eChapters

Nervous system is composed of brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. The neuron is a basic functional unit of nervous system. Necrosis of neurons in brain is known as encephalomalacia while necrosis of neurons in spinal cord is termed as myelomalacia. If the necrosis occurs in grey matter it is known as polioencephalomalacia while necrosis of neurons in white matter is called as leukoencephalomalacia. There are three types of scavenger cells in nervous system known as microglial, oligodendroglial and astrocytes. Microglial cells surround the necrotic neurons and are known as satellite cells and the process is called as satellitosis. As the neuron dies, it is engulfed by microglial cell and this process is termed as neuronophagia. The necrosis of nerve fibers starts from myelin sheath and this change is called demyelination or Wallerian degeneration.

Nervous system is composed of brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. The neuron is a basic functional unit of nervous system. Necrosis of neurons in brain is known as encephalomalacia while necrosis of neurons in spinal cord is termed as myelomalacia. If the necrosis occurs in grey matter it is known as polioencephalomalacia while necrosis of neurons in white matter is called as leukoencephalomalacia. There are three types of scavenger cells in nervous system known as microglial, oligodendroglial and astrocytes. Microglial cells surround the necrotic neurons and are known as satellite cells and the process is called as satellitosis. As the neuron dies, it is engulfed by microglial cell and this process is termed as neuronophagia. The necrosis of nerve fibers starts from myelin sheath and this change is called demyelination or Wallerian degeneration.

Female Genital System

Developmental Anomalies

Agenesis

Absence of ovary, uterus, oviduct and cervix in females. It may be unilateral or bilateral.

Hypoplasia

Complete or partial lack of germ cells in ovaries. Hypoplasia of uterus is related with agenesis of gonads. Ovaries of freemartin are also hypoplastic. Hermaphrodite animal has ovary and testicular tissue both in the gonads.

Hermaphroditism

In hermaphrodites, there is presence of organs of both sexes in same individual animal. Both ovarian and testicular tissue occur in one animal leads to sterility in animal (true hermaphrodite) while in pseudohermaphrodite the gonadal tissue of only one sex is present but there is some degree of development of opposite sex organs.

Developmental Anomalies

Aplasia

Absence of one or both kidneys. Absence of one kidney is observed in animals with compensatory hypertrophy of another kidney and such animals may survive well.

Hypoplasia

The size of kidneys remains small as they don’t grow properly due to defect in a single recessive autosomal gene.

Cyst in kidney

Single or multiple cysts in pig and dog kidney are reported with tinged yellow colour. They may arise from nephron due to its distension. Presence of multiple cysts is also termed as congenital polycystic kidney.

Type-I cysts are formed due to dilation and hyperplasia of collecting tubules resulting in spongiform kidneys. In such neonates cystic bile ducts are also present.

Developmental Anomalies

Hereditary anemia

Hereditary anemia has been reported in mice due to defects in erythropoiesis or reduced vitality of erythrocytes. Erythropenia along with leucopenia occurs in mouse foetus on 20th day of gestation due to defective autosomal chromosome 4. Sex linked anemia in mouse is hypochromic with deficient bone marrow and occurs in hemizygus males or homozygus females. This anemia occurs due to deficiency of iron as a result of poor absorption from gastrointestinal tract.

Autoimmune hemolytic anemia in foals

It occurs due to incompatible blood group antigens of male and female parents. The mare does not have that blood group antigen but foetus acquires it from father. The foetal blood exposed to dam through placental exchanges leads to induction of antibody production in mares against foetal blood group antigen. These antibodies accumulate in colustrum and when foal suck the milk from mares, they are readily absorbed through G.I. tract of foals in blood and cause destruction of erythrocytes leading to anemia.

Developmental Anomalies

Epitheliogenesis imperfecta of tongue

Abnormal smooth surface of tongue due to small filiform papillae. It occurs as a defect in autosomal recessive gene and occurs in Holstein-Friesian cattle. This is also known as smooth tongue.

Cleft palate

This is most common congenital abnormality that occurs due to failure of oral nasal cavity to divide leaving cleft. It may also extend towards lips producing ‘harelip’ condition.

Mega colon

There is distention of colon which abruptly terminates in rectum due to mutant gene in dogs.

