pastures and natural bush land in south west of western Australia.

The calla lily is used throughout the world as an ornamental for its flowers. It is mainly grown in temperate and sub tropical climates of the world. They also thrive well under tropical conditions. New Zealand is the topmost producer followed by The Netherland. The original summer flowering calla species were introduced in New Zealand in the early twentieth century. Finland and Scandinavia are also big producer of callas and exported to Sweden and Norway. New Zealand offers a favourable climate to grow callas outdoors and for exports it is grown under controlled conditions. In India it is a potential emerging crop and requires improvement programme for commercialization.

Cymbidium is a genus in the orchid family Orchidaceae. It was first described by Olof Swartz in 1799. The name is derived from the Greek word “kumbos”, meaning “hole”, “cavity”. It refers to the form of the base of the lip. The flowers are long-lasting, both on the plant and when cut large attractive and available in a wide range of colours. Smaller plants are now coming into vogue as decorative pot plants. These have smaller flowers but they are as desirable as the standard varieties and often more acceptable in modern homes. The popularity of miniature cymbidium is now spreading from Asia to the worldwide orchid community. These ancient flowers have been treasured in numerous societies for nearly two thousand years. Many orchid lovers are most charmed by its fragrance and form rather than its petite size.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Cymbidiums figure in the earliest historical records of human association with orchids from China and Japan. Cymbidium native of the monsoonal forest foothills of the Himalayas with the warmer growing Asiatic species from the tropical lowland monsoonal forests. The species come from the Himalayan regions of India and Nepal running through China and Japan, Indo-China down to Malaysia to Australia. This genus is distributed in tropical and subtropical Asia such as northern India, China, Japan, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Borneo and northern Australia. The larger flowered species from which the large flowered hybrids are derived grow at high altitudes. They have been cultivated for thousands of years especially in China. Cymbidiums became popular in Europe during the Victorian era. One feature that makes the plant so popular is the fact that it can survive during cold temperatures as low as 7^oC. Originating in temperate and tropical parts of India, Nepal, China, Japan and down to Malaysia and Australia, cymbidiums are probably the most widely grown of all orchids because of their ease of cultivation and long-lasting flowers. From the 40-50 species, thousands of hybrids have been bred with flowers ranging in colour from white, yellow and orange to pink, red, brown and green, and varying in size from 5-10 cm across. There are several species existing in the Indian forest area. Several species are existing in the forest of Nagaland (Changkija et al., 1992), some of them are given in Table 1.

INTRODUCTION

Seed is one of the most vital and important inputs for increasing agricultural production. Commercial flower seed production is an international business involving highly specialized growers. Compared with the production of seeds of cereals, pulses oilseed even vegetable seeds, it is done on a relatively small scale. However, a large number of species are being produced under very different cultural conditions. It seems to have great scope for expansion in developing countries like India, especially under northern India climatic zones having favourable growing conditions, skilled and cheap labour.

Annual flowers like petunia, coreopsis, helichrysum, phlox, nasturtium, marigold, gaillardia, salvia, ice plant, verbena, nemesia, pansy, poppy, larkspur, chrysanthemum, etc. have been widely used for seed production. After release of a variety its seed have to be multiplied in sufficient quantity which takes 3-4 generations before it reaches to the farmers for commercial use. The Indian seed programme largely adheres to the limited generations system for seed multiplication in a phased manner. The system recognizes three generations namely breeder, foundation and certified seeds and during multiplication cycle care has to be taken so that variety does not degenerate but maintains its original characteristics.

Seed production of flower has undergone unrestricted revolutionary growth in term of number of crops and their varieties as well as production. This phenomenal development is the result of technological advancement in the production of flower seed and development in the area of production, packaging, handling, transportation and marketing of flower and ornamental plants all over the world. The world germplasm contains more than 1500 different varieties of flowers and ornamental crops. Each species of flower grown for seed has its own specific time, culture, problem of pollination and harvesting and storage requirements. Mild climate with moderate rainfall favour the growth and development of most flower and ornamental crops.

