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2.1 What is a frequency distribution?

A frequency distribution shows the frequencies of occurrence of the observations in a data set. Often the distribution of the observed data is called an empirical frequency distribution, in contrast to the theoretical probability distribution determined from a mathematical model.

The class interval is a term used in statistics when we are given a continuous series. Class means a group of numbers in which items are placed such as 0-10, 10-20, 20-30, etc. Class interval refers to the numerical width of any class in a particular distribution.

2.2 Relative frequency distributions

Although creating a frequency distribution is a useful way of describing a set of observations, it is difficult to compare two or more frequency distributions if the total number of observations in each distribution is different. A way of overcoming this difficulty is to calculate the proportion or percentage of observations in each class or category. These are called relative frequencies and each is obtained by dividing the frequency for that category by the total number of observations (column 3 of Table 2.1). The sum of the relative frequencies of all the categories is unity (or 100%) apart from rounding errors.

1.1 Classification

The raw or ungrouped data are in unorganized form and need be organized in meaningful and readily comprehensible form in order to facilitate further statistical analysis. Classification of data is the first step in this direction. It is the process of arranging thing in groups according to their resemblance and affinities. There are two basic types of classification namely-qualitative and quantitative. In qualitative classification, the basis of classification is some attribute or quality like: sex, literacy, religion, etc. A qualitative classification may be simple or manifold. The classification done with respect to one attribute is termed as ‘Simple Classification’. The classification in which two or more attributes are considered and several classes are formed is called ‘Manifold Classification’. In quantitative classification, the collected data are grouped in respect of characteristics, which can be measured and numerically expressed such as height, weight, etc.

Statistical Series: When observations of any characteristic present in the individual of a group are recorded and arranged one after the other in a systematic order, they form a series, known as statistical series. For example: milk yield of 20 cows, height of the students in a class in a systematic order, etc. These are some important types of series:

• Discrete series: In this series, observations can take up only exact values and not any fractional values, is called discrete series. That means, this type of series has whole number of counting. For example: number of the students in a class, members of a family, number of births in a certain year, etc

• Continuous series: A series which can take up any numerical value (integral/ fractional) within a certain range is called continuous series. For example: milk yield of 20 cows, height, weight, temperature, etc.

• Array series: When we arranged the observations of a series either in ascending order of their magnitude or descending order of their magnitude, then it becomes an array series.

• Spatial series: When items of a series are given according to space or place or time, then such type of series is known as spatial series. For example: month wise milk yield of a herd of cows, month wise income or expenditure of an industry, population of a country according to states, etc.

In broad perspective, plants and crops of agriculture can be classified mainly based on three criterions namely descriptive, ecological and agronomical. Understanding these basic classifications will help us to study the characteristics of each plant in detail.

Descriptive Classification

In descriptive approach, plants and crops can be classified based on the mode of reproduction, mode of pollination, life span, growth habits and leaf retention property. Sexual and asexual reproducing plants are the two groups based on the mode of reproduction. The sexual reproducing plants are developed from a seed after the union of male and female gametes and asexual plants reproduces through vegetative means and not by male and female gametes.

It is vital to categorise agroforestry and its many systems in accordance with certain contemporary standards in order to have a thorough grasp of them and to enable future progress. Since each agroforestry system refers to a different set of agroforestry practices involving agriculture (crops), forestry (trees), and pasture (animals), the various uses of land are combined either temporally or spatially. Each agroforestry system has its own unique arrangement of various components, such as crops, animals, perennial trees, etc., and degree of interaction between the components. In terms of structure, composition, age intensity, technology, inputs, etc., one system varies from the other.

Creating a useful framework for the synthesis and analysis of data on current systems as well as the creation of new, promising ones should be the primary goal of classification. For this reason, every categorization system needs to have the accompanying the following standards.

Though more than 1500 species contain volatile aromatic principles, only around 50 species serve as commercial source of essential oil and aroma-chemicals. Among these, aromatic crops under large-scale cultivation hardly exceeds two dozens. Important aromatic plants of world are classified according to economic part used, growth habit, habitat, crop duration and propagation method besides usual botanical classification.