Pathology of Upper Respiratory Tract

In many infectious diseases, there is inflammation of mucosa of upper respiratory passage leading to nasal discharge which is catarrhal, purulent or fibrinous, depending on the type of infection. The infection may extend to lower parts of respiratory tract and reach the lungs causing pathological alterations. Rhinitis is the inflammation of nasal mucosa (Fig. 4.1). Sinusitis is the inflammation of sinuses e.g. frontal sinusitis in dehorned cattle. The larvae of botfly Oestrus ovis enter the nasal passage and migrate up to frontal sinuses and turbinate bones and cause mucopurulent inflammation. Similarly, leeches (Dinobdella ferox) is known to cause nasal cavity inflammation in domestic animals and suck blood. Rhinitis is caused by Bordetella bronchiseptica in pigs and is characterized by mucopurulent exudate, disappearance of nasal septum, retarded growth of snout and plugging of passage by solidified exudate and dead tissue. This condition is known as porcine atrophic rhinitis. Epistaxis is bleeding from nasal passage due to trauma, neoplasm (Fig.4.2A) and ulcerative lesions as a result of infections (Fig.4.2B). Pharyngitis is the inflammation of pharynx while laryngitis is the inflammation of larynx.

Developmental Anomalies

Persistent right aortic arch

This is a developmental anomaly of aorta in which the aorta develops from right arch present on right side of trachea and oesophagus. The ductus arteriosus forms a ring around trachea and oesophagus by connecting aorta and pulmonary artery. This ring causes partial obstruction of trachea and/or oesophagus.

Patent ductus arteriosus

The ductus arteriosus is a short blood vessel which connects pulmonary artery to aorta in foetal life for diversion of blood. Normally, soon after birth this duct is sealed and remains in the form of a ligamentum arteriosum. But sometimes this ductus arteriosus remains open and blood is continuously shunted between aorta and pulmonary artery, after leading to congestive heart failure, pulmonary hypertension and cyanosis due to mixing of venous and arterial blood (Fig. 3.1).

Pathology of Muscles

Equine Rhabdomyolysis

It is also known as Azoturia or Monday Morning Disease. The disease occurs in well fed horse after a spell of inactivity. Suddenly after walking a few steps, the horse is unable to move further and feels pain with intense sweating and hardening of muscles.

Etiology

• Accumulation of lactic acid in muscles.

• High glycogen storage.

• Lack of oxygen supply.

Macroscopic features

• Hardening of muscle just like wood.

• Urine is dark brown with myoglobin – myoglobinuria.

• Tonic spasms in muscles.

• Atrophy of affected muscles in chronic cases.

Developmental Anomalies

Congenital icthyosis

Congenital icthyosis is scaly epidermis which resembles the skin of fish and occurs due to a simple autosomal recessive homozygous gene in calves. This condition is characterized by scaly, horny, thick epidermis divided into plates by deep fissures. Microscopically, there is thick keratin layer over the epidermis (Fig.1.1).

Epitheliogenesis imperfecta

Epitheliogenesis imperfecta is a congenital defect characterized by discontinuity of epithelium on skin leaving patches without squamous epithelium mostly at feet, claws and oral mucosa. Such defect may occur in calves which succumb to infection after birth or such foetus may abort. This disease condition is inherited as an autosomal recessive trait.

Definition

The animal reacts to its own tissue (endogenous antigen) to incite production of antibodies or sensitized lymphocytes. There is breakage of tolerance to the self-proteins.

• Autoimmune diseases are prevented by elimination of sensitized T and B lymphocytes by the process of apoptosis in the thymus and bone marrow during development (Central tolerance; clonal deletion), in the peripheral tissues (Peripheral tolerance) and clonal anergy (Clonal avoidance) by defective presentation of cells.

• The tolerance of CD4+ TH cells is critical in preventing autoimmunity.

• Two major autoimmune diseases are thyroiditis and haemolytic anemia. Other conditions are rare in animals

Definition

Hypersensitivity is an altered reaction to a specific antigen that results in pathologic reactions upon the exposure of a sensitized host to that of specific antigen.

Explanation

Hypersensitivity reactions are inappropriate or misdirected responses to a specific antigen that result in harmful reactions upon exposure of a sensitized host to that specific antigen.

Affected animals require a sensitization phase in which the animal must have had either a previous exposure or a prolonged exposure to the antigen so that it can develop an immune response to the inciting antigen.

The harmful effects resulting from hypersensitivity reactions occur in the effector phase and are most commonly manifested through inflammation or cell lysis.

Definition

IDD (immunodeficiency diseases) occur when there is a failure of the immune system to protect the host from infectious organisms or the development of cancer.

IDD are disorders of immune system that result in immunological deficiency. Immunodeficiency could be from defects in

i. B and T- lymphocytes

ii. Granulocytes

iii. Complement

Tissue – Proliferating Potential of Cell Types
1. Labile Cells
• Continuously dividing cells
• e.g. epidermis, epithelial cells, bone marrow cells
2. Stable Cells - Quiescent cells
• Undergoes division occasionally
• Liver, kidney    pancreas, fibroblasts,
• Endothelial cells
3. Permanent Cells - Non–dividing cells: Neurons, muscle cells (cardiac, skeletal)

Definitions

Reaction of vascularised living tissue to local injury caused by various agents like microbes or necrotic tissue

Inflammation − Reaction of blood vessels − Accumulation of fluid and leucocytes in extra vascular tissues Inflammation and repair always go hand in hand

Beneficial effects of Inflammation

To destroy / dilute the injurious agent (microbes; toxins ) and to protect cell from injury (necrosis)

Harmful Effects of Inflammation

The Disturbances of Growth

• The disturbances in growth cover a broader spectrum of changes from no growth (Aplasia) to uncontrolled growth (Neoplasia).