Production of seeds of annual flower is having immense impetus as regards the diversification in floribusiness. The flower seed industry is truly international, operating in many countries in the world. Large quantities of annual flower seeds are required both by developed and developing countries adding to the beauty of private and large gardens and also for cut flower production. Annual flower are indispensable in respect of beautification of gardens. In the world, many nurseries are engaged in the production of seed of seasonal flowers and are having a blooming business. The great diversity of flower seed crops is fascinating facet of the world seed industry and they are of high value and low volume in contrast to the high volume and low value seeds. The varied agroclimatic condition existing in India provides a vast scope for the production of a wide range of flower seeds of both tropical and temperate origin. With the availability of relatively inexpensive human labour, technical expertise, and other material, it is possible to organize a strong flower seed production programmed exclusively for export purpose.

Plants belonging to the Rhododendron subgenera Pentanthera (deciduous) and Tsutsusi and Azaleastrum (evergreen) are called azaleas. Azalea belongs to family Ericaceae. Azaleas are one of the favourite ornamental plants used by home owners and professional landscapers. They are used as foundation, accent, individual specimen plants, and as mass plantings. Azaleas are good companion plants, working well in designs with many trees, shrubs and ground covers, offering a variety of landscape options. Azaleas can be found in all ranges of colours, from delicately pink-tinged white to strong, bright red, and there are species that has the startling colour of flame. Its bold colour scheme has caused people to carry it far and wide, for use wherever a sudden note in strong hue is appropriate among the milder expressions of the rest of the flowers. The evergreen azalea, Rhododendron simsii Planch., is one of the most important pot plants in Western Europe and the USA. The breeding history of this vegetatively propagated plant is a relatively short one, and breeding has been focused on flower characters because the public is continually asking for new flower colours and flower types.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Nevertheless, very little was known about the origin and the ancestor species used for this important ornamental crop. Rhododendron simsii, the species that is accepted to be the main ancestor, originates from hilly areas in China (Chang Jiang valley), Thailand, Laos and Burma. Apart from R. simsii, at least three other species from the Tsutsusi subgenus, from South-Asia and Japan, might have contributed: R. indicum, R. x mucronatum (Blume) G. Don and R. scabrum (Heursel, 1999).

From a floricultural viewpoint, azaleas are firstly divided into the two broad categories of deciduous and evergreen plants. The former, notoriously more rustic, have North American, Caucasian, and Asian origins, and are classified in the subgenus Pentanthera G. Don, whereas the latter derive exclusively from Asian species and are classified in the subgenus Tsutsusi (Sweet) Pojarkova (Chamberlain and Rae, 1990). Within the evergreen azaleas at least four more or less well defined groups of cultivars are distinguished according to their traditionally recognized most important ancestor: pot or Belgian azaleas (R. simsii Planch. putative hybrids), Hirado azaleas (R. scabrum G. Don putative hybrids), Kurume azaleas [putative hybrids of R. kiusianum Makino var. kiusianum and var. sataense (Nakai) D.F. Chamb. and R. kaempferi Planch.] and Satsuki azaleas [putative mutants or hybrids of R. indicum (L.) Sweet and R. eriocarpum (Hayata) Nakai]. The Hirado, Kurume and Satsuki groups are often referred to as Japanese azaleas because of their geographical origin (Scariot et al., 2007).

Bougainvilleas (Bougainvillea spp.) are tropical and sub tropical plants belonging to Nyctaginaceae family. They are thorny, evergreen and some are fragrant. Bougainvillea is named for “Louis A. de Bougainville”, a French navigator (1729-1811) who discovered the plant in Brazil in 1768. Bougainvillea plant spreading horizontally or hanging downwards as it is climbing upwards, it makes itself at home in almost any situation. It can be grown as a hedge, groomed as a ground cover, pruned as an espalier, trained as a tree or contained in a pot in a variety of shapes. Bougainvillea is ideal for bonsai. Red, violet, orange, yellow or white bracts appear at the ends of new growth.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Bougainvillea is a native of South America (Bailey, 1963, Menninger, 1970 and Hackett and Sachs, 1985) from Brazil west to Peru and south to southern Argentina. A French explorer and naturalist, Dr. Philibert Commerson or Commercon (1727-1773), discovered the bougainvillea in Rio de Janeiro in 1768. He may have been traveling on a supply ship at the time. His discovery would soon find a name and go on to make a name for itself all over the world. In 1766, a ship called La Boudeuse set sail from Nantes on a round-the-world voyage of discovery commissioned by the French government. At the helm was Louis-Antoine de Bougainville (1729-1811), a mathematician and an admiral in the French navy. When La Boudeuse arrived in Rio de Janeiro to rendezvous with the supply ship, the occasion made horticultural history. Commerson’s newly discovered plant received a name, bougainvillea, in honour of the admiral.

