eBook Chapters

Introduction

As global temperatures rise and extreme weather events become more frequent, the agricultural sector faces escalating challenges. The need for climate-resilient agriculture has never been more urgent. This chapter embarks on a journey to unravel the intricacies of adapting farming practices to changing weather patterns. It explores the multifaceted nature of climate change impacts on agriculture, emphasizing the importance of sustainable and resilient solutions.

Understanding Climate Change And Agriculture

The chapter begins by elucidating the current state of climate change and its specific implications for agriculture. It highlights shifts in temperature, altered precipitation patterns, and the increasing frequency of extreme weather events, underscoring the urgency for proactive adaptation measures.

Climate change is looming large on the globe. Food security is one of the key issues that inevitably needs to be resolved under the specters of climate change, particularly in the fragile ecosystems. Never before in the history has Indian agriculture been as vulnerable and uncertainty ridden as it is today. A glimpse of the dynamics of Indian agriculture reveals that it has systematically deviated away from its base environment, the prop that nourishes all biological resources. Today’s agriculture is valued against the prices it fetches from the market, especially the global market. Its contribution to human health and welfare, ecological integrity, resilience of nature etc., are grossly neglected.

Agriculture in developing countries must undergo a significant transformation in order to meet the related challenges of achieving food security and responding to climate change. Projections based on population growth and food consumption patterns indicate that agricultural production will need to increase by at least 70 per cent to meet demands by 2050. Most estimates also indicate that climate change is likely to reduce agricultural productivity, production stability and incomes in some areas that already have high levels of food insecurity. Developing climate–smart agriculture is thus crucial to achieving future food security and climate change goals.

The production, processing and marketing of agricultural goods are central to food security and economic growth. Products derived from plants and animals include foods (such as cereals, vegetables, fruits, fish and meat), fibers (such as cotton, wool, hemp and silk), fuels (such as dung, charcoal and biofuels from crops and residues) and other raw materials (including medicines, building materials, resins, etc.,). Production has been achieved through a number of production systems which range from smallholder mixed cropping and livestock systems to intensive farming practices such as large monocultures and intensive livestock rearing. The sustainable intensification of production, especially in developing countries, can ensure food security and contribute to mitigating climate change by reducing deforestation and the encroachment of agriculture into natural ecosystems

Introduction

Climate-smart small ruminant production is an approach for transforming and reorienting the small ruminant production under the new realities of climate change. The main objective of climate-smart small ruminant production is to make the production sustainable for national food security, enhancement of resilience, and reduction of greenhouse gasses emission. Climate-smart agriculture is that, which increases the sustainable productivity, enhances resilience, reduce greenhouse gasses (GHG) and boost the achievements of national food security and development goals (FAO, 2013). In India, most of the rural communities earn their livelihood on smallholder livestock production system and they are very much vulnerable to climate change. Therefore, the need of the hour is to address the impact of climate change both in terms of adaptation as well as mitigation perspective (Vemeulen et al., 2013). The increase in population, the higher income, urbanization, and change in dietary preference leading to increased demand for animal products that pressurizing for higher productivity of livestock (Delgado et al., 1999; Thronton et al., 2007).

The mutton production in our country was 399 million Kg in 2012 which will be around 537 million Kg by 2020, and 840 million Kg in 2030 and 1317 million Kg in 2050. However, the requirement for mutton would be 813 million Kg by 2020, 986 million Kg by 2030 and 1408 million Kg in 2050. Similarly, the wool production in the country is 44.7 million Kg in present time (2011-2012), which have to be increased 150, 180 and 200 million Kg in 2020, 2030 and 2050, respectively. But the harsh climatic condition, shrinkage grazing resources, increase in cultivation and industrialization and decline interest of new generation for small ruminant rearing; making a question mark to meet the future demand in the current production trend. The scarcity of resources, impact of climate change and increase demand for mutton has made the traditional coping mechanism less effective (Sidahmed, 2008). Therefore, we need climate-smart sheep and goat production option that can achieve the triple win scenario of increasing productivity, adapting and building resilience to climate change through a reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission (FAO, 2013; Shikuku et al., 2016).

Climatic conditions prevalent in rainfed areas

Weather, which is part of climate, plays an important role in crop planning in dry farming area. Out of the several elements of weather, rainfall has key position in success of dry farming. In dryland areas, South West Monsoon brings the bulk of rainfall. The South West Monsoon is followed by North East Monsoon which supplements to South West Monsoon are the main source of rainfall. There are four types of rainfall characterized by the nature in different parts of India. Generally, the rainfall is scanty, erratic and ill distributed.