"Bacteria” = Plural form, “Bacterium” = Singular form

Bacterium is a single-celled microorganism that do not have cell organelles (mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, chloroplast etc.) or a true nucleus. Bacteria are microscopic, unicellular organism that belongs to the kingdom prokaryotes.

Morphology of Bacteria

Bacterial morphology deals with size, shape, and arrangement of bacterial cells.

Size of Bacteria

Bacteria are microscopic organisms that are less than 3 micrometeres (μm) in size. Size of cocci range from 0.5 to 3 μm, and the size of a rod shaped bacteria range from 0.15 to 2 μm (width) to 0.5 to 20 μm (length).

Biofertilizers can be defined as the preparations containing strains of micro-organisms which can augment the microbiological process viz. nitrogen fixation, phosphate solubilization or mineralization, excretion of plant growth promoting substances or cellulose or lignin biodegradation in soil, compost or other environments. Biofertilizers can be divided into nitrogen fixing bacteria, phosphate solubilizing and mobilizing microorganisms and organic matter decomposers as (Table 3.1 and Fig. 3.1):

On the basis of Nitrogen Fixation: On the basis of N₂ fixation, they are divided in to two sub categories as

1. True bone tumours. Neoplasms arising from cells of mesenchymal origin, derived from a common ancestry and whose function is primarily skeletal boen formation. These tumours fall into four main groups according to the predominant cell type present. By reason of the mutability of the cells metaplasia is common and intermediate stages are found.

Characters

1) They are called true flies.

2) It is one of the largest orders in the class Insecta, having more than 1, 20, 000 described species.

3) On thorax, there is only one pair of wing (Di = two; ptera = wings) i.e. Mesothoracic wing. Metathoracic pair of wings are modified into structures called “Halters or balancers.” Halter is a rod like structure having knob at distal end. During flight, this halter goes on vibrating @ 300 vibrations/sec. Its main function is to keep fly balanced during flying/flight.

4) One pair of compound eyes is present which is dichoptic in female and holoptic in male.

5) Larvae are apodous which is called maggots.

6) The order Diptera is divided into suborders, Orthorrhapha and Cyclorrhapha. These sub orders are distinguished morphologically by wing venation and structure of antennae.

Climatic classification is the method of identifying climatologically homogenous regions. The systematic study of climate and its analysis and processing, which is referred as climatology plays an important role in national weather, planning activities and decision making in human activities. Iso climatic regions are those regions which have same climatic conditions.

Specific objectives of climatic classification

To identify the climates for transfer of production technology developed at particular center.

To provide adequate indices of moisture availability for successful crop production in drylands.

To quantify the risk levels associated with production constrains to agriculture production.

Climate classification systems are ways of classifying the world’s climates. One purpose of climatic classification is to group together places with similar climatic characteristics. That means if an area or region is categorised under a particular climatic type, it possesses broadly uniform characteristics with respect to climate. Classifications have been based on climatic elements such as temperature and precipitation, which are measurable, and on differences in tree species, soil characteristics, topography, etc. The varied nature of earth’s surface and the many interactions that occur among atmospheric processes give every location on the earth a distinctive climate.

Although the delineation of distinct climates may seem likely a very straightforward job, establishing the criteria by which climates are delineated requires considerable subjectivity. There are many ways of classifying the climate depending on the user and the level of understanding of the climate system at a given time. Different regions of the same climate type constitute isoclimatic regions. Identification of isoclimates helps in the transfer of agro-technology and suggesting new cropping pattern. Climatic classification is based on two approaches, viz., generic or empirical approach and genetic approach. In the generic approach the classification is based on the observed climatic elements or their effects on the phenomena, usually vegetation or humankind. The genetic classification is based on climatic controls such as general circulation, net radiation and moisture fluxes.

The concept of climate classification was originally brought out to delineate natural vegetation, which is dependent on rainfall and temperature. Climate classification is unique tool to find out different climate types across the globe, out of which isoclimates or homoclimates can be traced out.