Twenty years after Commerçon’s discovery, it was first published as ‘Buginvillea’ in Genera Plantarum by A.L. de Jusseau in 1789. The genus was subsequently spelled in several ways until it was finally corrected to ‘Bougainvillea’ in the Index Kewensis in the 1930s. Originally, B. spectabilis and B. glabra were hardly differentiated until the mid-1980s when botanists recognized them to be totally distinct species. In the early 19^th century, these two species were the first to be introduced into Europe and soon, nurseries in France and England did a thriving trade providing specimens to Australia and other far away countries. Meanwhile, Kew Gardens distributed plants it had propagated to British colonies throughout the world. Soon thereafter, an important event in the history of bougainvillea took place with the discovery of a crimson specimen in Cartagena, Colombia, by Mrs. R.V. Butt. Originally thought to be a distinct species, it was named B. buttiana in her honour. However, it was later discovered to be a natural hybrid of a variety of B. glabra and possibly B. peruviana - a “local pink bougainvillea” from Peru. Natural hybrids were soon found to be common occurrences all over the world. For instance, around the 1930s, when the three species were grown together, many hybrid crosses were created almost spontaneously in East Africa, India, the Canary Islands, Australia, North America and the Philippines.

Lagerstroemia indica belongs to family Lythraceae commoly known as Crape myrtle. It it grown well in India for various landscape purposes. It is called Sawani or Shravani (Hindi), Dhayti (Marathi), Chinagoranta (Telugu), Pavalakkurinji (Tamil). Lagerstroemia a long period of striking rainy season flower colour, attractive fall foliage and good drought-tolerance all combine to make a favourite shrub or small tree for either formal or informal landscapes. It is a deciduous, multi stemmed; rounded crown; dense branching and is highly recommended for planting in urban and suburban areas.

The scientific name, Lagerstroemia, was coined in 1759 by Carl Linnaeus, who described and named the plant in honour of “Magnus von Lagerstroem”, an avid naturalist and director of the Swedish East Indies Company. Crape myrtle derives its common name from its crepe-like, crinkled petals, and the resemblance of its leaves to the true myrtle, Myrtus communis. “Crape myrtle” is a peculiarly-American term. Elsewhere in the world, “Lagerstroemia” is often used as the common name for crape myrtle (Knox, 2003).

Crape myrtle is the smaller version of Lagerstroemia speciosa, commonly known as Pride of India or Queen crape myrtle. The deciduous crape myrtle is among the longest blooming trees in existence with flowering periods lasting from 60-120 days. Crapes come in heights as short as 46 cm and as tall as 12 m. Leaves are alternate and smooth, but leaf size depends on variety. Flowers are borne in summer in big showy clusters and come in white and many shades of pink, purple, lavender and red. The bark is a prominent feature being smooth, pinkinsh-gray and mottled, shedding each year. Leaves are small and dark green changing to yellow and orange in autumn. When the leaves fall in winter, crape myrtle becomes a living sculpture. The trunk and branches of tree-form plants have an attractively gnarled, sinuous character with smooth bark. Seeds are narcotic. In Manipur, flowers and leaves are used as purgatives. Bark is stimulant and febrifuge (fever removing). Roots are astringent and used as gargle.