• While uncontrolled growth (neoplasm) is not dealt here, the other forms of growth disturbances are considered in this chapter.

Cellular Adaptation to Injury

• The cells respond to altered physiological or pathological stimuli by adapting themselves.

• These changes are reflected as atrophy, hyperplasia, hypertrophy, metaplasia and dysplasia besides aplasia and hypoplasia.

Photosensitization is activation of photodynamic chemicals on the skin by long wave length UV or occasionally by visible light

• Necrosis and edema are produced in the exposed areas of skin of animals.

• The cellular damage by photosensitization is due to release of reactive oxygen species leading to mast cell degranulation and production of chemical mediators of inflammation.

Factors Necessary for Photosensitization in Animals

• Oxygen

• Sunlight

• Photodynamic chemicals

• Skin devoid of hair or wool and lacking pigments

Calcification

• Calcification is abnormal deposition of calcium salts in tissue other than bone.

• Calcium is normally present in blood and deposited in bones.

• Calcium if deposited in an abnormal tissue with normal or abnormal blood calcium level is considered as pathological condition.

Pathological calcifications are

1. Metatstatic calcification

2. Dystrophic calcification

Colouring Agents
Colouring agents are called as pigments. Tissues may be discoloured (e.g. 
Jaundice, tattoo) or excessively coloured (e.g. Melanosis) in diseases.
Origin
• External or exogenous pigments
• Internal or endogenous pigments
Exogenous Pigmentations
In exogenous pigmentations colouring substances can enter the body by three different routes.
• Respiratory route by inhalation
• Alimentary route by ingestion
• Cutaneous route by injection

Definition
Gangrene is a necrotic area invaded by saprophytic organisms leading to putrefaction.
Types of Gangrene
There are three types of gangrene
1. Dry gangrene
2. Moist gangrene
3. Gas gangrene
1. Dry Gangrene
Dry gangrene represents an area of coagulation necrosis resulting from  infarction followed by mummification. The extremities of the body like tail,  ears, legs and udder are affected.

Causes and Mechanism
I. External Causes/ Extrinsic Causes
1. Physical Causes
1. Trauma by cutting objects and blunt objects
2. Electrical – Lightning, high frequency current
3. Heat -Sun stroke, burns, fever
4. Cold Local tissue freezing, cold shock
5. Radiation
UV / X /cosmic radiations
6. Pressure
Increased or decreased pressure

Amyloid

• Amyloid (G. Amylon; Amyl(o) - STARCH) means starch-like.

• Amyloid is a pathologic glycoprotein deposited in the extracellular spaces and forms fibrils on polymerization.

Histological characteristics

• Amyloid is specially stained with Congo Red.

• Under polarized light, green birefringence is noticed because of alignment of fibrils.

• Amyloid fibrils are 7.5 to 10 nm in diameter, rigid, non-branching hollow-cored tubules of unknown length.

• β-pleated sheet configuration is seen in X-ray diffraction.

• The P-component which is a glycosa-amino-glycan (GAG) facilitates polymerization of amyloid.

Hyperaemia and Congestion
Definition
Hyperaemia is increased volume of blood in affected tissue or part.
Hyperaemia (Active Hyperaemia)
Occurs in arterioles or arteries
Increased blood flow in capillaries
Congestion (Passive Hyperaemia)
Occurs due to impaired venous drainage
Stasis of blood in veins
classification of hyperaemia

Definition

• Aetiology is defined as study of causation of disease.

Classification of Causes

• There are several agents or factors that can produce diseases in animals and can originate from within the body (intrinsic) or outside the body. (extrinsic).

Causes are classified into two categories

1. Predisposing causes (Intrinsic/Endogenous factors)

2. Definitive causes (Extrinsic/Exogenous factors)

Predisposing Causes

• Make the animal susceptible to definitive causes.

Introduction and Scope of Veterinary Pathology

• The aim of study of veterinary and animal sciences is to produce a competent veterinarians. The veterinarians are involved in the diagnosis of diseases of livestock, poultry, wild animals and captive animal species. The study of diseases is essential component of pathology.

• Pathology (Gr. Path(o) - Disease; logos: science, treatise, sum of knowledge in a particular subject) • Pathology is the subject linking basic subjects of anatomy, histology, embryology, physiology and biochemistry to clinical subjects of medicine, surgery and obstetrics and gynaecology.

• Pathology is a subject of terminology.