The climate of a particular place is the function of a number of factors such as latitude and its influence on solar radiation received, air mass influences, location of global high and low pressure zones, heat exchange from ocean currents, distribution of mountain barriers, pattern of prevailing winds, distribution of land and sea, and altitude.

Crops: Is a cultivated plant that is grown on large scale commercially, especially cereal, pulses, fruits or vegetables.

Classification of crops : Several crop plants are alike with respect to ontogeny (Development), morphology, anatomy, physiology and requirement of environment. Classification is done to generalize similar crop plants as a class for attaining better understanding of them. Field crops are classified in several ways.

Plant diseases are caused by different etiological agents like Fungi, Bacteria, Viruses, Viroids, Phytoplasmas, Rickettsia like bacteria, Nematodes, Algae and Protozoan parasites. To control these specific pathogens and the diseases caused by them, a specific group of medicine/chemical molecule is required.

Introduction

Drought occurs when a region experiences below average precipitation, resulting in prolonged shortages in its water supply, which can have a significant impact on agriculture and the ecosystem. To reduce the effect of drought on farm production and stabilize farm income, farmers must take systematic measures called drought coping mechanisms. These measures can be categorized into two broad categories: Ex-ante coping mechanisms, which are taken before the occurrence of drought, and Ex-post coping mechanisms, which are taken after the occurrence of drought. Ex-ante coping mechanisms include activities such as crop, spatial, and varietal diversification, income diversification, and the use of savings. Ex-post coping mechanisms include changing consumption patterns, borrowing money, liquidating assets, seeking government drought relief funds, and migration. Drought can have a significant impact on crop and livestock production, causing farmers to adopt drought coping mechanisms to stabilize their farm income. This study goals to identify the factors that determine the adoption of such coping mechanisms, to mitigate the effects of drought on the livelihoods of farmers.

Rural Economy and Agriculture

It is being progressively recognized that the globalized nature of economies across the world is affecting the economic security of all nations. Particularly, in this present era when globalization, liberalization and privatization are rapidly budding and creating new threats and opportunities, it is established that farmers need to be organized to participate and proliferate in the development processes. The phenomenon has triggered substantial debate as to whether globalization is positive evolution of economic action or detrimental to the interests of certain countries or specific groups (Kaplinsky, 2004; Nadvi, 2004).

A. Answer the following questions:

1.    What is concentrate ingredients?

Ans: These are feedstuffs having more than 60% TDN, less than 35% cell wall contents and less than 18% crude fibre on dry matter basis.

2.    What is soilage?

Ans: Pasture whether natural or cultivated when cut and fed green to an animal in its own stall is called soilage.

3.    What is husk?

Ans: Dry outer covering of grains and grams e.g. gram husk, rice husk.

4.    What is fodder?

Ans: Any green plant or crop meant for animal feeding for supply of nutrients and bulk.

5.    What is leguminous fodder?

Field Crops: Refers to the crops grown on a vast scale. They are classified in the following ways

1. According to the place of origin

2. Botanical classification

3. Commercial classification

4. Economic classification

5. Seasonal classification

6. Classification according to ontogeny

7. Agronomic classification

8. Classification based on leaf morphology

9. Classification based on serving special purpose

The evolutionary classification based largely on the typological methods has been adopted a number of fish taxonomist. Foremost among them are Gunther and Cope (1871) Boutenger (1904); Jordan (1923); Regan (1929); Berg (1940) and Romer (1959). Out of the various schemes proposed by aforesaid taxonomists, there is no agreement among the ichthyologists regarding the classification of fishes. Fishes constitute more than one half of all vertebrates comprising around 40,000 species.

The classification of Berg (1940) is most widely accepted, it is based upon the conclusions of Jordan (1923) and Regan (1929). Many ichthyologists consider Bergs classification as a minor revision. Berg scrutinizing the merits of the other classification proposals and make advanced classification, which is accepted all over the world.

Classification of fracture and its repair in large animal practice by external completion method.

