eChapters

Introduction

The past few years have been characterized by changes in every walk of life and libraries are no exceptions. Certainly there have been profound changes in the ways we approach and manage libraries and provide basic library services such as bibliographic control, document delivery, presentation, and physical facilities for reading.  The evolution of traditional interlibrary loan services into a full range of document delivery services, new avenues for document acquisions and delivery from traditional methods to “high tech” with the most efficient pathway defined by the user within desired cost and time parameters have set new standard for library resources and services management.

Introduction

The total area of education is continuously changing where imperative information is exploring constantly.  There is highest need of information and knowledge for best and efficient education and the library plays a vital role in it. The users demand various aspects of information and enhanced quality of information service. Therefore present day’s library has gone from traditional environment to e-environment. We can use e-journals, e-books; CD & DVD etc .Library consortia play a most important role of academic libraries.

ABSTRACT

Mandarin Orange (Citrus reticulata Blanco.), known as ‘Suntala’ to the local populace, is a major cash crop and was once a pride of Darjeeling hills. It is grown in approximately 930 ha with an annual production of 148.224 metric tones and annual turnover of Rs. 25 crores approximately. Since early 1970s, orange orchards in the Darjeeling hills started to be unproductive inflicting huge economic loss showing severe citrus decline. Gradually the malady assumed alarming proportions and threatening the cultivation of the crop. The major causes for the bottleneck of the citrus industry in Darjeeling hills  is  the heavy incidence of insect pests, diseases and nutritional deficiencies.

ABSTRACT

Future is the era of ICT (Information Communication Technology) which is equally applicable in the field of Agriculture. Farmers database will be an important part of ICT which is required for smooth functioning of various agricultural activities like Farmer’s Trainings, Demonstrations, Crop monitoring, Support to farmers, implementation of various government schemes etc.  This software records farmers Name, Phone number, Sex, Category (SC/ST/Gen),  Number of dependents, Annual agricultural income, whether fully or partially dependent, Land holding size,  Major crops, Village, Block, Sub-division, Land situation (Plains/ Low Hills/ Mid Hills/ High Hills), Soil Reaction, Soil type, (Highly Acidic/Moderately /acidic/Neutral/Alkaline/Highly Alkaline), NPK status, Irrigation facility and information regarding Cattle. From the above record various reports can be generated according to the needs of the scientific personnel. For example soil scientist will have record of soil pH & NPK status of different farmers across the district. Scientist can filter the database to get farmers of a particular soil type to conduct training;

ABSTRACT

As population explosion continues and the shortage of extension personnel becomes acute, the wisest proposition is to utilize the latest information and communication technology (ICT) to make information available to the common man. The ICT  tools with their recent advancements have become easily available in various forms such a mobile telephone, PDA, WLL phones, FM radio, community radio, television, wireless internet services, webcams, video conferencing facilities etc. Extension agencies need to harness the ICT tools usefully and improve the quality of extension services.

•    A corn plant requires a certain number of growing degree units (GDUs) to reach maturity, regardless of the number of calendar days it takes to accumulate.
•    The relationship of GDU accumulation and corn development, along with utilizing the estimated number of days to reach a certain growth stage, can help predict when important growth stages will occur.
•    Growth stages can be used to help growers make timely applications of herbicides and fungicides. The following information is on corn growth and development from emergence to R6 growth stage.
•    Corn growth stage development can vary according to corn maturity. An early maturing product may produce fewer leaves or develop through growth stages faster than a slower paced late maturing product. This is important to remember when staging corn in relation to accumulated GDUs.

Terminology of experiments
    
Evaluation trials are important in plant breeding where the selected lines are compared with standard varieties. In most cases, it will be necessary to make comparable yield trials under field conditions. In such case, the field becomes the experimental unit. In these cases, the field becomes the experimental unit. It requires the use of small plots and adequately replicated.