• It is important to familiarize with different terminologies used in describing events/ disease conditions. The definition of each terminology is the gateway to understanding the particular disease process.

Depending on various findings of the study, the present section put forwards some of the policies that can be implemented for using population mobility as a tool of economic development in both rural and urban areas.

• Steps must be taken to boost up the urban services sector as it is the most attractive sector for urban in-migrants. Pro-migrant policies including some economic and social benefits e.g. free health insurance, employees’ provident fund, grater loan facilities at lower rate etc. must be provided to the migrants so that it helps the labors as well as self-employed persons of urban informal sector.

6.1 Summary

The study analyzed the economics of family migration decision and its relationship with urban informal sector and agricultural efficiency. The study is mainly based on primary survey, though various secondary data Sources have been consulted. The primary survey has been conducted in Birbhum district of West Bengal covering 300 households with equal share of rural and urban households. The selection of the district is mainly guided by the dominance of rural-urban migration and the wide prevalence of both agricultural and non-agricultural activities. By tracing the reasons of migration across the states of India, the study provides a vivid picture of the rural-urban migration in West Bengal and it is associated linkages with agricultural efficiency and urban informal sector. Sophisticated statistical and econometric tools have been utilized to justify the economic explanation of rural urban migration in West Bengal.

Descriptive Statistics of Independent Variable With Respect to Minimum, Maximum, Range, Mean, Standard Deviation of Values, Variance, and Coefficient of Variance:

Results: The variable age (x1 ) having the range between 20 to 62. So, the mean of the age (x1 ) variable is 38.64. Similarly, the other variables education (x2 ), family size (x3 ), family income (x4 ), risk factor (x5 ), management factor (x6 ), natural calamities (x7 ), employment status (x8 ), expenditure (x9 ), push factor (x10 ), pull factors (x11 ) have the mean 5.220, 4.720, 1.270, 0.505, 4.790, 3.875, 4.809, 5.655, 2.226, 5.613 respectively. Here, we see that distribution of variables education (x2 ) and push factor (x10 ) among the respondents are moderately consistent and residual distribution of variables among the respondents are highly consistent.

Local of the study: Migration, from very beginning of civilization, has been one of the most important phenomenons in population distribution across the world. As a result, it has been a major focus of both sociological as well as demographical studies around the world. Though migration theories get its root from the famous article of Ravenstein (1889) but most of the modern migration studies so far have centered around the conventional approach of migration as one of the cornerstones known as the Harris-Todaro Model of Migration Harris and Todaro (1970), which is considered as one of the cornerstones of migration studies. This model dealt with the migration decision of an individual of a family, keeping apart the role of family as a whole. The main approach of this model was some kind of cost-benefit type of assessment in undertaking migration decision. Here the potential migrant was to analyze the expected return that he/she may receive after migrating and the cost that to be borne in the process. If the net return is found to be positive then there is every chance that the concerned person will migrate and more from the place of origin to the place of destinations. The major attack that this approach received is that it gave individual the highest importance in migration decision ignoring the role of ‘family’ and thus the migration studies until recently were partial in nature.

3.1 Introduction

In developing and in semi-developed countries, rural-urban migration is driven by the uneven distribution of employment, income-opportunities etc. (Skeldon, 1990). Rapid population growth, especially in rural areas, provides an important demographic backdrop to these rural-urban population shifts. Given the growing and well-known difficulties that are faced by the overall Indian population in f inding productive employment, it is important to study the characteristics of labors that migrate from rural-urban areas. Under this backdrop, attempts have been made in this study to examine the nature, pattern and determinants of rural urban migration and the spread of urban informal sector and the likely impact of rural-urban migration on agricultural productivity and efficiency.

The economics of migration has drawn attention of many economists and social scientists over the years. Decision making in migration has certain inherent complexities as it takes into account the characteristics of both areas of origin and areas of destinations. Similarly it involves the status of agricultural productivity and efficiency, extant of urban informal sector along with various other amenities available in the destination urban areas. The subject of rural-urban migration and its inter-linkage with urban informal market and agricultural productivity have received considerable attention in theoretical framework as well as in empirical research. Among these vast literatures, the study has reviewed some of them and made a synoptic assessment on these issues in general. Moreover an attempt has been made to review the existing literature on rural-urban migration in West Bengal.

2.1 Migration Decision Making

Migration decision can be two types: individual decision making and family decision making. These two sets of migration decision involve distinctly different sets of factors. Stark (1991) has rightly pointed out that “….the family, should not be treated as if it were an individual”. So there are differences between individual migration decision and family migration decision. Migration decision depends on a host of factors, some are economic, some are demographic and some are sociological in nature. However, individual and family migration decisions are determined by two distinctly different sets of factors.