1. Rainfall

The monsoon period is not one of continuous rains in any part of the country. Meghalaya that is uncommon in the behavior of monsoon in the country. There are at least four variations in rainfall.

1.The commencement of rains may be quite early or considerable delayed according to the dates of monsoon for central Maharashtra zone is 10th June but is started as early as 28th May 1925 and its onset was delayed upto 26th June 1954 according with the date of onset of monsoon in Rajasthan is between June 21 to 30 but is started as late as up to end of July 1987 to 1992.

2.There may be prolonged breaks in rainfall. These breaks in monsoon rains can be different duration. The breaks of 5-7 days may not be all serious concern but breaks of longer duration of 2-3 weeks created the situation of plant water stress leading to reduction in agricultural production. Another important point is the physiological properties of soil and available water holding capacity in the relation to the breaks and drought, some of the soils e.g. deep black soils have capacity to store more than 300 mm of water per meter depth where as the desert soil can ensure only 100 mm. The impact of drought is felt more quickly in the soil having less water holding capacity but in sols with high storage capacity 15 days dry break may not affect the crop where as the soils of less storage capacity show wilting symptoms in and dry break such breaks cannot be predicted for a given season in advance. The drought caused due to this break is therefore of different magnitude and severity.

Abstract

Three villages were selected randomly representing the flood affected areas of Dhemaji district of Assam. Analysed data on climatic parameters like rainfall(mm), temperature(oC), potential evapotranspiration (mm), relative humidity (%) of last 10 years collected authentic sources and depth of ground water table  was collected from the well water depth from the three villages for twelve months showed that the length of growing period was more than 300 days and during July to September the ground water table is above the soil surface i.e. there is flood in this period, but during January to March, it is very low and water becomes inadequate for growing crops. Other climatic parameters are most suitable for both Kharif and Rabi crops, but annual flooding affects the crop during July to September. From the study it was concluded that short duration varieties of different crops like that of paddy, pulses, oilseeds etc. may be grown at pre and post flood condition.

According to Thornthwaite’s method of climatic classification, six major types of climates exist in India (Fig. 14.1) as stated below:

14.1 Perhumid Regions of India (A)

These regions receive rainfall of more than 2500 mm and consist of Konkan region along Western Ghats, Kerala and most parts of northeast India covering Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh and Tripura etc.

14.2 Humid Regions of India (B)

These regions receive annual rainfall ranging from 2000-2500 mm and are found in areas adjoining perhumid climate.

The division of earth’s climates into worldwide system of contiguous regions, each one of which is defined by relative homogeneity of the climatic elements (Fig. 9.1)

9.1 Koppen’s Classification

Koppen’s climatic classification describes 5 major groups of climate A, B, C, D and E which are sub-divided into a total of 14 individual climate types, along with a special category of Highland (H) climate.

A - Tropical: Average temperature of coldest month is 18°C or more.

B - Dry climate: Potential evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation.

C - Warm temperature: The average temperature of the coldest month (of the middle latitudes) is higher than -3°C but below 18°C.

India is one of the unique countries in the world with great diversity in climate. The annual rainfall varies from about 180 mm in North western part of India to almost 11,777 mm at Cherrapunji in Meghalaya. For a considerable amount of time, Cherrapunji had occupied the position of wettest place in India. However, off late, observations revealed that it is Mawsynram which receives the maximum amount of annual rainfall. Hence, Mawsynram with 11,872 mm annual rainfall is the wettest place in India. Both the places-Mawsynram and Cherrapunji-are located within 16 kilometers from each other in the East Khasi Hills district of Meghalaya. The maximum temperature at Churu in western Rajasthan is 50ºC and the lowest minimum temperature at Leh in Ladakh region is as low as -35ºC. In view of such great diversity in the distribution of rainfall and temperature in the country, it is necessary to have clear understanding on regional, seasonal and diurnal variation in different weather parameters (Fig. 13.1).

The importance of fruits and vegetables in human nutrition is well known. Vegetables are a rich and comparatively cheaper source of minerals and vitamins. Besides, their consumption in sufficient quantities provides taste and palatability, increases appetite and provides a fair amount of fibers. These are currently reckoned as an important adjunct for the maintenance of good health and beneficial in protecting against some degenerative diseases, thus, they form a vital part of human diet. Besides, vegetables now a day are being considered as an asset for providing a good source of income to the growers.