The first step in applying the correct rate of fertilizer is calculating crop nutrient requirements. A soil test is the only way to measure how much P₂ O₅ and K₂ O are available in soils, and soil tests are available through several private and public laboratories.

Fertilizer Calculation

To compute the equivalent amount of fertilizer necessary to supply the corresponding amounts of nutrients, the following formula is used:

Flowers attract both young and old alike. They are associated with mankind from the dawn of civilization. These have become an integral part of human life in the modern era.
 
The Indian floriculture industry has been shifting from traditional flowers to cut flowers and dry flowers for export purposes. The liberalized economy has given an impetus to the Indian entrepreneurs for establishing export oriented floriculture units under controlled climatic conditions. About 60,000 hectares, area is under floriculture at present. During nineties, increasing demands for flowers in world market was coupled with production technology available abroad for high quality flowers.

Various methods are employed to dry flowers and foliage. The method adopted for drying depends largely on the character of the plant, that is to say whether the plant is glabrous, succulent or not succulent, hardy or delicate in nature. The suitable method for drying any given plant has to be studied elaborately. However, the different methods of drying are described broadly in this and consequent chapters.

Pressing Flowers

One of the most popular methods for drying flowers is to put them under pressure, to remove the moisture out while leaving the color of the flowers and structure intact. There are several ways to apply pressure to flowers. The easiest method is placing them in heavy books and allow for drying. Flower presses can also be used. Some guidelines for pressing flowers in the traditional way are explained below:

Drying by Embedding

A desiccant is simply a substance with a high affinity for water which can be used as a drying agent. Embedding the flowers in a granular, desiccating material is probably the most commonly used method and many consider it the best all around method. Several materials are used as drying agents. All the agents used vary in cost and in the results they produce. It is important to use the correct procedure when covering the flowers so that their form is maintained. Most well known is silica gel, but also clean dry sand can be used. Usually an airtight container is used; the flower heads are placed in the drying mixture face up, and very carefully covered with the mixture. The container must be kept closed during the drying process. After 4-14 days, depending on the thickness of the flower, the flower will be dry.

Dried Grasses

Grasses are easy to collect to dry and use. When the seed-heads have formed, the grass is cut off just above the soil using a sharp knife. They are allowed to lie in a thin layer in the sun for a day or two, turning them over a few times. They should not be allowed to get too damp. After they are dried they are put into a plethora of uses. Bunches of dried grasses can make a wonderful addition to any home or office.

Artificial flowers are a great source of handmade decorations. Beautiful handmade artificial flowers are suitable for banquets, weddings or to decorate any room in the home. They are generally made of paper or cloth and in a variety of colors. They come in either a bouquet form or can be ordered as individual stems. There are different kinds of artificial flowers including silk flower, latex flower, flowers made from natural leaves and embroidery flower.

23.1 Dry Flower Packing

Careful packing is one of the most important aspects of any product. Dry flower packing is the simplest way to capture the essence of summer flowers till long. Dry flowers should be packed nicely to avoid any damage. They should be packed alone in appropriate sized carton loosely cushioned with paper.They should be packed in a manner to keep them away from direct sunlight leaving some room for air. Packing material should be stable and firm to hold the dry flowers well without any damage during storage or transportation. Dry flowers can be packed in a variety of ways: in poly bags, window box, cardboard box, or in a sachet.

Explant

The tissue obtained from plant to be cultured is known as Explant. It may include the parts of shoots, leaves, stems, roots, flowers and callus.

Maintenance of Aseptic Environment

All culture vessels, media and instruments used in handling tissues as well as the explants must be sterilized. The importance is to keep the air surface and floor free of dust. All operations are carried out in laminar air-flow, a sterile cabinet.In general, the methods of elimination of these sources of infection can be grouped under different categories of sterilization procedures: 

A. Somatic Embryogenesis
 
In plant tissue culture, the developmental pathway of various well organised, small embryoids resembling the zygotic embryos form the embryogenic potential somatic cell of callus tissue or cells of suspension cultures is known as somatic embryogenesis. The capability of somatic cell of a culture to produce embryoids is known as embryogenic potential.