Migration is inevitable in the process of economic development (Afsar, 2003; Ballard, 2005). There exists a two-way causation between migration and economic development. Migration induces economic development while economic development induces further migration. Migration can be two types: international migration and internal migration. International migration deals with migration across the countries of the world, while internal migration deals with migration within the national boundary of a country (Zohry, 2005). There are four streams of internal migration which are rural-rural, rural-urban, urban-rural, and urban-urban. Among these four streams, rural-urban migration has certain distinct characteristics which affect developmental aspect of both places involved namely, place of origin and place of origin and place of destination. It is well known that developmental disparities between rural and urban triggers rural-urban migration. People generally migrate from less developed rural countryside to more developed urban centers they left farming and engaged in modern works which are more profitable and low risk oriented (Bhattacharya, 1993; de Haan, 1997). The impact of migration can be assessed in several ways; therefore welfare impacts, social impacts, economic impacts etc. For example, remittance send by the urban migrants to their native villages help them to evade poverty; increase consumption; invest more in agriculture, education, health. Remittances have certain social impacts as well.

In India there are many scattered case reports on the use of homeopathic drugs in the treatment of certain ailments in animals with individual claims but these reports suffer from lack of evidence, repeatability, documentation and scientific fervor. During last 2-3 decades some reports on the evaluation of homeopathic medicines in the management of animal diseases have appeared in the literature as well as in professional seminars and conferences in India. The abstract summary of these works are given in this chapter.

Clinical Studies

Clinical Management of Udder Diseases of Riverine Buffaloes With A Homeopathic Complex

J.P. Varshney and Ram Naresh (2004)

An uncontrolled observational study was undertaken to evaluate the effectiveness of a homeopathic complex in the management of clinical udder health problems of riverine buffaloes. Cases of subclinical mastitis were excluded from the study. A total of 102 mastitic quarters (fibrosed – 40, nonfibrosed – 62) and five cases each of blood in milk and udder oedema in lactating buffaloes were treated with a homeopathic complex consisting of Phytolacca 200C, Calcarea fluorica 200C, Silicia 30C, Belladonna 30C, Bryonia 30C, Arnica 30C, Conium 30C and Ipecacuanha 30C. The diagnosis of udder diseases and recovery criterion was based on physical examination of udder and milk and CMT/WST score. Bacteriological analysis and somatic cell count were not performed.Treatment was 80 and 96.72% effective in cases of fibrotic mastitis and non-fibrosed mastitis respectively. Recovery period was 21-42 days (fibrosed) and 4-15 days (non-fibrosed). Udder oedema and blood in milk responded favourably in 2-5 days. Cost of treatment was US$ 0.07 per day. The homeopathic complex medicine may be effective and economical in the management of udder health problems of buffaloes. Definitive conclusions are premature due to the limited number of observations and lack of control group.

Preventive Homeopathy

Homeopathy is entirely a unique philosophy different from that of conventional modern medicine. It is considered as a tailor made system of therapy administering a medicine fitting well in the totality of physical and psychological symptoms seen in an ailing individual whether it is human or animal. Homeopathy does not restrict to restoring health of ailing subjects (treatment of clinical diseases) but also offers scope for preventing diseases as well. It can play significant role in preventing enzootic and epizootic infectious diseases through administration of nosodes.

Nosodes

Nosodes are important class of homeopathic drugs specifically prepared from secretions or fluids of the diseased subjects or their infectious agents in the similar manner as other homeopathic drugs are made (process of dilution and succession). The word “nosode “ is derived from the Greek “nosos” (disease) and “eidos” (like). Nosodes are potentized remedies prepared from diseased tissues , discharges (products of disease) or disease causing agents (bacteria or virus) in a specialized manner following standard protocol. Dr. Samuel Hahnemann first prepared remedies from diseased tissues (mainly the miasmatic nosodes) for the three miasms (Psora, Sycosis and Syphilis) corresponding as Psorinum, Medorrhinum, and Syphylinum. Of which first two have common use in veterinary homeopathy. The nosodes have undergone proving similar to other drugs, and their use in veterinary homeopathy is in the same manner as with any other remedy i.e. matching patient symptoms with those of the remedy.

The practice of veterinary homoeopathy has existed since Hahnemann’s time. During recent years it has emerged from the shadows and appears to be growing exponentially, expanding in many directions. Veterinary homeopathy has strongest modern tradition in Europe particularly in Germany, France and Great Britain. European Union committee has urged recently to cut the use of antimicrobials in human as well as in animals to an essential level for maintaining the effectiveness of antimicrobials and to deal with the problems of emergence of resistance among microbes.

Tradition of veterinary homeopathy is as old as humans. Initially homeopathic drugs viz. Aconitum napellus, Camphora, Nux vomica and Opium were used for the treatment of certain diseases of horses and cattle as early as 1833 by German Practitioner – Guillaume Lux. Since then veterinary homeopathy has progressed considerably despite the apparent difficulty in adopting the patient questioning technique, lack of expression of subjective feelings and lack of experimental data.