Vegetables originated in different parts of the world, some came from tropical or subtropical countries and others from temperate zones, some from humid areas and others from climates that are more arid. Most of the countries in the world are gifted with varied agro-climatic environments for growing an array of vegetable crops to combat the present imbalanced diet of a vast population of the world, particularly in the developing countries. Production of vegetables in developed countries is much higher, for instance in Japan, nearly 40% of the diet of the people is vegetables. To meet out the full dietary needs of the common man, to eliminate malnutrition, deficiency of minerals and vitamins and also to relieve the stress for increased production of cereals, there is a greater need for growing vegetables on larger scale. As such, for increased production of nearly 247 known vegetable crops, a sound knowledge of the various aspects of vegetable production technology, environmental stresses and constraints, techniques of raising, pre- and post-harvest technology, marketing and seed production techniques is of utmost importance. Breeding and selection of new cultivars have allowed for a greater adaptability to less favourable growing conditions than was possible in the past but the inherent agroclimatic requirements of a specific kind of vegetable have not changed materially. Time or season of planting of a particular vegetable crop is determined by its environmental requirement. Knowledge of specific agroclimatic conditions required for a particular crop could enable the grower to select the best season of planting in any particular area (Singh et al., 1991).

Different crops are grown over a wide range of agroecosystems. Though the crops are raised in varied climates, ranging from very hot to very cold, and very wet to very dry, across temperate, tropical and semiarid zones, they are very sensitive to climate. The crop production is dependent on climatic parameters like rainfall, light, temperature, relative humidity and carbon dioxide concentration. Each kind of cultivated crop plants has its own optimum growth requirements. Breeding and selection of new cultivars have allowed for a greater adaptability to less favourable growing conditions than was possible in the past, but the inherent climatic requirements of a specific kind of crop have not changed materially.

CLIMATIC NORMALS FOR CROPS

Crop management is very much about managing climate risk so as to have financially viable and sustainable agricultural systems. Professor Henry Nix of the Australian National University posed three questions that need to be addressed when considering what crop can be grown where (Nix, 1981).

1. For any given crop which areas offer the greatest biophysical advantages?
2. For any given area which crops offer the greatest advantages?
3. For any given crop and area how much productivity be raised and sustained?

The crops are very sensitive to climate. The crop production is dependent on climatic parameters like rainfall, light, temperature, relative humidity and carbon dioxide concentration. Each kind of cultivated crop plants has its own optimum growth requirements. Breeding and selection of new cultivars have allowed for a greater adaptability to less favourable growing conditions than was possible in the past, but the inherent climatic requirements of a specific kind of crop have not changed materially.

Weather and climate have also great influence on farm animal production. The environment in which an animal lives is referred to as its habitat. A habitat includes both biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components of the animals’ environment. Abiotic components of an animal’s environment include temperature, humidity, oxygen, wind, soil composition, day length and elevation. These potential environmental stressors can directly and adversely affect animal farming. The indirect consequences of weather include their impact on feed quality and availability.

Abstract

India has diversified agro-climatic conditions with significant variability in climatic factors viz, rainfall pattern, temperature, humidity, sunshine hours and wind speed etc. A no of fruit crops and vegetable crops are grown in India with significant differences in climatic requirements for sustainable growth and production of these crops. Attempt has also been made to have off season production of horticultural crops. Weather variability could also play a pivotal role in disease and pest incidence. So, forecasting of yield along with disease pest incidence should be given top priority to save the crop from weather vagaries and increase the crop productivity.

Different crops are grown over a wide range of agroecosystems. Though the crops are raised in varied climates, ranging from very hot to very cold, and very wet to very dry, across temperate, tropical and semiarid zones, they are very sensitive to climate. The crop production is dependent on climatic parameters like rainfall, light, temperature, relative humidity and carbon dioxide concentration. Each kind of cultivated crop plants has its own optimum growth requirements. Breeding and selection of new cultivars have allowed for a greater adaptability to less favourable growing conditions than was possible in the past, but the inherent climatic requirements of a specific kind of crop have not changed materially. Crop management is therefore very much about managing climate risk so as to have financially viable and sustainable agricultural systems. Professor Henry Nix of the Australian National University posed three questions that need to be addressed when considering what crop can be grown where (Nix, 1981).