Embryoid: Embryoid is a small, well organised structure comparable to the sexual embryo, which is produced in tissue culture of dividing embryogenic potential somatic cells.

Experiment - 1 
Aim: Mobilization of recombinant Ti plasmid (with gene of interest) from  
(E. coli) to an Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain. 

Principle: Due to ease of cloning and harvesting plasmids, E. coli is most popular for maintenance of plant transformation vectors. Consequently, the plant transformation vector with cloned gene of interest is mobilized to recipient Agrobacterium strain harbouring vir plasmid. Plasmid are closed, circular DNA molecules that are able for autonomous replication with a host cell. 

Electrophoresis is a method used to separate charged particles from one another based on differences in their migration speed. In the course of electrophoresis, two electrodes (typically made of an inert metal, e.g. platinum) are immersed in two separate buffer chambers. Gel electrophoresis is a technique used to separate molecules based on physical characteristics such as size, shape, or isoelectric point. A gel is composed of agarose or polyacrylamide. Agarose is used for separating DNA fragments in size range of 100bp to 20kb. Polyacrylamide is preferred for smaller DNA fragments. Separation is achieved by moving the negatively charged nucleic acid molecules through agarose matrix with an electric field. Rate of migration of DNA molecules is inversely proportional to their molecular weight. Smaller molecules move faster than larger ones. But conformation of the DNA molecule is also an important factor. Conformations of a DNA plasmid that has not been cut with a restriction enzyme will move with different speeds such as: supercoiled plasmid DNA will move fastest followed by linearised DNA, while open circular DNA will move at the slowest pace. To visualise DNA, gels are stained with ethidium bromide which intercalates in DNA and fluorescse under UV.

Newer technologies involve fermentation by specific strains of lactic acid bacteria which bring specific fermentation under controlled conditions to a specific fermented product with enhanced organoleptic, nutritional and therapeutic qualities. Today health is of primary concern. It is important to have nutritionally balanced food with good bacteria. For this, probiotic foods top the list. The functional food concept was initially developed in Japan in 1990‘s as there were many side effects of allopathic medicines. A regulatory system has been initiated by the ministry of health and welfare to approve certain foods to improve health. These are now recognized as Foods for specialized health use (FOSHU). According to American dietic association (ADA) these foods are potential healthful food or food ingredients that may provide health benefits beyond the traditional nutrients. Probiotics are beneficial microorganisms. Probiotic foods as yogurt and sauerkraut are very well known. Fermentation increases the nutrient content and taste with the shelf life.

Today it has been understood that yeasts have great potentials as novel probiotics (Nayak, 2011). They have been found to be safe for human consumption in traditional fermented foods (Jakobsen and Narvhus 1996). Yeasts have a great physiological importance inside the gastrointestinal (GI) tract (Czerucka et al., 2007; Gatesoupe, 2007). Jespersen (2003) has mentioned the role of consuming fermented foods and the health benefits attributed with it.Yeasts are known for prevention of table olive (Arroyo lopez et al., 2012). Bonatsau et al. (2015) have shown multi-functional property of yeast as starters.

Gangana(Grewia tenax) is a deciduous tropical shrub widely distributed in arid and semi-arid region. In western Rajasthan, the natural habitat of this shrub is buried pediments, hills and pediplains (Bhandari, 1971). It does best on deep sandy loam, and can grow in very shallow, skeletal, gravelly or clay soils. It has been reported that the species grow abundantly (density = 678 individuals per ha.) in hilly waste lands of Kailana, Jodhpur. Sharma (1997) reported that its efficient root system can penetrate into minute rock crevices. It is extremely drought hardy and can withstand high temperature in hot arid climate. It tolerates frost well but plant growth is slow in arid region. Mostly fruits for sale in the local markets are collected from wild stands. It is underutilized species (Gebauer et al., 2007), the major limitations to the development as a horticultural crop is the lack of detailed information, particularly the genotype, physiology and ecology (Gebauer et al., 2007). Due to its drought hardy and dense root system, it seems promising species in arid region. It has good fodder value for small ruminants. It is naturally grown in range lands, orans, and hilly track of Aravalli. It is untapped plant species and its potential should be exploited.