Mastitis

Mastitis is an economically important disease of dairy animals (cows and buffaloes) caused by a wide variety of pathogens (bacteria, some viruses, fungi).Major pathogens are Streptococcus agalactiae, Staphylococcus aureus, E. coli, Streptococcus uberis, Str. Dysagalactiae, Campylobactor, Corynebacterium pyogenes, Klebsiella spp. Pasteurella, Pseudomonas, Mycoplasma, Enterobactor, Trichosporon spp., Aspergillus fumigatus, Candida spp., Leptospira spp. and many more. Mastitis is also seen in lactating goats and sheep. As compared to ruminants mastitis is less common in bitches. Mastitis is an inflammatory disease of the udder parenchyma irrespective of its etiology. The disease occurs in clinical and subclinical forms. Clinical mastitis is of two types viz. acute mastitis and chronic mastitis. Subclinical mastitis is characterized by an increased number of somatic cells (>100,000 cells/ml) and/or pathogens in the milk with no apparent clinical change in the udder and milk. While clinical mastitis is associated with local (hot, pain full swelling of the udder) and general symptoms along with change in milk (increased cell count, increased pathogens, physical and chemical changes in the milk).

Homoeopathy is a different system of health care with a holistic, logical and philosophical tailor made approach in the treatment of an individual. The principles of management of diseases or treatment of diseases using homeopathy in animals are in no way different from that of human homeopathy. Homeopathy has potential to cure both human and animal diseases.

Homeopathic Philosophy or Principles

Management of diseases of humans or animals using homeopathy is based on eight basic principles or philosophies.

1. Similia Similibus Curentur- The basic philosophy of homeopathy is based on the ‘Similia Similibus Curentur’ (Latin) or Law of similars (like cures like) , natural law of healing. Which states that a disease can be cured by a drug or substance which is capable of producing similar symptoms in healthy subject when given in minute doses. The treatment in homeopathy is based on the similarity of symptoms of the patient to those of a drug described in Homoeopathic Materia Medica. Drug selection is based not only on the similarity of the presenting symptom, but also on modalities, constitution and temperament of the patient and exciting and fundamental causes.

Constitution

The word ‘constitution’ is derived from a Latin word “Constituere” that means to set up or to make up or to establish. Therefore, it is the structure, composition, physical make up or nature of something consisting inherited qualities modified by environment. Constitution in homeopathy is defined as the physical and mental makeup which is expressed through physical built, characteristics, desires, aversions, reaction including emotional and intellectual attributes. In other words constitution incorporates the individual’s combined physical body type (including nervous system and metabolism), mental thinking, style, emotional reactivity and temperament.

Classification of constitution

Human constitution has been classified in different ways in different systems of health care.

Materia Medica

The word ‘Materia medica’ is a Latin term that means medical matters or materials of medicine. All systems of medicine, based on drug therapies, have their own Materia medica. It is known by different names in different systems of medicine. It is termed as pharmacology in Allopathy, Dravya Guna in Ayurveda, Guna Padam in Siddha, and Materia Medica in Homeopathy. Pharmacology is based on physico-chemical properties of drug substances. Dravya Guna is based on Thridosa Sidhanda (vatha, pitha and kapha). Guna padam is based on Mucheer Amaippu (vatham, pitham, silatumam). Materia medica is based on dynamic properties of drugs applied on Law of Similars.

General Materia Medica

It is the body of collected knowledge about the therapeutic properties of any substance (drug) used for healing with their sources, preparations, doses, and use.

Case taking in homeopathy is based on five themes such as Philosophy of Homeopathy, Materia Medica of Homeopathy, The case, Case Analysis and Case Management (Owen, 2007).

Themes

i. Philosophy – Clinical practice of homeopathy is based on the principles and key concepts of homeopathy as detailed in Chapter 2 and 12.

ii. Materia Medica- It is in the core of understanding of the practice of homeopathy providing the information how the remedy pictures are developed and expressed in different ways. It allows the practitioner to understand the patient and prescribe rationally.

iii. The Case- The relationship between a homeopath (human /veterinary) and patient (animal or human) is in the center of the therapeutic process in case taking in homeopathy. It is more than a record of the consultation as case skills facilitate the level of revealing by the patient and the depth to which the homeopath perceives.

iv. Case Analysis- Case analysis allows the matching of what is perceived of the patient with what is known of the remedies. Case analysis governs the order, pattern and interpretation that emerge in the healing process. The variety of case analysis strategies and methodologies available to the homeopath is a major factor that determines the breadth of their clinical competence.