Abstract

Climatic variability with respect to total annual precipitation, mean maximum and mean minimum temperature as well as phytosociological characteristics of various herbaceous plant species of two distinct landscapes, ie, BudhaPushkar (BP) as sandy and Nasirabad Valley (NV) as rocky gravel, of Central Aravalli region was compared over a long period of time (1957-2012). Analysis of climatic data indicates reduction of total precipitation of 50 years by 1226.2 mm. There has been a ‘shift’ in monsoon season. However, a significant increase (36.8%) in precipitation was noticed during the winter season of last five decades. Data on total mean maximum temperature also showed significant variation. A rise of 2.5⁰C was recorded while compared the periods 1971-1990 and 1991-2011. Study showed a notable increase in the mean maximum and mean minimum temperature in the region. An assessment of changes in plant diversity at two landscapes was carried out over a period of 35 years (1976 and 2012). The phytosociological characteristics were compared for these selected years. It was observed that climatic variability have changed the order of dominants and other species with respect to frequency, density and IVI of herbaceous species at both BP and NV landscapes. Total number of species increase for BP landscape while decreased for NV stands, while numbers of invasive species are increased for both the landscapes over a period of 35 years.

Keywords: Climatic variability, Plant diversity, Central Aravalli region, Landscapes, Phytosociological characteristics

Abstract

Women are amoungst one of the most vulnerable groups, being impacted by climate change. Socio- cultural barriers and traditionally ascribed roles make them the key person responsible for arranging primary resources such as fuel, water, food which face a serious threat from environmental stresses such as climate change. Women with the potential in terms of experience and a strong body of indigenous knowledge to combat the increased disaster risks enable their families to cope with climate change. To deal with these stressful situations women both at the local and global level adopt various coping strategies. The coping strategies adopted by them generally involves considerable amount of risk taking as they interfered not only with the household work but also with their income generating activities, education of girls and other opportunities for skill development. This chapter gives a comprehensive view of the gendered impact of climate change, as well as the coping strategies of women. The chapter also highlights the need of developing coping mechanisms into adaptive mechanism and strategies to provide a sustainable solution to deal with the issue of climate change.

Keywords: Coping strategies, Climate change, Gendered impact, Women

Abstract

Pest damage is an age old problem of Indian agriculture. The increased accumulation of green house gases always changes the climatic conditions that have potential effects in increasing pest population.  The insect pests are cold-blooded animals and their body temperature varies with the surrounding temperature. Thus, any change in the climate and weather is bound to influence the activity of pests. The pests are directly influenced by temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind speed and other environmental factors in terms of their occurrence, development, reproduction, distribution, migration and adaptation. In many cases the insect out breaks which classified as gradient out breaks are not self-driven but are entirely dependent on external environmental conditions. For example, the number of aphids has frequently been shown to be correlated with several environmental factors. Such correlations indicate an understanding of aphid out breaks. The increased temperature as a result of climate change has several implications for agricultural pests. These are as follows: (i) changes in population growth rates, (ii) increased number of generations, (iii) extension of development season, (iv) extension of geographical range, (v) increased over wintering, (vi) changes in crop-pest synchrony, (vii) changes in interspecific interactions, (vii) increased risk of invasion by migrant pests, (ix) introduction of alternate hosts, and (x) availability of over wintering hosts.

The biotic component of earth is continuously and significantly affected by the abiotic components. Physical factors of the environment (temperature, humidity, rainfall, wind, solar radiation, light, atmospheric pressure, etc) surrounding the animal have influence on the production, reproduction and welfare of the animal. Livestock performance is best when environmental factors are optimum which is difficult to achieve due its variable nature. To this complex livestock-climate interaction, animal responds favorably by undergoing ‘adaptation’ or unfavorably by being under ‘stress’. Type and magnitude of stress due to physical environment depends on climatic factors of a particular area, animal adaptability, breed characteristics and managemental interventions by humans to minimize the losses. To understand the physical environment of livestock frequently used terms are mentioned below

I. General information

1. Climbers which climbs up with the help of tendrils are Antigonon leptopus, Bignonia gracilis, Pyrostegia venusta, Clematis paniculata
2. Climbers which climbs up with the help of thorns or prickles are Bougainvillea spp., climbing rose
3. Climbers which climbs up with the help of root and rootlets are Campsis grandiflora, Ficus repens
4. A climber which climbs up with the help of sticky substances from growing points is Ficus repens
5. A Climber which climbs up with the help of hookers is Combretum comosum
6. Climbers which climbs up with the help of clingers are Passiflora caerulea, Passiflora quadrangularis and Hydrangea petiolaris
7. Climbers which grow well under sunny situation are Pyrostegia venusta, Quisqualis indica, Antigonon leptopus, Adenocalymma alliaceum, Bougainvillea spp., Campsis grandiflora and Wisteria sinensis

Pants that tend to climb vertically on to supports are called climbers. reepers are plants that tend to creep or ramble over the ground or other surfaces spreading horizontally. These have showy flowers or decorative foliage. Climbers are conventionally used in gardens to cover fences, bare walls and tree trunks. They are used to provide ornamentation in a vertical aspect. Creepers on the other hand are used as ground covers and function as decorative elements in a horizontal aspect.

CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMBERS AND CREEPERS

Depending upon their habit, vigour, duration, nature of flowering, adaptations for climbing and shade tolerance, they can be classified as follows:

Definition: Climbers are woody or herbaceous plants which climb up the trees and other tall objects with the help of support of their special modified organs such as tendrils, roots, thorns, rootlets, hooks, etc.

Climbing plants are excellent examples of convergent evolution, i.e. having the same basic design that evolved repeatedly in unrelated groups. Majority of these plants are the dicotyledons but climbing plants have also evolved in monocotyledons. Examples are Vanilla orchid (Orchidaceae), Greenbriars, Smilax (Smilacaceae), Gloriosa (Colchicaceae), Semele androgyna (Ruscaceae), Dichelostemma volubile (Alliaceae), Asparagus (Asparagaceae), Bowiea volubilis (Hyacinthaceae), Chusquea (Poaceae).

Climbers

Climbers are group of plants which have weak stems and ability to climb up the support with the help of modified organs for sunlight and air, twiners differ from climber in the way that they do not posses such modified organs but twine around the support cover it and reach the top. Climber are woody or herbaceous plant which climb up the trees and other tall objects with the help of support of their special modified organ, such as tendrils, root, thorns, rootlets, hooks etc.

Tendrils- Bigonia gracilis, Clematis paniculata etc.

Thorns- Bougainvillea species, Climbing roses etc.

Rootlets- Ficus repens etc.

Hooks- Gallium aperine, Rubus australis etc.

Climbers and twiners are important group of plants. Climbers and twiners add the beuty, colour or fragrance in the garden and artificial structure like garden wall, topiary, arches, pergola etc. are made with the help of climbers.

Climbers are the group of ornamental plants which possess weak stem and climb up the support with the help of certain modified organs to reach the top and receive sunlight and air. Climbers enhance the beauty of any garden provided they are selected carefully depending upon the availability of space and the orientation of the building. The growth habit, mass effect of foliage and diverse flower colour give charming appearance to the climbers for their characteristics.

Ornamental climbers are commonly used to train on suitable supports such as arches, pergola, trellis, along the walls and trees. These are most suited in congested regions prone to scarcity of space especially in urban environment.

Introduction

A complete neurological examination is warranted whenever an equine patient displays signs consistent with neurological disorder or to establish that the horse is neurologically normal (e.g., pre-purchase examination). Neurological examination of equine patient is challenging due to their large size, which prevents veterinarian from using many of the tests used for small animals. The key to a successful neurologic examination is to do the examination in a consistent and organized fashion. It is important to develop a routine, then do it the same way each time. This approach ensures that some parts of the examination are not forgotten and it also increases the consistency of the exam as you examine more number of equine patients. A standardized examination form is a valuable aid in this and can be concise. The goals of the neurologic examination are to determine whether disease of the nervous system exists, to localize the lesion to a particular area of the nervous system, and to describe and record the responses as a baseline for future evaluations. In this paper, a complete neurological examination is described with special emphasis on field conditions.

Introduction

Water is the most abundant compound in the body, and most of life’s essential processes take place in this aqueous environment. Although there is substantial variation, the total body water (TBW) of most domestic animals is approximately 60% of body weight (0.60 l/kg).Electrolytes are substances that exist as positive or negative charged particles in aqueous solution. The positively charged particles are “cations,” and the negatively charged particles are “anions”. The osmotic properties of a solute in solution are related to the number of particles in solution and not to its weight or its charge. One osmole of a non-dissociable substance is equal to its molecular weight in grams. One osmole of any substance that dissociates in solution into two or more particles is equal to the molecular weight in grams divided by the number of particles into which each molecule dissociates. Osmolarity is defined as the number of osmoles per l of final solution, whereas osmolality is the number of osmoles per kilogram of water. Although the expressions are similar, osmolality more correctly describes the osmotic properties as measured in the clinical laboratory.