Aim

To know the different level of fracture limbs. In order to access their method of repair (Fig.1).

Complete fracture- It is a fracture in which there is complete loss of bone continuity and the bone is divided into two or more fragments (Fig.1).

Green stick fracture- It is the fracture in which, the cortex opposite to the bending force fractures completely, while the cortex under the force remains in tact, commonly seen in immature animals, (Fig-2)

Overriding fracture-A fracture in which the fragments lie side by side, causing shortening of limb (Fig-3)

Transverse fracture-The fracture line here runs transverse to the long axis of bone. Such type of fracture is caused by bending forces (Fig-4).

Oblique fracture- In this the fracture line runs oblique to the long axis of the bone. Such type of fracture is caused by bending with axial compression (Fig-5).

Spiral fracture-Here the fracture line spirals along the long axis of bone. Such type of fracture is caused by torsion, twisting or rotational forces e.g. in humorous (Fig-6)

Comminuted fracture- In this fracture, at least three fracture lines inter connect each other at one point (Fig-7).

Fruit crops can be classified into many groups or categories based on certain criteria, which may vary according to climatic and soil requirements, growth habits and of late with consumer rating. Horticultural and botanical classifications are two important types of classification followed in fruit plants. Classification often helps to identify the names and to group the plants. It also gives an account about relatedness among them which further suggest the breeding possibility and grafting compatibility. Different types of classifications followed are discussed here:

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON CLIMATIC REQUIREMENT

Fruit plants are classified based on their climatic adaptability and it is also known as ecological classification. In horticultural point of view, this classification has got much significance. Fruit growers can select crops suited to a particular region by following the demarcations given here. Fruit plants are categorized into the following groups in this classification.

Temperate fruits

Fruit crops need exact climatic requirements for their growth and development, flowering and fruiting. These plants are grown only in places where winter is distinctly cold, they are deciduous and become dormant during this season. Plants should be exposed to specific chilling temperature for certain period for flower induction. These plants are suitable to higher elevations and they can withstand frost. eg. Apple, plum, peach, pear, almond, walnut.

Classification of fruits: Classification is the system of grouping or placing of an individual according to nomenclature. It is very useful to the pomologist, it helps to:

•    To identify and naming the crop.

•    To study the close relationship.

•    To know their hybrids and crossing behavior.

•    To know their compatibility & inter grafting ability.

•    To know their adoptability to soil & climate.

Pomology: Pomology is a branch of horticulture which deals the cultivation utilization and management of the fruit crops. eg. Mango, Banana, Citrus, Papaya, Guava etc. The term pomology is a combination of two words “Poma” in Greek means Fruits later subsequently transfer in to “Pome” in Latin word means Fruits and Logos means Study.

1. Fruit : Types and their Classification

Fruit:The botanical definition of fruit is a seed-bearing part of a flowering plant or tree that can be eaten as food

or

Fruits are matured ovaries plus any associated flower parts and contain the seeds of the plant. The ovary may be subdivided into two or more carpels (then termed compound ovary) each bearing one to many ovules. Individual carpels develop into sections of a whole fruit, as with citrus where each familiar segment of the fruit represents one matured carpel. If the ovary is not subdivided, then it is termed simple. The ovules will mature into seeds if fertilized. Fruit has three parts.

According to G.C. Ainsworth (1973) the fungus is free-living, parasitic or mutualistic, saprotrophs, necrotrophs or biotrophs and devoid of chlorophyll. Cell wall composition very variable, majority contain chitin and glucans, reserve materials glycogen, oil and mannitol, characteristic disaccharide and trehalose. Some yeast-like but majority with thread-like filaments, hyphae, branched profusely to form the vegetative mycelium on which spores are produced, asexually or sexually, free on hyphae or enclosed in complex reproductive structures. Separated mainly on morphology of the latter.

2.1 Divisions: Myxomycota

These are wall-less and quite unusual organisms only included in the fungi as mostly studied by mycologists. Possess either a plasmodium, a mass of naked, multinucleate protoplasm, which feeds any ingesting particulate matter and moves by amoeboid cells. Both of slimy consistencies hence slime molds. Four classes:

2.1.1 Class: Acrasiomycetes (Cellular slime molds)

Assimilative phase, free living amoebae which aggregate to form a pseudoplasmodium before reproduction.