Homeopathic Prescription

A basis for homeopathic prescription involves identifying all the aspects of the case (detailed questioning to get the history in respect to animal, its behavior, its nutrition and management, vaccination and deworming status, past and present illness etc.), objective investigations (instrumental and laboratory), coupled with an overview of the picture and dynamics of the patient (it is more philosophical and subjective).

In recording symptoms (both present and past), special attention is to be paid to peculiar symptoms, mental state and generalities. Then appropriate remedy is selected through a process called “reportization”. After selecting an appropriate remedy, its correct potency is determined. Selection of the potency depends on the strength of vital force of the ailing individual, degree and extent of physical pathology and disease chronicity (Hahnemann,1994). Higher potency is selected if vital force is strong. For example higher potency are more suitable for young and growing animals. If tissue pathology is more, lower potency drug is advisable. The effect of higher potency drugs is for greater period of time. Effect of 1M potency may last for a month while that of 30C potency may last for a week. If pathology is not severe, 200C potency may be selected. In case pathology is significant, potency below 200C may be chosen. For weak and emaciated animals, potency 30C or below is advisable. Clear cut cases with strong mental symptoms are right candidates for high potency. Unclear case should be given low potency drug (Pitcairn, 1992). As soon as relief is observed, the drug administration should be stopped. Overmedication is the great error in homeopathic prescribing. In homeopathic prescribing, number of pillules taken in a single dose is less important. What matters is its potency and frequency.

Many human illnesses are contacted from animals and plants; and are also due to imbalance in the environment. Mental, emotional and relational symptoms seen in humans are absent in animals. Nevertheless, careful observations on the behavior of the animal and its relation with others may play key role in homeopathic prescribing in animals. No doubt the use of homeopathy in animals is challenging. Homeopathic treatment of pet animals has many similarities with homeopathic treatment of babies and children such as non verbal communication, the socialization and the relationship with third parties (owners in case of pets and parents in case of children).There are many prescribing strategies in veterinary homeopathy.

Major source of common homeopathic drugs are plants, animals and minerals and the drug is prepared by dilution and vigorous shaking.

Origin and Source of Homeopathic Drugs

Homeopathic medicines/drugs are prepared from following sources.

Plant Source

Homeopathic drugs are prepared from different parts of the plants and herbs viz. whole plant, whole herb, flowers, stem, leaves, bark, root and seeds. Example- Aconite, Belladonna, Arnica, Bryonia, Calendula etc.

Animal Source

Homeopathic drugs are also prepared from some parts of animals (worms, insects, flies, lizard, crabs, toads and snakes) and their secretion. Example Coccus cacti, Lachesis, Naja tripudians etc.

Analysis of Symptoms

Symptoms are deviation from a state of health perceptible to by the patient, people around and the doctor/veterinarian. Symptoms can be physical and mental. Symptoms narrated by the patients are subjective and observed by the doctor / veterinarian are objective. Animals lack subjective symptoms. The word analysis means “careful examination of the different parts or details of something.” According to Castro “The act of resolving or reducing or breaking the whole in to pieces or groups is called analysis”. When analyzing a case, the value of symptoms is taken in to consideration on several points such as personality, and categories of symptoms as subjective, objective, general, common and uncommon symptoms. Symptom analysis gives an opportunity to learn when the symptoms developed, the feeling that those circumstances evoked the symptoms, and the ways in which those symptoms may have served some useful purpose to the patient. The main purpose of analysis is to identify the prescribing symptom in the given case.

The concepts of health, disease, symptoms, constitution, cure, vital force, suppression of the disease, individualization, totality of symptoms, and dose etc. are unique in homeopathy differing from concepts of modern medicine.

Health

Generally, health is considered as freedom from disease. According to World Health Organization health is “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, not merely the absence of disease or infirmity” (WHO, 1946). In homeopathy, it is defined as mental, physical and emotional wellbeing (Mondal, 2006 a) and the healthy body has been described as one in balance and equilibrium. The equilibrium of internal parameters is maintained by “life forces” corresponding to a general interpretation of immune system . In fact ‘Life force” is the actual energy behind the biochemistry of the body. It ends with death of the organism.

Organon

Organon of Medicine, a document of Homeopathic philosophy articulated by Dr. Samuel Hahnemann, is the corner stone of Homeopathic principles and practices being followed by homeopaths throughout world. Before Organon of Medicine Dr. Hahnemann published an article “Essay on a New Principle” in 1796. The article was based on his first experience of the effect of Peruvian Bark Cinchona in 1790. The Organon of Medicine developed slowly out of Hahnemann’s research and experimentation over a period of time and newer experiences were added in subsequent editions. With more personal observations and experimentation, he published his new account of Homeopathy in 1810 in the form of a book entitled “Organon of Rational Art of Healing (Organon der rationellen Heilkunde). It was the 1st edition. Dr. Hahnemann laid out the doctrine of his ideas of Homeopathy in this book. The book contains the principles and philosophical back ground of the Practice of Homeopathy. The work was repeatedly revised by him and published in six editions, with the name changed from the second edition onwards to Organon of Medicine (Organon der Heilkunst). The book saw its five editions in the life time of Hahnemann and the 6th edition was published long after the death of Dr. Hahnemann. The 2nd edition was published in 1819, with the revised title Organon of Healing Art. The 3rd edition of the book came in 1824. The 4th edition was published in 1829 and introduced Hahnemann’s “Theory of Chronic Diseases”. The 5th edition of the book was published in 1833, that contained the doctrine of vital force and drug-dynamization. The sixth edition, written in 1842, a year before his death, was retitled Organon of Medicine and published in 1921 (78 years after his death in 1843).