Impatiens is the most popular bedding plant grown worldwide. The genus Impatiens is estimated to contain about 850 species (Grey-Wilson, 1980b). The majority is native to tropical and subtropical regions of India and Africa. The popularity of Impatiens walleriana is mainly due to its propensity for producing large numbers of flowers under low light intensity (Simmonds, 1980). Due to the high economic value and consumer demand for bedding impatiens, there has been a concerted effort by plant breeders to release a wide range of cultivars having different flower colours and distinctive foliage. Previously known as I. sultanior, I. holstii, it has several common names including “Busy Lizzie” and “Patience Plant”. It is one of two important groups of Impatiens in the horticulture industry with the New Guinea Impatiens (Impatiens hawkeri) group being the other. Despite being Impatiens walleriana is one of the most important bedding plants in the world, information on I. walleriana relatively scarce. Impatiens walleriana continues to lead as one of the three most important bedding plants worldwide. It is available as both seed and vegetative products. The history of its development, marketing success, wide adaptability, a large palette of flower colours and forms and unparalleled garden performance as a bedding plant for shade are described as an aid for continued crop development with breeding lessons for other flowering crops.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Jones and Smith (1966) proposed the Himalayan region as the centre of origin. Khoshoo (1957) and Gill and Chinnappa (1977) stated that the genus Impatiens contains over 600 species half of which occur in the Indian subcontinent. The major centers of diversity are in the highlands and mountains of tropical and sub-tropical India, Africa and Southeast Asia. There are only a few Holarctic species and none indigenous to South America or Australia (Zinov’ea-Stahevitch, and Grant, 1984). Impatiens walleriana also known by the names I. sultani Hook. f. and I. holstii Engl. is native to areas of Eastern Equatorial Africa including Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique Malawi and Rhodesia; as well as Zanzibar and Pemba Islands.

Typically, African impatiens are highly endemic forest species, which thrive in moist semi-shade areas, and often in high altitude regions that receive ample rainfall (Grey-Wilson, 1980). Nearly all African Impatiens are native to habitats above 800 m and one third can only be found in habitats above 1500 m. However, I. walleriana may also thrive at lower elevations provided that these areas receive increased rainfall from monsoons (Grey-Wilson, 1980).

Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill] is the leading oilseed crop in the world. Its area and production are far ahead of other oilseeds at the global level (Table 1). The commercial cultivation of this crop in India started in the early 1970’s. Within a span of 4 decades its spread has been phenomenal and today it occupies around 9.67 million hectares with a production of about 10.22 million with an average productivity of around 1006 kg ha^-1 (DSR, 2010) (Table 2). It is now the fourth largest among field crops after rice, wheat and maize (GOI, 2007) in India and has become the leading oil seed crop surpassing groundnut and mustard and rapeseed. It is contributing nearly 37% to the total oilseeds produced in India. The central India comprising the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan account for more than 95% of the total area under this crop. Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh etc account or the bulk ofthe rest ofthe area. It is predominantly a rainfed crop with only about 3% of the total area getting some assured irrigation facility. Further, it is concentrated in areas which receive lesser rainfall in its early vegetative phase. A large number of crops have been replaced by soybean to a variable extent in its march towards achieving its present position. Badal et al. (2000) have reported that a large number farmers switched over to this crop from sorghum, groundnut, maize, cotton etc in the state of Madhya Pradesh owing to greater yield potential even under adverse conditions (Table 3). Further, it has become an integral part of several cropping systems including both intercropping and-sequential cropping systems in different parts of the country.

1. Introduction

The Aquilaria malaccensis (Agarwood) is an Appendix II species of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES, 1994). The species is also red listed under International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) and is classified as ‘Vulnerable’ globally but ‘Critically Endangered’ in India (Oldfield et al., 1998; IUCN, 2009) and almost ‘Extinct in wild’ in Assam (Anon., 2003; Saikia and Khan, 2012a). The species due to its multipurpose uses is overexploited which is threatening its existence from the wild (Lee and Mohamed, 2016; Talucder et al.,2016). There are 21 reported Aquilaria species, of which 13 are fragrant resin producers, while the rest are yet to be studied (Lee and Mohamed, 2016; Talucder et al.,2016). Eleven of the domesticated species are A. malaccensis, A. crassna, A. subintegra, A. hirta, A.rostrata, A. beccariana, A. filaria, A. khasiana, A.microcarpa, A. grandiflora and A. sinensis (Zuhaidi, 2016). Species reported from Asia viz., A. apiculata, A. baillonii, A. banaense, A. beccariana, A. brachyantha, A. cumingiana, A. filaria, A. hirta, A. khasiana, A. malaccensis, A. microcarpa, A. rostrata, A. sinensis, A. subintegra and A. crassna are known to produce essential oils (Sulaiman et al., 2015). Only three species i.e. Aquilaria khasiana, A. macrophylla and A. malaccensis has centre of origin in India with A. macrophylla endemic to Nicobar Islands (Anon., 2003; Giri, 2003) and A. khasiana endemic to Khasi Hills of Meghalaya and surroundings (Kanjilal et al., 1982), while A. malaccensis is native to evergreen rain forests in the foothills of northeastern India (Chakrabarty et al., 1994; Saikia and Khan, 2012b) and West Bengal (Barden et al., 2000).