I. Classification of fruit crops

1. Based on botanical relationship

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Owing to a varied agro-ecological and eco- edaphic condition prevalent in one or other part of the country, quite a large number of crops are grown in different parts of India. India is rich in bio-diversity with four hotspots out of twenty-five in the world. About 356 domesticated plant species having economic and botanical importance and 326 species with their wild relatives are found in Indian sub-continent. Besides the above, 9500 other plant species are also available. More than 50 different types of fruits, 50 different types of vegetables, 95 types of spices and condiments, medicinal and aromatic plants, plantation crops and ornamental crop plants have been recorded. To avoid confusion and identity, the horticultural plants are grouped into different categories based on similarity or dissimilarities. Grouping of the crop plants with similar characteristics is referred as classification.

Classification is system of placing an individual or a member in various groups or to categories them according to particular plan or sequence which is in conformity with the nomenclature. From time-to-time for purposes of convenience plants or fruits have been classified in various ways that makes possible to refer them to a large number of kinds under a group name without enumerating or specifying individually. The basis of these groupings varies according to the features of fruits or growth of the fruit plants that have been under classification at the time.

Knowledge of classification of horticultural plants is very useful to the horticulturists because it serves: (1) to identity and name them, (2) to afford at least some idea of the closeness of their relationship i.e. line of descent to other kinds, (3) to suggest with what other kind they possibly may or may not be interbred or crossed, (4) to suggest the kinds with which they possibly may or may not be inter-grafted, and (5) often to suggest certain soil and the cultural requirements, climatic adaptations etc. However, the classification of fruit trees or fruits and vegetables on the basis of consumer’s rating also gained attention in recent years. The consumers’ rating is mainly based on the size, shape, nutritive value and marketability of them. Each of these classifications is quite different from the other classification or groupings.

Basically, the fruit trees, as suggested by many authors, have been classified on the basis of their botany comprising of taxonomic ancestry, morphologic features, physiological functions, adaptability etc. or on the basis of agricultural and horticultural requirements. But the consumers’ rating has not been properly covered in the earlier classification. Generally based on botanical relationship the plants are classified as under.

Grouping plants in different categories on the basis of similarities and dissimilarities is referred to as classification, which helps for study of these crops in various perspectives. India is endowed with a rich diversity of horticultural plant wealth due to varied agro-climatic conditions. Number of fruits, vegetables, ornamental crops, spices, condiments, plantation crops, etc. is under commercial cultivation in different parts of the country under different sets of growing conditions.

The systematic study of all these crops becomes a difficult and more repetitive part. To avoid it; classification of horticultural crops on different aspects has been made to deal with all these plants separately. Classification of horticultural crops has been made in different groups on similarity or dissimilarity of attributes. Plants having similarity in either of the traits are placed under one group. The overall objective of the classification is to categorize the horticultural plants and make the recollections very easy and convenient.

CLASSIFICATION

• Wistar albino
• Sprague Dawley
• Long Evans
• Charles

Wistar Albino

Wistar albino is common strain found in most laboratories and used extensively for research. They have the following characteristics: (i) Less resistance of inflammation, (ii) No incidence of spontaneous tumor.

Sprague Dawley

Definition of Breed

A breed is a group of animal’s related similar characters like general appearance, size, features and configuration etc. A group of individual which have certain common characteristicsthat distinguish them from other groups of individuals is known as Species.