CLINICAL CASE RECORD
Case No…………    Date…………….

Clinician (Name) 
Description of animal:    Species .....................    Breed .....................
    Age  ...........................    Sex .........................
    Weight .....................    Color .....................
Owner’s name & Address ...........................................................................

Opportunities

India is home to largest milch animal population, totalling around 100 million cattle and buffalo (out of total population of 300 million) spread over 6.5 million census villages. India is the largest milk producer with CAGR of 4.5%, likely to go up to 5%, which is likely to create around 20 million jobs every year. The most significant factor is that dairy industry is likely to exceed IT industry in employment generation. In year 2018, India produced 146 million tonnes of milk contributing 26% of the agriculture GDP.

But the foundation of dairy industry is economically vulnerable as per animal productivity and fertility are very low leading to meagre profits and frequent demands to enhance procurement price. National schemes like Operation Flood, National Dairy Plan-I and National Dairy Plan II, largely focussed on milk collection, processing, distribution and organising farmers but the animal component has been neglected. Enhancing per animal productivity by empowering farmers to scientific management and breeding to achieve genetic improvement needs urgent attention. Although numerous technologies to improve health and genetics are available but the single most important gap is failure to deliver these to farmers. Unlike western world, India has not been able to develop modern veterinary service delivery models. In order to cater to breeding and health services of cattle and buffalo (300 million in numbers) and also pet animals in rural areas and small towns, huge manpower and infrastructure will be required.

Last few decades have witnessed an increasing number of pets attending clinics/hospitals for cardiac care because of changed life style of owners as well as pets, more awareness of the owners and an increase in number of veterinary medical specialist with better diagnostic facilities. Cardiac failure and cardiac arrest are the two important outcome of cardiac diseases with variable treatment result. Heart functioning is affected not only in primary diseases of heart but also in diseases of organs other than the heart. Without correct diagnosis of cardiac abnormalities, treatment may be futile with a fatal outcome. Nowadays diagnosis of cardiac abnormalities is facilitated with the aid of modern diagnostic technology.

The prevalence of skin diseases in dogs is high throughout the world. Skin diseases are one of the main clinical complaint with which dogs and cats are presented at clinics. Skin diseases are numerous and have wide range of underlying etiology ranging from non-specific cause, infections (bacterial, viral, fungal. yeast), hormonal, nutritional to immunological causes. Most of the skin diseases are clinically manifested with focal or diffuse alopecia, itching, papules, pustules, erythema, scaling, scabs, lumps, unpleasant smell, rashes, urticarial plaques, dandruff, hot spots or excessive licking (Figure62) making the straight forward diagnosis a difficult task especially in dogs and cats with chronic dermatological disease.

Diseases of gastro-intestinal tract are very common in dogs and cats. Gastro intestinal tract starts from mouth to anus. The first step in making diagnosis of gastro-intestinal disease is to localize the problem. Whether it is buccal cavity, esophagus, stomach, or intestines. Cursory history for seemingly simple complaint like vomiting, anorexia or loose feces may be unrewarding because gastrointestinal diseases may be primary (concerning with only gastro intestinal tract and its functions) or secondary (due to underlying disease/ disorder of organs other than gastro-intestinal tract). Therefore, for ascertaining the cause of gastrointestinal signs (anorexia, nausea, vomiting, regurgitation, constipation, loose feces, bloody feces), a thorough examination of all body systems is more logical. As with other body systems, a comprehensive systematic approach is needed for diagnosing diseases of gastro-intestinal tract also.

The term “Hepatology” is derived from the Greek words “hepatikos” and “logia” meaning liver and study respectively. It is the branch of medicine dealing with the study of structure, function, diseases and abnormalities of the liver, gall bladder, and biliary tree. Liver/hepatic diseases in companion pets vary from multifactorial hepatitis (acute and chronic), cirrhosis, portosystemic shunt, copper storage disease, hepatic lipidosis, and hepatic neoplasm to fulminant hepatic failure. The etiology of liver diseases also varies from infection, auto-immune, metabolic to genetic factors. The hepatic disorders are quite common in canines and felines. Moreover, the diagnosis of liver malfunctioning is loosely given in pet practice without any supportive evidence.