West Indian Cherry is a nutritive fruit mainly grown in semi dry and tropical parts of the country. It is native to West Indies and Central and South America and distributed in Southern Florida, Hawaii and other tropical and sub tropical regions of the world. West Indian Cherry received considerable attention in the 1950’s in its area of distribution because of its extremely high vitamin C content (2000-4600 mg / 100 gm of edible matter). It has been considered to be far superior to guava (Psidium guajava L.) as a potential source of vitamin c and it is richer than even the Indian gooseberry (Phyllanthus emblica L.), which is reported to contain roughly 800 mg of ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible matter. One fruit the size of a large cherry can furnish a man’s daily requirement of this vitamin. Thus the fruit of West Indian Cherry can rightly be called as the “pill of nature’s vitamin”. The fruit can be utilized for the production of crystalline vitamin C. The fruit is also rich in vitamin A, iron and can be consumed fresh or can be used in preparation of sherbet, ice cream, jelly and baby foods, fruit nectars and soft drinks. The juice can also be used to fortify ascorbic acid content of various other products and fruit juices to improve their nutritive value. It can withstand mild frost and drought. Fruits are good source of vitamin C and bark yields tannin (Chadha, 2001).

Most of the scientific research studies –except few descriptive survey research studies–will have one or more hypotheses to be tested as a part of study. Hypothesis is a prediction intended to be tested in a research study (Aron, Coups, and Aron, 2012). Hypothesis is the guide which directs the purpose and process of research by indicating the dependent and independent variables to be observed, extraneous variables to be controlled and the active variables to be manipulated.

There can be no scientific studies which do not involve the process of measuring. Measurement process is the integral part of research activity. Measurement can be defined as the assignment of numerals to the objects or events according to set of rules.  The emphasis in this definition is on phrase ‘set of rules’. If the rules can be set up based on some rational or empirical basis, then theoretically anything can be measured. It is very much easy to understand the concept of measurement in case of physical sciences (Example weight, length, mass etc.) but it is harder understand the concept of measurement in case of psychological objects/phenomenon (intelligence, aggressiveness, attitude etc.) without understanding the predetermined rules of measurement. A rule is a guide, command that tells you what to do/how to do.

Reliability aims at assessing the accuracy and consistency of whatsoever the measuring instrument measures irrespective of whether we are measuring what we are supposed to measure or not. Whereas the validity emphasises on the question “are we measuring what we were supposed to measure?”

To clarify the difference between reliability and validity, let us take an example of instruments that measure colour intensity. Assume, an expert develops two separate instruments X and Y to measure the intensity of green and red colour, respectively. But, the commercial manufacturer wrongly tags the red colour measuring instrument as X. When someone uses this wrongly tagged instrument for measuring the green colour intensity, whatever intensity values the instrument yields are reliable but not valid. It is so because the instrument is measuring red colour intensity accurately (hence data is reliable) but it is not measuring what it was supposed to measure –the green colour intensity (hence data is not valid).

Quantitative studies are preferred over qualitative studies for their relatively higher objectivity. But many of the times, complexities involved in the occurrence of phenomenon, its causes, and consequences demand for in-depth analysis of a single unit of study. Whenever we want to study a single unit in depth both qualitatively and quantitatively then case study is the best method of research. Case study is a best tool to use, when we are interested in exploring a new phenomenon on which there is very less scientific information available and also when we are interested in formulating new hypothesis for causal study.

Interview method: It is a two way interactive (either face-to-face or through multimedia technology), method of data collection wherein the researchers elicit required response from the respondent by presenting stimulus in the form of series of questions pertinent to it.