The classification of living organisms has passed through several changes and has reached the present stage with the gradual assimilation of more and more knowledge about them. The classification is mainly based on the anatomy, life style, habits, habitats, metamorphosis and such other characteristics. Though the concept of classification of living organisms was perhaps started by Aristotle between 384 - 322 BC, it was the Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus (1758) who presented the classification, which was acceptable to most of the Taxonomists. He propounded the binomial nomenclature of naming each and every organism of animal and plant origin with a generic and species name. In his classification, he was consistent in using Latin names for all the organisms. He was the originator of a regular system of classification in which he recognized larger and smaller categories, the larger ones comprising of a varying number of smaller ones. Because of his contribution in the field of Taxonomy, he is rightly called the ‘Father of nomenclature’. A.D.Imms later modified the system to some extent in 1961. However, Brauer (1885) laid the foundation of the modern system of classification of insects. He was the first one to emphasize the fundamental division into primitive wingless insects, the ‘Apterygota’ and the winged or secondarily wingless insects, the ‘Pterygota’. The latest code on classification and nomenclature was approved and published by the ‘International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature’, London in 1964.

1.    Kernel type: Dent, Flint, Floury, Waxy, Sweet and Pop corn 
        •    Dent corn (Zea mays indentata Staurt.)
        •    Flint corn (Zea mays indurate Staurt.)
        •    Pop corn (Zea mays everta Staurt.)
        •    Sweet corn (Zea mays saccharata Staurt.)
        •    Flour/soft corn (Zea mays amylacea Staurt.)
        •    Waxy corn (Zea mays ceatina Kulesh)

1. Village market is based on the classification of ________________

a) Volume of transaction

b) Location

c) Time span

d) Area coverage

2. Regional Markets are based on ___________

a) Location

b) Time span

c) Area coverage

d) Volume of transaction

3. The prices of commodities are controlled mainly by the extent of demand for the commodity rather than the supply of the commodity.

Classification of market

There are several bases on which markets are classified.

a. On the basis of location

On the basis of the place of location or operation, markets are of the following types:

Village market

A market which is located in a small village, where major transactions take place among the buyers and sellers of a village, is called a village market.

Primary markets

• These markets are located in big towns near the centres of production of commodities. In these markets, a major part of the produce is brought for sale by the producer-farmers themselves. Transactions in these markets usually take place between the producers/farmers and traders.

Improvements in microscopes enabled scientists to study the ‘invisible’ organisms – that is, those too small to be seen with the naked eye. They were able to show that certain of these microscopic creatures are responsible for the infectious diseases of higher organisms. Most of them are harmless, some are essential for life and some are used in the manufacture of products that are of benefit to humans.

A mutagen is a physical or chemical agent that changes the genetic material (DNA) of an organism and thus increases the frequency of mutations above the natural incidence. Errors during DNA replication, repair and recombination also causes spontaneous mutations naturally. Mutagens may be of chemical, physical or biological origin. The properties of each mutagen vary by causing damage to the DNA, and most often result in replication error.

1.1. Above ground feeders

1.1.1. Feeding on flower buds, leaves and bulbs.

Seed gall nematode: Anguina tritici

Leaf and bud neamtode: Aphelenchoides

Stem and bulb nematode: Ditylenchus

There are thousands of diseases, which attack crop plants. Classification can be made based on several criteria. The various ways of classifying diseases of plants are given below.

A. Based on Type of Infection

1. Localized disease- affecting only a part of the plant; leaf spots and anthracnoses caused by different fungi.

2. Systemic disease- affecting the entire plant.

B. Based on Symptoms

Rusts, smuts, wilts, blights, cankers, mildews, rots, damping-off, die-back, scab etc.

There are number of diseases which attacks crop plants. Therefore It is mandatory to classify plant disease into more manageable and more specific group based on several criteria for easy and better understanding. Let us discuss one by one.

1. On the basis of type of infection

On the basis of type of infection disease can be classified into two types

Arrangement of plants and animals into groups according to their close resemblance, naming and describing them is called classification. Classifying the plants into groups is called systematic botany. The main aim of classification is to name the plant to describe them and to bring out their resemblances in order to throw light on their relationship and common ancestor. It is to indicate primitive and advanced plants systematically.

Need for Classification

It is not possible for anyone to study all the organisms. But if they are grouped in some convenient way the study would become easier as the characters of a particular group or a family would apply to all the individuals of that group. Classification allows us to understand diversity better.