Nephrology

Nephritis and renal calculi are the two major problems leading to renal failure in canine and feline nephrology. Chronic renal failure may occur at any age but it is more common in geriatric dogs. Congenital renal diseases may also lead to renal failure at any age. Chronic renal disease or chronic renal failure is a progressive deteriorating condition as compensatory mechanism (glomerular hypertension and hyper filtration) further deteriorate the condition. Hence chronic renal disease remains lifelong. For quality life, an early diagnosis of renal failure is very important. The following techniques are used to diagnose chronic renal failure.

Clinical diagnostic techniques in neurology are generally employed to confirm the existence of neurological disorder and also to localize the lesion.

Equipment/Instruments for Neurological Examination

 •            Reflex hammer.

 •            Cotton tip applicator.

 •            Pen torch light or transilluminator.

 •            Cotton balls.

 •            Haemostats.

 •            Lens.

Anesthesia/ Sedative

• Generally no anesthetic/ sedative is needed for neurological examination.

Place of Neurological Examination

Eye is a very sensitive, delicate and unique organ. Its function may be affected with wide range of etiologies ranging from trauma, local and systemic infections, metabolic diseases to vision defects warranting an early and accurate diagnosis employing complete history, detailed ocular examination and or specialized diagnostic techniques such as Schirmer Tear Test (STT), Fluorescence Test, Ophthalmoscopy, Tonometry, Pachymetry, Retinoscopy and Gonioscopy etc.

Instruments for Ophthalmic Examination

•             Finn off Transilluminator

 •            Pen torch

 •            Direct Ophthalmoscope

 •            Indirect fundoscopic lens (2.2 diopter lens)

 •            Schirmer tear test strips

 •            Fluorescein strips

 •            Tonometer

Otology is the branch of medicine concerned with the study of the ear and its diseases. Ear diseases in canines have multiple etiology varying from allergies (food or environmental), ectoparasites, infections (bacteria, malassazia, fungus), endocrine disorders, immunological disorders (autoimmune diseases), foreign material, neoplasms to keratinization disorders. For rational management, correct diagnosis is a pre-requisite. Diagnostic techniques in otology include history, clinical examination including ear canal palpation and visual inspection of ears, imaging (otoscopy, radiography, CT scan, MRI, and ultrasonography) and cytological evaluation of otic contents/ discharge.

9.1. Handling

Rabbits must be handled very carefully. Although they are generally docile they are apt to struggle when picked up, with potentially harmful consequences. All rabbits are prone to vertebral fractures, and this risk is greatest in hutch rabbits or in those on an unbalanced diet that may have concurrent osteoporosis. It is extremely important to support the back and hindquarters whenever a rabbit is handled.
 
A rabbit should never be picked up by the ears. It can be lifted gently by the scruff of the neck with one hand whilst the other hand supports its bottom (Fig. 9.1), or alternatively lifted with one hand under the chest, and one supporting its hindquarters (Fig. 9.2). The rabbit should be carried against the body to minimize struggling. It is advisable to place the rabbit’s carrying box on the floor so that if it does jump as it is picked up it does not hurt itself. Similarly it is usually easier to return the rabbit to the box on the floor at the end of the examination.

Birds are extremely vulnerable to handling (even injection related events) stress and hence, chemically immobilize for a detailed clinical examination or intensive sampling procedures).

The purpose of the clinical examination is to identify the clinical abnormalities that are present and the risk factors that determine the occurrence of the disease in the individual or population. The focal point of any investigation of animal disease is the making of diagnosis and the critical part in making that decision is the clinical examination of the animal or group of animals. Without a proficient clinical examination and an accurate diagnosis it is unlikely that the treatment, control, prognosis and welfare of animals will be optimized.  The level of examination set out is sufficient to enable the clinician to determine the nature of the abnormality and the system involved.

RECTAL EXAMINATION

It provides practically all the information required.

It is the simplest, accurate and reliable method with no cost involved.

Things Required

A full arm rubber sleeve with attached glove or disposable plastic glove.
A rubber or plastic apron.
Non-irritant soap or lubricant.

Collections of blood To collect blood for different haematological analyses, an animal’s vein are punctured with a syringe and needle. Requirements • Hypodermic needle • Syringe • Collection vials or tubes containing anticoagulantsProcedure • The place of blood collection should always be cleaned with alcohol and hairs trimmed. • Press on the vein to raise it. • Free-flowing blood can be collected directly into the vial containing anticoagulant after the needle is inserted into the vein. • 5 ml of blood from large animals and 2.0 ml of blood from small animals like dogs and cats are sufficient for normal haematological investigations. • Rotational motions in the vials are used to mix the blood

True/False

Q.1.    The accuracy of the measurement refers to how close the measured value is to the true value.
Q.2.    The precision refers to how close a set or group of measurements are together.
Q.3.    If the processes of measurement are repeated under identical condition, then precision explains that up to what extent these repeated values are reliable.