1. Introduction

There are a large number of indigenous rice varieties in India, which are still grown by the tribal people and small farmers of the remote areas where the modern agricultural practices, sufficient foods as well as healthcare systems are a dream. Nature has provided them some alternative ways. They have different indigenous rice varieties with its nutritional and medicinal values. Until recently, rice was considered only a starchy food and a source of carbohydrates and some amount of protein. Rice protein, though small in amount, is of high nutritional value (Chaudhary and Tran, 2001). It has extensive curative properties known from the ancient days. In fact, specific rice varieties with medicinal properties were cultivated and used in the treatment of some ailments in different counties of South East Asia.

During recent times, both at national level and international levels, the land races are being preserved in the gene banks. The scientists said that they were also checking these land races for some such characteristics which were not available in the existing varieties so as to incorporate the same in the present varieties (Sultan and Subba Rao, 2013). Traditional varieties are experiencing an increasing trend among consumers, due to their incredible health benefits for example the traditional varieties possess higher amount of glutamic acid, fiber and vitamins. Some people also credit traditional varieties with other health benefits, such as giving sensations of cooling in the body, improves vocal clarity, eyesight, fertility and mitigating rashes (Caius, 1999).

While reviewing the status of education and research on medicinal plants in Bangladesh, it was found that there are 27 government and private educational institutions currently engaged in offering Bachelor or Diploma degree on Unani and Ayurvedic systems and training of traditional medicine practitioners in Bangladesh. Several other public and private universities have included different aspects of medicinal plants in their syllabus with other degrees at undergraduate and post graduate level. At present, there are 277 Unani, 201 Ayurvedic and 32 herbal drug manufacturers in Bangladesh with 6498 Unani, 4058 Ayurvedic and 537 herbal products registered by the Directorate General of Drug Administration. About 500 species of plants are identified which possess medicinal properties and are distributed throughout the country. There is no distinctive research organizations at present for conducting planned research solely on medicinal plants; though, the Bangladesh Forest Research Institute have some research programme on medicinal plants. Hamdard University- a private university is offering degree on Unani and Ayurvedic systems and conducting some research including drug manufacturing. Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute with other public and private universities are conducting some hectic research on medicinal plants including some high yielding variety development. The Government of Bangladesh (GoB) have taken some initiatives for development of Unani and Ayurvedic medicine sector like making ‘Bangladesh Unani and Ayurvedic Practitioners Ordinance, 1983’, ‘National Drug Policy 2016’, establishment of ‘Board of Unani and Ayurvedic Systems of Medicines (BUASM)’, etc. But proper implementation of the ordnance, strengthening the activities of BUASM and taking organized research programme on medicinal plants are very much essential for having skilled professionals, quality drugs and research.

Soils are the basis of food production. Ninety five percent of our food is directly or indirectly produced on our soil. A healthy soil maintain a diverse community of organisms that helps in controlling pests (insects, weeds, and fungus) but also form beneficial symbiotic association with plant roots, recycle essential plant nutrients and improve soil structure. A healthy soil can also be a strategic ally in mitigating and adapting to climate change, as soil sequesters CO₂ and prevent to escape into the atmosphere. Beside this, it contributes to mitigate climate change by maintaining or increasing its carbon content. This can be said that the proportion of organic carbon is available more in the soil than combining both atmosphere and ground vegetation. Most of the soil organic carbon (SOC) stored in the first metre of the soil in the form of organic matter. However, organic matter degrades due to deforestation; deplete soil biodiversity, loss of nutrients as consumed by crop plants, soil compaction due to excessive use of agricultural machineries, soil erosion, water logging conditions, and urbanization, which release greenhouse gases like CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O into the atmosphere causing global warming and climate change. One third of all CO₂ emissions come from changes in land use (deforestation, shifting cultivation, and intensification of agriculture) whereas two-thirds of CH₄ and majority of N₂O emitted through agricultural practices (Kotschi and Müller-Sämann, 2004).