Classification of plants

Entire plant kingdom is divided into four main groups.

1. Thallophyta 2. Bryophyta 3. Pteridophyta 4. Spermatophyta or Phenerogams

The nematode feeding on plant can be divided into above ground feeders and below ground feeders.

I. Above ground feeders

a) Feeding on flower buds, leaves and bulbs

Seed gall nematode : Anguina tritici

Leaf and bud nematode : Aphelenchoides

Stem and buld nematode : Ditylenchus

The nematode feeding on plant can be divided into above ground feeders and below ground feeders.

LAB constitutes a group of gram positive bacteria. They are nonsporulating, nonrespiring but aerotolerant cocci or rods, which produce lactic acid as one of the main fermentation products of carbohydrates, they do not have cytochromes. They belong to the phylum Firmicuttes, class Bacilli and order Lactobacillaceae. The group includes several genera such as Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Bifidobacterium, Pediococcus, Enterobacter, Corynebacterium, Streptococcus, Leuconostoc etc.

The classification of pyrolysis processes plays a crucial role in understanding and categorizing the various methods used for thermal decomposition of biomass, waste materials, and carbonaceous feedstocks. This chapter provides an in-depth overview of the classification schemes employed in the field of pyrolysis. It discusses the different factors considered for classification, including temperature, heating rate, feedstock, reactor configuration, and operating conditions. Understanding these classifications is essential for selecting the appropriate pyrolysis process based on specific objectives, feedstock availability, and desired product yields.

Objective

1. To classify the various spices and condiments.

Types of classification: spices and condiments are classified on the following basis:

1. Classification on the basis of economic importance
2. Classification on the basis of parts used
3. Classification on the basis of climatic requirements
4. Classification on the basis of life cycle
5. Classification on the basis of taxonomy
6. Botanical classification

Stored grain pests are one of the major constraints in obtaining quality seeds. They cause substantial yield loss in storage conditions affecting both the quality and quantity of the produce. Apart from causing direct loss to the grains, they also make them unfit for consumption through their excreta, scales and wings resulting in development of unpleasant odour (Upadhyay and Ahmad, 2011). They also act as a source of medium for growth of fungi or bacteria (Daglish et al., 2018). The method of infestation of stored gain pests is different from the insect pests infesting crops under field condition. Generally, the infestation of storage pests starts after harvesting. It has been reported that in India, there is a loss of about 14 million tons worth Rs. 7000 crores due to the infestation by different storage pests (Chaubey, 2022). The post-harvest loss in terms of quantity and quality by different storage insect-pests accounts for about 10-30 per cent (Rajasri and Kavitha, 2015; Yaseen et al., 2019).

Introduction

The book has been framed as a text book cum vegetable production manual for both under graduate and post graduate students of Agriculture/ Horticulture as well as commercial vegetable production professionals. This book has been oriented on different management practices of vegetable culture in open field condition viz., Classification of vegetable crops, Management of seedlings in the nursery, Water managent, Plant nutrient management, Pollination management, Integrated pest management, Biological management of diseases, Weed management and Production technology of different vegetable crops.

Classification of vegetable crops

Vegetables are defined as herbaceous plant origin material with generally low calorific value providing micronutrients, vitamins, antioxidants, fibre and induce alkaline reaction inside human body. Vegetable crops are not only botanically different but also their cultural and climatic adaptation shows wide variability. It is, therefore, necessary to classify the vegetable crops for their easy recognition. Vegetable crops can conveniently be classified “Botanically” for the purpose of vegetable breeding and according to “Method of culture” from the point of crop husbandry.

Botanical classification

The crops used for vegetable purpose in the world belong to 1200 species under 78 families and of them, more than 860 species under 59 families belong to dicotyledoneae and about 340 species under 19 families belong to monocotyledoneae. In the tropical and subtropical parts of the world, about 90 species of vegetable crops are cultivated, but hardly 20 of them are commercially important.

In the present botanical classification, over 140 different vegetable crops under 6 monocotyledoneae and 20 dicotyledoneae families have been included.