Interview schedule: It is a data collection tool consisting of properly worded, sequentially arranged questions, tests relevant to objective of research.

Existing positive as well as negative interactions among the members of the society determine the communication structure, leadership and technology diffusion pattern within the given social system. Sociometry is a method for gathering and analyzing data on communication choice and interaction pattern of individuals, within a group in order to identify communication structure and pattern.

1.1 Problem
    1.    Compare the seed quality at different physiological maturity stages
    2.    Compare the seed recovery in acid and fermentation method

1.2 Materials
    ·    Tomato fruits – 4 batches
    ·    Plastic bucket/ Beaker
    ·    Water

The processing operations are carried out based on the principle of physical differences found in a seed lot.

9.1 Magnetic seed separator

These machines use a magnetic force to separate damaged seeds or other particles from the good seeds. This is used to solve special problems in seed lots that can not be taken out with our other basic seed cleaning equipment. Most of the time it is used for vegetable and field seeds that have problems in seed damage (fish mouth in cucumber or melon seeds / cracked radish or cabbage seeds), insect damage (beetle holes in cotton seeds) or contamination with soil or plant parts (white plant parts in onion seed) etc.

Objective: To study the seed treatment methods and equipments A key factor in achieving the few potential of good quality seed is the blanket treatment of the seeds with agrochemical in order to control or prevent diseases in the  crops.

According to Harrington’s rule (1960) of thumb, for storage, every one percent increase in moisture content, the seed life is halved far seeds of moisture content of 5-14%. For temperature, every 5^ºC rise in temperature, between 0-50 ^ºC, the seed life is halved.

PPEs are the personal protection equipments which protect the personnel against some hazards in the shop floor. PPEs form important aspects of Environment (safe disposal of treated chemicals, dusts coming out of processing), Safety (to seed storages) and Health (personnel) (ESH) strategy of any shop floor.

Present study was conducted in an Eastern Indian State ‘Chhattisgarh’, which was purposively selected keeping in view the importance of SHG movement in empowering rural poor in Eastern Indian States, home of the largest proportion of population below poverty line. To have in-depth micro level analyses, one district of Chhattisgarh was randomly selected, which happened to be the Kanker district.

The main purpose of this chapter is to summarize the results to draw the conclusions on the basis of the foregoing analyses and to indicate some of the significant implications of the present study.
 
In previous Chapter, the study described a detail account of 12 SHGs, three SHGs from each of four schemes viz. NABARD’s SHG-Bank Linkage Programme (SBLP), National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM), Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP), Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA) in Chhattisgarh state. However, looking back to this study with the salient findings and implications would be the precursor for looking ahead.

The following graph is a visual representation of how plant growth and/or yield is affected by nutrient concentrations

    1.    Salt affected soils;
    2.    Classification of salt affected soils; 
    3.    Formation of salt affected soils; 

Fertilizers are applied to supplement nutrient requirement of the crop. It should not be looked as a substitute to organic sources. After determination of nutrient requirement of a crop fora given yield and contribution of nutrients from different sources, articularly, from the soil source, it is necessary to supplement the balance from the inorganic sources. These are determined by field experimentation supplemented by pot-culture, laboratory and green housestudies, if necessary. When a fertilizer is applied all of its nutrient (s) are not absorbed by the crop. The interactions between soil-crop-season and other factors are quite significant. Only a fraction of the nutrient(s) is utilized by the crop.

Methods of soil fertility evaluation          
    I.    Nutrient deficiency symptoms on plants  
    II.    Plant analysis
    III.    Biological tests   
    IV.    Soil testing
    V.    Spectral sensing for site specific evaluation

Soil fertility evaluation is conducted for providing an adequate supply of essential plant nutriens to ensure optimum plant productivity, while maximising economic benefits and minimising environmental degradation.
 
Mathematical modelling of nutrient application

The significance of an essential plant nutrient was contained in the Liebig’s law of minimum.