7.1.    Single Action Gene
    
    7.1.1.    Osmoprotectants
    7.1.2.    Detoxifying Genes
    7.1.3.    Late Embryogenesis Abundant (LEA) Protein
    7.1.4.    Transporter Genes
    7.1.5.    Multifunctional Genes for Lipid Biosynthesis
    7.1.6.    Heat -shock Protein Genes
    
7.2.    Regulatory Gene
    
    7.2.1.    Transcription Factors
    7.2.2.    Signal Transduction Genes
    
7.3.    Choice of Promoters
    
7.4.    Physiological Evaluation of Stress Effect
    
7.5.    Conclusions
        
References

1. Basic Information on the Country and  Agricultural Status
 
1.1. Location of Côte d’Ivoire

Cote D’ivoire (Ivory Coast) is located in West Africa, between the Equator and the Tropic of Cancer, with an area of 3, 22,462 km². It is bordered on the north by Mali and Burkina Faso, no the west by Liberia and Guinea, on the east by Ghana and on the south by the Gulf of Guinea, stretching across nearly 550 km. The economic capital Abidjan is with a population of more than 3 million people and Yamoussoukro, the political capital, has more than 1,50,000 inhabitants.

1.2. Population 
The Ivorian population is 1,53,66,672 people in 1998, of which 26 per cent are foreigners (4,000,047), with an annual population growth rate of 3.3 per cent and a density of 48 habitants/km². 53.8 per cent of the population is under the age of 20 years. The age group between 21 and 60 years is 41 per cent. These figures show the youthfulness of the Ivorian population. The average life expectancy is 65 years.

Introduction

Agroforestry refers to practices, which deliberately or intentionally mix or retain woody perennials on the crop/animal production systems. It combines elements of agriculture, crops and/ or animals with elements of forestry in production system in a unit of land, either simultaneously or sequentially. The term woody perennials includes tree, shrubs, bushes, palm, bamboos, etc. which in agroforestry context are often referred to as multipurpose trees and shrubs (Wood, 1988). The word deliberate has significance a few trees remaining during the process of land clearance for agriculture is not agroforestry. To qualify as agroforestry, a system should actively promote the woody perennials for a particular purpose, or purposes, on the farm (Bhatt et al., 2001). This land use system is particularly suitable for resource poor marginal farmers became diverse needs are fulfilled by one system with escape routes during natural calamities. In hill agro-ecosystems, agroforestry plays an important role in sustainable resource conservation and food security. It is also used to diversify and intensify farming systems through integration of indigenous tree-crops.

Abstract: Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. Ex Del is an important multipurpose tree of traditional agroforestry system in the central India. The present chapter reports influence of tree canopy positions, i.e. mid canopy, canopy edge and canopy gap, of Acacia nilotica (12-yr) on texture, organic C, total and mineral N and P and soil pH, in different depths of soils, on productivity of rice during rainy and wheat during winter season. It also reports how residual nitrogen under the tree influence yield of rice following its felling after completion of rotation cycle. Sand particles are found to decline by 10% and 9% whereas clay particles increase by 14% and 10% under mid canopy and canopy edge, respectively, than in open. Clay particles are not influenced by the canopy positions. Soil organic C, total N, total P, mineral N (NO3- -N and NH4+- N) and P are greater under mid canopy and canopy edge positions than in open. Soil organic C and N pool sizes are maximum in 0-10 cm and decline with depths. Total and mineral P contents are nearly uniform across the depths. C/N ratio increases with soil depth. Despite greater nutrients pools under the tree, density, aboveground biomass, belowground biomass, aboveground biomass / belowground biomass ratio and yield of the rice decline by 27.5%, 27.5%, 19.1%, 14.8% and 24.9%, respectively. Like the rice, yield of wheat also declines under the tree. 