Homeopathy

Homeopathy is a different system of health care being practiced across the world. It is not only an alternate health approach but a distinct full-fledged complete rational system of medicine having holistic, individualistic, and dynamistic approach to life, health, disease, remedy and cure. This system of health care science is offering treatment option for acute and chronic ailments of humans and animals. Homoeopathy takes a holistic approach towards the sick individual through promotion of inner balance at mental, emotional, spiritual and physical levels.

Birth of Homeopathy

Homeopathy was founded by Dr Hahnemann who was more concerned to evolve a safe and effective therapeutic paradigm around the key concept of similia. Dr. Hahnemann codified a new medical system with seven principles/ concepts when vital force theory , miasmatic theory of causation of diseases (Bhalwar, 2009) were prevalent and the concept of drug proving on healthy human being was proposed by Albrecht von Haller (Hahnemann,1922) .He fortified his key concept of “similia” with drug proving, drug dynamisation and individualization, and four ancillary theories viz. chronic diseases (Miasm), vital force (vital principle), single medicine and minimum dose. He named his new system of therapy as “Homeopathy” and published the first edition of Organon of Medicine in 1810.

Homeopathy

The word ‘Homeopathy’ is derived from two Greek words “Homeos” and “Pathos” meaning “similar” and “suffering” respectively (Mukherjee and Wahile,2006). This system of medicine is based on the principle of ‘Similars’ propounded by Dr. Samuel Hahnemann in late 17th century. The practice of Homeopathy came into being and gained wide spread popularity too early in the history of medicine at a time when it was impossible to provide any kind of explanation for its clinical efficacy. It is a complete and separate approach to health care using dynamized micro doses of herbs, minerals or animal products to stimulate the body’s innate healing mechanism. Homeopathy is claimed to be more ecological, compassionate and comprehensive owing to use of micro doses. Clinical anecdotal evidence exists to indicate that homeopathy is beneficial in veterinary practice also. The homeopathic remedies stimulate the body defense to heal itself. The practice of homeopathy began first and science in its efficacy is being discovered later as was in case of immunology. An increasing interest is being shown in Homeopathy as a complementary and alternative treatment for both human and animal diseases owing to ever increasing problem of emergence of resistance in micro-organisms to antibiotics, their residues in animal products, and side effects of modern drugs. But critics of homeopathy are not reconciling with the use of highly diluted homeopathic remedies and considering it as a controversial therapy. Researches with the help of modern technology are now illustrating science in homeopathy.

In this unit, we will explore the essential skills necessary for presenting radio and television programs in a way that ensures they are engaging, effective, and successful in communication. It is widely recognized that even a program with strong content and a well-crafted script can fail to achieve the desired impact if it is not delivered in an appealing manner. We will analyze the key qualities of an effective presenter and examine the process of refining a script before it is presented on air, whether through a microphone or in front of a camera.

Presentation Techniques for Radio

The overall impact of a radio program is determined by the script, production quality, and the manner of presentation. While it can be argued that presentation and packaging fall under production quality, it is crucial to recognize that in an aural medium, the choice of words in the script is just as important as their delivery. Therefore, radio producers must be equally adept at presentation techniques, as these can significantly influence the success or failure of the entire production.

Humans possess an innate tendency to preserve their experiences and knowledge. Throughout evolution, this inclination led to the recording of text and images on materials such as stone, rock, leaves, bark, and eventually paper. The desire to preserve not only written and visual content but also sound culminated in the invention of sound recording in the late 19th century. This innovation enabled humanity to capture and reproduce auditory experiences.

In 1924, Western Electric in the United States developed the first electromagnetic sound recording machine. This device marked a significant advancement, as it allowed for the conversion of acoustic waves into electrical signals that could drive a stylus to inscribe the sounds onto a medium, such as wax records. Over time, the technology evolved, leading to the widespread adoption of electromagnetic recording on plastic tapes coated with materials like ferrous oxide and ferric oxide. The late 20th century saw the introduction of Compact Discs (CDs), followed by DVDs and Blu-ray discs. Today, sound recordings are commonly stored on hard drives, flash drives, and memory cards.