Methods of fertilizer application

Two major methods are used to apply fertilizers  
I) Application of fertilizers in solid form 
II) Application of fertilizers in liquid forms

Use of biofertilizers in agriculture and their advantage
 
Bio-fertilizers or bio-inoculants

These are productions containing living organisms such as nitrogen fixers or phosphorus solubilises which are useful for agricultural production. Biofertilizers play a significant role in improving soil fertility and plant growth. By fixing atmospheric nitrogen both in association with plants and without plants solubilize insoluble soil phosphates into soluble phosphates there by increasing the availability of phosphorus secrete growth promoting substances and supplies to the inoculated plants.

Synonyms :  Three days sickness, Stiff  sickness,  Dengu fever of cattle, Bovine epizootic fever and Lazy man’s disease.

Bovine ephemeral fever (BEF) is a viral disease of cattle, Bos Taurus, Bos indicus and Bos javanicus and water buffalo Bubalus bubalis, although  subclinically infect a greater range of ruminant species. Although the disease has a variety of names, bovine ephemeral fever is most commonly used  and is very apt. The disease in cattle is characterized  by acute febrile reaction, stiffness, lameness and spontaneous recovery in three days.  The morbidity may be high but the mortality is low. It mainly occurs in subtropical and temperate regions of Africa, Asia and Australia.

Synonyms : Infectious adenitis, Equine distemper
It is  an acute infectious disease of equines characterized by catarrhal inflammation of the upper respiratory tract with suppuration and abscessation of the associated lymph node.
 
Etiology :  Strepococcus  equi subspecies equi is a Gm+ cocci that produces a -b haemolysin characterized by clear haemolysis surrounding colonies growing on blood agar. It is a biovar or genovar of S. zooepidemicus. Equines are very much susceptible and different genetic clones occur geographically. S. equi varies in virulence which is related to M protein and hyaluronic capsule produced. S. equi variant without capsule causes mild disease.

Seed Sampling

The size and quantity of seed sample required for seed quality testing remains small as compared to the seed lot hence, representative samples are randomly drawn for this purpose. The process of obtaining a uniform and representative sample from a seed lot for seed quality testing is called seed sampling. The samples are prepared in accordance to ISTA rules to ensure that small size sample should represent truly and in the same proportion all constituents of seed lot.

Physical purity test determines the proportion of pure seed, other crop seed, weed seed, inert matter, moisture and germination components in the seed lot by weight in percentage in accordance to prescribed Seed Standards. It thus, helps in improving the plant stand, raising a pure crop by eliminating other crop seeds, weed seeds and disease free-seeds. Seed must not be sold until the percentage of pure seed, other crop seed, weed seed, and inert matter are in accordance to seed physical purity standards. Physical purity test is required for seed certification or seed law enforcement and it is a pre-requisite for ger- mination test.

INTRODUCTION

Northeast India comprises the contiguous seven sister states.viz., Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura and the Himalayan state of Sikkim. The Northeastern states of India are blessed with diversified fish fauna which assumes special interest due to the fact that the region is grained by two important drainages viz., Brahamaputra-Barak and Chindwin Irrawaddy. (Gurumayum and Choudhury, 2009). Riverine fisheries resources of Northeastern States comprise of 19,150 km of streams and rivers. Except the Brahmaputra and Barak Valleys in Assam and Imphal Valley in Manipur, the Northeast mainly comprises of Hills and Mountains which form 65% of its territory (Suguman, 1998).

INTRODUCTION

The North Eastern Region of India comprises of eight states, viz., Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura, Nagaland, Mizoram and Sikkim. These north eastern states are home to myriad tribals and several ethnic groups. Most of the people of the north-eastern region of India belong to the Mongolian race and the food habit of the region is fairly similar with that of South-East Asian countries. Fermented foods form an intrinsic part of the diet of these people. Fermentation has been an age long traditional practice of preserving various food products in the region. These fermented products are used as condiments in the preparation of various traditional sauces, strews and dishes (Saisithi, 1994).