• General considerations

 • Direct examination

 • Culture methods

 • Some important tests used in identification of bacteria

 • Characteristics of some organisms

 • Gram positive cocci

 • Gram positive rods

 • Gram negative rods

 • Mycobacteria

 • Leptospira/spirochete

 • Rickettsia

 • Chlamydia

 • Mycoplasma

 • Fungi

 • Virus

 • Antibacterial sensitivity testing

In avian medicine, because clinical signs in birds can be vague, veterinarians must rely on additional clinical tests to accurately diagnose and treat conditions. These tests, including hematology, urine analysis and others, are essential for understanding diseases early and tailoring effective treatments. Clinical hematology is qualitative and quantitative assessment of blood and other blood component for the treatment of clinical patient. In comparison to mammals, bird’s erythrocytes are oval and nucleated cells, nucleated thrombocytes, heterophiles instead of neutrophils. RBCs of birds have relatively short life span and regenerate more quickly than mammals. The preferred vein for blood collection in birds varies with the species. In most species the wing veins is preferred site. Both EDTA and heparin have been used in avian clinical haematology as anticoagulant. The average blood volume of most birds is approximately 10% body weight. Avian plasma samples frequently are yellow due to carotenoid pigments, not bilirubin. Uric acid is the major nitrogenous waste product of birds it is relatively inert and substantially less toxic than ammonia or urea. Both BUN and creatinine levels are normally low in birds and may be below the minimum detectable limit of the assays in the laboratory. It may be useful to evaluate BUN and uric acid together to differentiate among dehydration, postprandial effects and renal pathology.

Creatinine Clinical significance Creatinine is produced at a steady rate due to muscle catabolism and is not reabsorbed by the kidney tubules after filtration. Its measurement provides an indirect assessment of the glomerular filtration rate (GFR). Unlike urea it is not markedly affected by diet or any aspect of liver function and therefore the test is more specific for renal dysfunction

Sodium Clinical Significance Compared to potassium, sodium is distributed differently throughout the body. Due to the sodium pump mechanism, most sodium is extracellular. Compared to this, just 2% of potassium is extracellular; the remainder is intracellular. Regarding the plasma concentrations of sodium and potassium, renal function is the single most significant homeostatic mechanism.

Clinical Significance The primary aim of laboratory diagnosis is to assess the carbohydrate metabolism impairment in diabetes mellitus, inducing the following: 1. Determination of glucose concentration in fasting blood and demonstration of postprandial glycosuria. 2. Assessment of glucose tolerance

A. Triglycerides Clinical significance To form lipoproteins, triglycerides combine with cholesterol, phospholipids, and plasma proteins. To determine whether hypertriglyceridemia may be present, the serum triglyceride concentration is measured (increased blood and serum levels of triglycerides). Chylomicrons and very low density lipoprotein (VLDLs), which cause the extensive lipaemia frequently observed in serum or plasma samples, are both mostly composed of glycerides.

Calcium Clinical Significance Calcium is an essential mineral which is involved in many body systems. These include the skeleton, enzyme activation, muscle metabolism, blood coagulation and osmoregulation. In the blood calcium exists as 50% ionized, 40% protein bound and 10% complexes with anions such as citrate and phosphate. Only ionized calcium is biologically active in bone formation, neuromuscular activity, cellular biochemical processes and blood coagulation. Factors governing the total plasma concentration are complex and include interaction with other chemical moieties, proteins and hormones. Calcium, phosphorus and albumin metabolism are interdependent.

The liver produces the entire albumin and most of the globulin; a small amount of gamma globulin is produced by retculoendothelial tissue. The production of albumin is subject to a mechanism regulating colloidal osmotic pressure and the secondary to alterations in globulin concentration. The liver synthesizes lipoproteins, glycoproteins, mucoproteins, fibrinogen, prothrombin and clotting factors VII, VIII, IX and X.

• Nutritional diseases

 • Viral diseases

 • Prion, Mycoplasmal, Rickettsial, Chlamydial, Spirochaetal and Bacterial

diseases

 • Fungal diseases

 • Parasitic diseases

 • Toxic conditions

 • Miscellaneous conditions