Abstract: Alley cropping system is known for several services like fodder and fuel production, nutrient management, and soil erosion control from hilly terrain in humid tropics, but it could not make in farmers field. This study explores the role of Gliricidia leaf manure on nitrogen management in soils. Simultaneously, the system is modified to make it highly profitable, so that it may become farmer’s friendly in humid tropics. For nitrogen management in soil, two methods (leaves being incorporated into soil vs. surface) and three times of application, i.e. zero week after sowing (0 WAS), two week after sowing (2 WAS) and four week after sowing (4 WAS), of Gliricidia leaf in soil was considered. Two additional treatments, urea (120 kg ha-1, equal to the leaves) and control (no urea + no leaves) are also maintained to compute recovery of nitrogen from the leaves by the crop, and to know if the leaf manure could produce grain yield equal to that of equivalent urea. The study reveals there is no effect of the method of application on the decomposition and release of nitrogen from the leaves, soil N mineralization, nitrogen uptake, shoot biomass and yield of the crop, but time of application affects these parameters significantly. Maximum 50 % nitrogen is released quickly from the leaves within 15 days and remaining 48-49 % gradually in 60 days. Rate of soil N mineralization; nitrogen uptake, shoot biomass and grain yield in maize are the highest in 2 WAS and lowest in 4 WAS treatment. Recovery of nitrogen from the leaves is very low ranging from 4.5 to 9.3 kg ha-1. The leaves do not produce yield in maize equal to that of equivalent urea. However, for synchronization of maximum release of N from Gliricidia leaves and it’s 

Introduction

India has about 18% of the human and 15% of the livestock population of the world that needs to be supported from only 2% of the earth’s land area. The per capita land availability has declined from 0.89 ha in 1951 to 0.37 ha in 1991 and is likely to be 0.20 ha by 2035 (Singh, 2005). It is estimated that demand for green and dry fodder would be short by 64 and 24% by 2020, while it was short by 62 and 22% in 2005. The current sustainable production of firewood is 17 million tons from forest areas and 98 million tons from non-forest areas, leaving a net deficit of 86 million tons which is removed illicitly from forest and scrub formations all over the country. Nearly 32.67% of India’s geographical area is affected by various forms of soil erosion and land degradation. The area reported to be degraded in India varies widely, ranging from 63.9 million ha (Anonymous, 2000) to 187.70 million ha (Sehgal and Abrol, 1994), due to variations in approaches used to define degraded lands. The area under wastelands is estimated to occupy 63.85 million ha which is 20% of the country’s geographical area.

Introduction
 
Historically, foresters did not view trees as typical plants having the systems of heredity similar to all other living organisms. Previously it was felt that the tree development depended only upon the environment in which it was grown. Recently, the “forest tree parentage” in the tree improvement programme has gained importance.  Although there are several breeding methods for improvement of any crop, the most commonly used breeding method in tree improvement is “selection” of superior trees from existing or established population. The objective of selection programme is to obtain significant amount of genetic gain as quickly and inexpensively as possible, while at the same time maintaining a broad genetic base to ensure the future genetic general principle; that is choosing the most desirable individuals for the use as parent in breeding and production programmes.

The most successful tree improvement programmes are those in which proper vegetative propagules and provenances are used. Success in the establishment and productivity of forest plantations is determined largely by the species used and the source of seed or vegetative propagules used within the population.

What is natural pest and disease control?

Pests and diseases are part of the natural environmental system. In this system there is a balance between predators and pests. This is nature’s way of controlling populations. The creatures that we call pests and the organisms that cause disease only become ‘pest and diseases’ when their activities start to damage crops and affect yields.

If the natural environmental system is imbalanced then one population can become dominant because it is not being preyed upon. The aim of natural control is to restore a balance between pest and predator and to keep pests and diseases down to an acceptable level. The aim is not to eradicate them altogether, as they also have a role to play in the natural system.

Once a pest or disease has started to attack a crop, the damage cannot be repaired and control becomes increasingly difficult. Where possible, use techniques to avoid or prevent pest and disease attack in the first place.